1.
Japanese name
–
Japanese names in modern times usually consist of a family name, followed by a given name. More than one name is not generally used. Japanese names are written in kanji, which are characters usually Chinese in origin. The kanji for a name may have a variety of possible Japanese pronunciations, Names written in hiragana or katakana are phonetic renderings, and so lack the visual meaning of names expressed in the logographic kanji. Japanese family names are extremely varied, according to estimates, there are over 100,000 different surnames in use today in Japan, the three most common family names in Japan are Satō, Suzuki, and Takahashi. Many Japanese family names derive from features of the landscape, for example, Ishikawa means stone river, Yamamoto means the base of the mountain. While family names follow relatively consistent rules, given names are more diverse in pronunciation. Unusual pronunciations have especially become common, with this trend having increased significantly since the 1990s, male names often end in -rō or -ta, or contain ichi, kazu, ji, or dai while female names often end in -ko or -mi. Other popular endings for female names include -ka and -na, the majority of Japanese people have one surname and one given name with no other names, except for the Japanese imperial family, whose members bear no surname. The family name – myōji, uji or sei – precedes the given name, the given name may be referred to as the lower name because, in vertically written Japanese, the given name appears under the family name. People with mixed Japanese and foreign parentage may have middle names, historically, myōji, uji and sei had different meanings. Sei was originally the patrilineal surname which is why up till now it has granted only by the emperor as a title of male rank. The lower form of the name sei being tei which is a name in Japanese men. Although there was an ancestor in ancient Japan from whom the name Sei originally came. There were relatively few sei, and most of the noble clans trace their lineage either directly to these sei or to the courtiers of these sei. Uji was another name used to designate patrilineal descent, but later merged with myōji around the same time, myōji was, simply, what a family chooses to call itself, as opposed to the sei granted by the emperor. While it was passed on patrilineally in male ancestors including in male ancestors called haku, multiple Japanese characters have the same pronunciations, so several Japanese names have multiple meanings. A particular kanji itself can have multiple meanings and pronunciations, in some names, Japanese characters phonetically spell a name and have no intended meaning behind them
2.
Japanese language
–
Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794
3.
Nagasaki
–
Nagasaki is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan. Part of Nagasaki was home to a major Imperial Japanese Navy base during the First Sino-Japanese War, during World War II, the American atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki made Nagasaki the second and, to date, last city in the world to experience a nuclear attack. As of 1 January 2009, the city has an population of 446,007. The total area is 406.35 km², a small fishing village set in a secluded harbor, Nagasaki had little historical significance until contact with Portuguese explorers in 1543. An early visitor was Fernão Mendes Pinto, who came on a Portuguese ship which landed nearby in Tanegashima and his followers who remained behind converted a number of daimyōs. The most notable among them was Ōmura Sumitada, the little harbor village quickly grew into a diverse port city, and Portuguese products imported through Nagasaki were assimilated into popular Japanese culture. The Portuguese also brought them many goods from China. Thus, for a period after 1580, the city of Nagasaki was a Jesuit colony, under their administrative. It was administered by the captain of the Portuguese black ship, the highest representative of the Portuguese Crown and it became a refuge for Christians escaping maltreatment in other regions of Japan. In 1587, however, Toyotomi Hideyoshis campaign to unify the country arrived in Kyūshū, however, the expulsion order went largely unenforced, and the fact remained that most of Nagasakis population remained openly practicing Catholic. In 1596, the Spanish ship San Felipe was wrecked off the coast of Shikoku, in response, Hideyoshi ordered the crucifixions of twenty-six Catholics in Nagasaki on February 5 of that year. Portuguese traders were not ostracized, however, and so the city continued to thrive, in 1602, Augustinian missionaries also arrived in Japan, and when Tokugawa Ieyasu took power in 1603, Catholicism was still tolerated. Many Catholic daimyōs had been allies at the Battle of Sekigahara. Once Osaka Castle had been taken and Toyotomi Hideyoshis offspring killed, though, in addition, the Dutch and English presence allowed trade without religious strings attached. Thus, in 1614, Catholicism was officially banned and all missionaries ordered to leave, most Catholic daimyo apostatized, and forced their subjects to do so, although a few would not renounce the religion and left the country for Macau, Luzon and Japantowns in Southeast Asia. A brutal campaign of persecution followed, with thousands of converts across Kyūshū and other parts of Japan killed, tortured, catholicisms last gasp as an open religion and the last major military action in Japan until the Meiji Restoration was the Shimabara Rebellion of 1637. Consequently, in Tokugawa society the word Shimabara solidified the connection between Christianity and disloyalty, constantly used again and again in Tokugawa propaganda, the Shimabara Rebellion also convinced many policy-makers that foreign influences were more trouble than they were worth, leading to the national isolation policy. The Great Fire of Nagasaki destroyed much of the city in 1663, including the Mazu shrine at the Kofukuji Temple patronized by the Chinese sailors, in 1720 the ban on Dutch books was lifted, causing hundreds of scholars to flood into Nagasaki to study European science and art
4.
Edo period
–
The Edo period or Tokugawa period is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the countrys 300 regional daimyō. The period was characterized by growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies. The shogunate was established in Edo on March 24,1603. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3,1868, instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area, after Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family. Ieyasus victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada as shogun. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication, in 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa period brought 250 years of stability to Japan, the political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority and this represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or related houses and they were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu, the second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or house daimyōs, rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century,145 fudai controlled such smaller han, members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the group, the tozama, former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago, because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders
5.
Dejima
–
Dejima, in old Western documents latinized as Decima, Desjima, Dezima, Disma, or Disima, was a small fan-shaped artificial island built in the bay of Nagasaki in 1634 by local merchants. This island, which was formed by digging a canal through a peninsula, remained as the single place of direct trade. Dejima was built to constrain foreign traders as part of sakoku, originally built to house Portuguese traders, it was used by the Dutch as a trading post from 1641 until 1853. Covering an area of 120 m ×75 m or 9,000 m2, in 1922, Dejima Dutch Trading Post was designated a Japanese national historic site. In 1543, the history of contacts between Japan and Europe began with the arrival of storm-blown Portuguese merchants on Tanegashima. Six years later the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier landed in Kagoshima, at first Portuguese traders were based in Hirado, but they moved in search of a better port. In 1570 daimyō Ōmura Sumitada converted to Catholicism and made a deal with the Portuguese to develop Nagasaki, in 1580 Sumitada gave the jurisdiction of Nagasaki to the Jesuits, and the Portuguese obtained the de facto monopoly on the silk trade with China through Macau. The shogun Iemitsu ordered the construction of the island in 1634, to accommodate the Portuguese traders living in Nagasaki. This was one of the many edicts put forth by Iemitsu between 1633 and 1639 moderating contact between Japan and other countries, however, in response to the uprising of the predominantly Christian population in the Shimabara-Amakusa region, the Tokugawa government decided to expel the Portuguese. This left the Dutch employees of the Dutch East India Company as the sole Western nation with access to Japanese trade, since 1609, the Dutch had run a trading post on the island of Hirado. For 33 years they were allowed to relatively freely. At its maximum the Hirado trading post covered a large area, in 1637 and 1639 stone warehouses were constructed within the ambit of this Hirado trading post. Christian-era year dates were used on the stonework of the new warehouses, in 1639, the last Portuguese were expelled from Japan. Dejima had become an investment and without the annual trading with Portuguese ships from Macau. From 1641 on, only Chinese and Dutch ships were allowed to come to Japan, on the administrative level, the island of Dejima was part of the city of Nagasaki. The 25 local Japanese families who owned the land received a rent from the Dutch. Dejima was an island,120 by 75 metres, linked to the mainland by a small bridge. It contained houses for about twenty Dutchmen, warehouses, and accommodation for Japanese officials, the Dutch were watched by a number of Japanese officials, gatekeepers, night watchmen, and a supervisor with about fifty subordinates
6.
Edo
–
Edo, also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo. It was the seat of power for the Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868, during this period, it grew to become one of the largest cities in the world and home to an urban culture centered on the notion of a floating world. From the establishment of the Tokugawa bakufu headquarters at Edo, the became the de facto capital and center of political power. Edo grew from what had been a small, little-known fishing village in 1457 into the largest metropolis in the world with a population of 1,000,000 by 1721. Edo was repeatedly devastated by fires, with the Great Fire of Meireki in 1657 being the most disastrous, an estimated 100,000 people died in the fire. During the Edo period, there were about 100 fires mostly begun by accident, between 1600 and 1945, Edo/Tokyo was leveled every 25–50 years or so by fire, earthquakes, or war. In 1868, when the shogunate came to an end, the city was renamed Tokyo, the emperor moved his residence to Tokyo, making the city the formal capital of Japan, Keiō4, On the 17th day of the 7th month, Edo was renamed Tokyo. Keiō4, On the 27th day of the 8th month, Keiō4, On the eighth day of the ninth month, the nengō was formally changed from Keiō to Meiji and a general amnesty was granted. Meiji 2, On the 23rd day of the 10th month, ishimaru Sadatsuga was the magistrate of Edo in 1661. During the Edo period, the Shogunate appointed administrators with jurisdiction over the police, and beginning with the rule of Tokugawa Yoshimune), the machi bugyō heard criminal and civil suits, and performed other administrative functions. The city was out as a castle town around Edo Castle. Kyotos character was defined by the Imperial Court, the nobles, its Buddhist temples and its history, Osaka was the countrys commercial center. Areas further from the center were the domain of the chōnin, the area known as Shitamachi, northeast of the castle, was a center of urban culture. The ancient Buddhist temple of Sensō-ji still stands in Asakusa, marking the center of an area of traditional Shitamachi culture, some shops in the streets near the temple have existed continuously in the same location since the Edo period. The Sumida River, then called the Great River, ran along the edge of the city. The shogunates official rice-storage warehouses, other buildings and some of the citys best-known restaurants were located here. The Japan Bridge marked the center of the commercial center. Fishermen, craftsmen and other producers and retailers operated here, shippers managed ships known as tarubune to and from Osaka and other cities, bringing goods into the city or transferring them from sea routes to river barges or land routes such as the Tōkaidō
7.
Kyoto
–
Kyoto is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu, Japan. It has a close to 1.5 million. Kyoto is also known as the thousand-year capital, in Japanese, the city has been called Kyō, Miyako, or Kyō no Miyako. In the 11th century, the city was renamed Kyoto, after the Chinese word for capital city, after the city of Edo was renamed Tokyo in 1868, and the seat of the Emperor was transferred there, Kyoto was known for a short time as Saikyō. Obsolete spellings for the name include Kioto, Miaco and Meaco. Another term commonly used to refer to the city in the period was Keishi. His last choice for the site was the village of Uda, the new city, Heian-kyō, a scaled replica of the then Tang capital Changan, became the seat of Japans imperial court in 794, beginning the Heian period of Japanese history. The city suffered destruction in the Ōnin War of 1467–1477. Battles between samurai factions spilled into the streets, and came to involve the court nobility and religious factions as well, nobles mansions were transformed into fortresses, deep trenches dug throughout the city for defense and as firebreaks, and numerous buildings burned. The city has not seen such widespread destruction since, Hideyoshi also built earthwork walls called odoi encircling the city. Teramachi Street in central Kyoto is a Buddhist temple quarter where Hideyoshi gathered temples in the city, throughout the Edo period, the economy of the city flourished as one of three major cities in Japan, the others being Osaka and Edo. The Hamaguri rebellion of 1864 burnt down 28,000 houses in the city, the modern city of Kyoto was formed on April 1,1889. The construction of Lake Biwa Canal in 1890 is one taken to revive the city. The population of the city exceeded one million in 1932, stimson, Secretary of War in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations, the city was removed from the list of targets and replaced by Nagasaki. The city was spared from conventional bombing as well, although small-scale air raids did result in casualties. As a result, the Imperial City of Kyoto is one of the few Japanese cities that still have an abundance of prewar buildings, however, modernization is continually breaking down the traditional Kyoto in favor of newer architecture, such as the Kyōto Station complex. Kyoto became a city designated by government ordinance on September 1,1956, in 1997, Kyoto hosted the conference that resulted in the protocol on greenhouse gas emissions that bears the citys name. Kyoto is located in a valley, part of the Yamashiro Basin, in the part of the mountainous region known as the Tamba highlands
8.
Philipp Franz von Siebold
–
Philipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold was a German physician, botanist, and traveler. He achieved prominence by his studies of Japanese flora and fauna and he was the father of the first female Japanese doctor, Kusumoto Ine. One of his professors was Franz Xaver Heller, author of the Flora Wirceburgensis, ignaz Döllinger, his professor of anatomy and physiology, however, most influenced him. Döllinger was one of the first professors to understand and treat medicine as a natural science, Siebold stayed with Döllinger, where he came in regular contact with other scientists. He read the books of Humboldt, a famous naturalist and explorer, Philipp Franz von Siebold became a physician by earning his M. D. degree in 1820. He initially practiced medicine in Heidingsfeld, in the Kingdom of Bavaria, invited to Holland by an acquaintance of his family, Siebold applied for a position as a military physician, which would enable him to travel to the Dutch colonies. He entered the Dutch military service on June 19,1822, on his trip to Batavia on the frigate Adriana, Siebold practiced his knowledge of the Dutch language and also rapidly learned Malay, and during the long voyage he began a collection of marine fauna. He arrived in Batavia on February 18,1823, as an army medical officer, Siebold was posted to an artillery unit. However, he was given a room for a few weeks at the residence of the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, Baron Godert van der Capellen, to recover from an illness. With his erudition, he impressed the Governor-General, and also the director of the garden at Buitenzorg. The Batavian Academy of Arts and Sciences soon elected Siebold as a member, during an eventful voyage to Japan he only just escaped drowning during a typhoon in the East China Sea. As only a small number of Dutch personnel were allowed to live on this island. The European tradition of sending doctors with training to Japan was a long one. The Dutch East India Company did not, however, actually employ the Swedish botanist and physician Carl Peter Thunberg, Japanese scientists invited Siebold to show them the marvels of western science, and he learned in return through them much about the Japanese and their customs. After curing an influential local officer, Siebold gained the permission to leave the trade post and he used this opportunity to treat Japanese patients in the greater area around the trade post. Siebold is credited with the introduction of vaccination and pathological anatomy for the first time in Japan, in 1824, Siebold started a medical school in Nagasaki, the Narutaki-juku, that grew into a meeting place for around fifty students. They helped him in his botanical and naturalistic studies, the Dutch language became the lingua franca for these academic and scholarly contacts for a generation, until the Meiji Restoration. His patients paid him in kind with a variety of objects and artifacts that would later gain historical significance, during his stay in Japan, Siebold lived together with Kusumoto Taki, who gave birth to their daughter Kusumoto Ine in 1827
9.
Tokugawa shogunate
–
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the Tokugawa bakufu and the Edo bakufu, was the last feudal Japanese military government, which existed between 1600 and 1868. The head of government was the shogun, and each was a member of the Tokugawa clan, the Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle and the years of the shogunate became known as the Edo period. This time is called the Tokugawa period or pre-modern. Following the Sengoku period, the government had been largely re-established by Oda Nobunaga during the Azuchi–Momoyama period. After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu, society in the Tokugawa period, unlike the shogunates before it, was supposedly based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The daimyō were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyō and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyō might be trained as samurai, otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value, as a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants, ranging from simple local disturbances to much bigger rebellions. None, however, proved compelling enough to challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers. The Tokugawa Shogunate came to an end in 1868 with the resignation of the 15th Tokugawa Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu. The bakuhan taisei was the political system in the Edo period of Japan. Baku is an abbreviation of bakufu, meaning military government—that is, the han were the domains headed by daimyō. Vassals held inherited lands and provided service and homage to their lords. The bakuhan taisei split feudal power between the shogunate in Edo and provincial domains throughout Japan, provinces had a degree of sovereignty and were allowed an independent administration of the han in exchange for loyalty to the shogun, who was responsible for foreign relations and national security. The shogun and lords were all daimyō, feudal lords with their own bureaucracies, policies, the shogun also administered the most powerful han, the hereditary fief of the House of Tokugawa. Each level of government administered its own system of taxation, the emperor, nominally a religious leader, held no real power, this was invested in the shogun. The shogunate had the power to discard, annex, and transform domains, the sankin kōtai system of alternative residence required each daimyō to reside in alternate years between the han and the court in Edo
10.
Coenraad Jacob Temminck
–
Coenraad Jacob Temminck was a Dutch aristocrat, zoologist, and museum director. Coenraad Jacob Temminck was born on 31 March 1778 in Amsterdam in the Dutch Republic, from his father, who was treasurer of the Dutch East India Company, he inherited a large collection of bird specimens. Temmincks Manuel dornithologie, ou Tableau systématique des oiseaux qui se trouvent en Europe was the work on European birds for many years. Temminck was the first director of the National Museum of Natural History in Leiden from 1820 until his death, in 1831, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1836 he became member of the Royal Institute, predecessor of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts, Temminck died on 30 January 1858, at the age of 79, in Leiden, Netherlands. Histoire naturelle générale des pigeons et des gallinacés, Manuel dornithologie ou Tableau systématique des oiseaux qui se trouvent en Europe. Sepps & Dufour, Amsterdam, Paris 1815–40, observations sur la classification méthodique des oiseaux et remarques sur lanalyse dune nouvelle ornithologie élémentaire. Nouveau recueil de planches coloriées doiseaux, pour servir de suite et de complément aux planches enluminées de Buffon, atlas des oiseaux dEurope, pour servir de complément au Manuel dornithologie de M. Temminck. Dufour & dOcagne, Paris, Leiden 1827–41, nouveau recueil de planches coloriées doiseaux. Iconographie ornithologique ou nouveau recueil général de planches peintes doiseaux Paris, coup-doeil général sur les possessions néerlandaises dans lInde archipélagique. Esquisses zoologiques sur la côte de Guiné, las Posesiones holandesas en el Archipiélago de la India. A large number of animals were named for Temminck in the 19th century. Varius × G. le partie, les mammifères Secondary works Erwin Stresemann, Analyse von C. J. Temmincks Catalogue systématique, Zoologische Mededelingen Vol.31,1953, p. 319–331 A. J. P. Raat, Alexander von Humboldt and Coenraad Jacob Temminck, Zoologische Bijdragen, Vol.21,1976, p. 19–38
11.
Hermann Schlegel
–
Hermann Schlegel was a German ornithologist and herpetologist. Schlegel was born at Altenburg, the son of a brassfounder and his father collected butterflies, which stimulated Schlegels interest in natural history. The discovery, by chance, of a buzzards nest led him to the study of birds, Schlegel started to work for his father, but soon tired of it. He travelled to Vienna in 1824, where, at the university, he attended the lectures of Leopold Fitzinger, a letter of introduction from Brehm to Joseph Natterer gained him a position at the Naturhistorisches Museum. At first Schlegel worked mainly on the collection and wrote Essai sur la Physionomie des Serpens. It was at time that Schlegel met Philipp Franz von Siebold. They became firm friends and collaborated on Fauna Japonica, in 1847 he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, when that became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1851 he became member. When Temminck died at the beginning of 1858, Schlegel succeeded him as director of the history museum. Schlegel was particularly interested in Southeast Asia, and in 1857 sent his son Gustav to collect birds in China, Gustav arrived to find that Robert Swinhoe had gotten there first. In 1859, Schlegel sent Heinrich Agathon Bernstein to collect birds in New Guinea, after the death of Bernstein in 1865, he was succeeded by Hermann von Rosenberg. Schlegel took on an assistant, Otto Finsch. At the same time, he started to publish a magazine, Notes from the Leyden Museum, as well as a vast work of 14 volumes. He employed three talented illustrators, John Gerrard Keulemans, Joseph Smit and Joseph Wolf. The end of Schlegels life was difficult, his wife died in 1864, Finsch moved to the history museum at Bremen. Schlegel died on 17 January 1884 in Leiden, bromley, Kent, Christopher Helm Publishers Ltd.256 pp. ISBN 1-873403-97-6
12.
Aconitum napellus
–
Aconitum napellus is a species of flowering plant in the genus Aconitum of the family Ranunculaceae, native and endemic to western and central Europe. It is an perennial plant growing to 1 m tall, with hairless stems. The leaves are rounded, 5–10 cm diameter, palmately divided into five to seven deeply lobed segments, the flowers are dark purple to bluish-purple, narrow oblong helmet-shaped, 1–2 cm tall. Plants native to Asia and North America formerly listed as A. napellus are now regarded as separate species, a. napellus is grown in gardens in temperate zones for their spiky inflorescences that are showy in early-mid summer, and their attractive foliage. There are white and rose colored forms in cultivation too, the cultivar Sparks Variety has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit. Nine subspecies are accepted by the Flora Europaea, Aconitum napellus subsp, napellus, south-western Britain Aconitum napellus subsp. Corsicum W. Seitz, Corsica Aconitum napellus subsp, firmum Gáyer, Central and eastern Europe Aconitum napellus subsp. Fissurae W. Seitz, Balkans to south-western Russia Aconitum napellus subsp, hians Gáyer, Central Europe Aconitum napellus subsp. Lusitanicum Rouy, south-western Europe Aconitum napellus subsp, superbum W. Seitz, western Balkans Aconitum napellus subsp. Tauricum Gáyer, Eastern Alps, southern Carpathians Aconitum napellus subsp, vulgare Rouy & Foucaud, Alps, Pyrenees, northern Spain Aconitum napellus is grown in gardens for its attractive spike-like inflorescences and showy blue flowers. It is a cut flower crop used for fresh cutting material, the species has a low natural propagation rate under cultivation and is propagated by seed or by removing offsets that are generated each year from the rootstocks. The use of micropropagation protocols has been studied and this species has been crossed with other Aconitums to produce attractive hybrids for garden use, including Aconitum × cammarum. Like other species in the genus, A. napellus contains several compounds, including enough cardiac poison that it was used on spears and arrows for hunting. A. napellus has a history of use as a poison. Aconites have been used recently in murder plots, they contain the chemical alkaloids aconitine, mesaconitine, hypaconitine and jesaconitine. Marked symptoms may appear almost immediately, usually not later than one hour, death usually occurs within two to six hours in fatal poisoning. The initial signs are gastrointestinal including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea and this is followed by a sensation of burning, tingling, and numbness in the mouth and face, and of burning in the abdomen. In severe poisonings pronounced motor weakness occurs and cutaneous sensations of tingling, cardiovascular features include hypotension, sinus bradycardia, and ventricular arrhythmias
13.
Aconitum carmichaelii
–
Aconitum carmichaelii syn. A. fischeri, is a species of flowering plant of the genus Aconitum, family Ranunculaceae. It is native to East Asia and eastern Russia and it is commonly known as Chinese aconite, Carmichaels monkshood or Chinese wolfsbane. It is known in Mandarin as Fu Zi and as Wu Tou, growing to 1.2 metres tall by 30 centimetres wide, it is an erect perennial, with 3- to 5-lobed ovate, leathery leaves. Dense panicles of flowers are produced in late summer and autumn. It is valued as a plant, and numerous cultivars have been developed, of which Arendsii. All parts of plant are extremely toxic, and it has historically been used as a poison on arrows. If not prepared properly by a person, Aconitum can be deadly when taken internally. Marked symptoms may appear almost immediately, usually not later than one hour, death usually occurs within two to six hours in fatal poisoning. The initial signs are gastrointestinal including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea and this is followed by a sensation of burning, tingling, and numbness in the mouth and face, and of burning in the abdomen. In severe poisonings pronounced motor weakness occurs and cutaneous sensations of tingling, cardiovascular features include hypotension, sinus bradycardia, and ventricular arrhythmias. Other features may include sweating, dizziness, difficulty in breathing, headache, the main causes of death are ventricular arrhythmias and asystole, paralysis of the heart or of the respiratory center. The only post-mortem signs are those of asphyxia, treatment of poisoning is mainly supportive. All patients require close monitoring of pressure and cardiac rhythm. Gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal can be used if given within one hour of ingestion, the major physiological antidote is atropine, which is used to treat bradycardia. Other drugs used for ventricular arrhythmia include lidocaine, amiodarone, bretylium, flecainide, procainamide, cardiopulmonary bypass is used if symptoms are refractory to treatment with these drugs. Successful use of charcoal hemoperfusion has been claimed in patients with severe aconite poisoning, poisoning may also occur following picking the leaves without wearing gloves, the aconitine toxin is absorbed easily through the skin. In this event, there will be no gastrointestinal effects, tingling will start at the point of absorption and extend up the arm to the shoulder, after which the heart will start to be affected. The tingling will be followed by unpleasant numbness, treatment is similar to poisoning caused by oral ingestion
14.
Malva sylvestris
–
Malva sylvestris is a species of the mallow genus Malva in the family of Malvaceae and is considered to be the type species for the genus. It is one of several species of different genera sometimes referred to as Creeping charlie, sylvestris is pleasing in appearance when it first starts to flower, but as the summer advances, the leaves lose their deep green color and the stems assume a ragged appearance. Stems and leaves, A thick, round and strong stem, downy, with hairs radiating from a common center and prominent veins on the underside. Petiole either 2 to 6 centimeters or 2 to 13 centimeters long, M. sylvestris has an epicalyx with oblong segments, two-thirds as long as calyx or 2–3 millimeters long and 1.5 millimeters wide. Its calyx is free to the middle, 3–6 millimeters long, slender flower stalks that are either 2 centimeters long or 1 to 3 centimeters long. Ten broad carpels in axillary clusters, stamen about 3 millimters long, radiating from the center with short soft hairs, fruits Nutlets strongly reticulate (10–12 mericarps, usually without hair, with sharp angle between dorsal and lateral surfaces, 5–6 millimters in diameter. As a native Malva sylvestris spreads itself on waste and rough ground, by roads and railways throughout lowland England, Wales and Channel Islands, Siberia and scattered elsewhere. It has been introduced to and has naturalised in eastern Australia, in the United States, Canada. Decoration In the past, the flowers were spread on doorways, food The young leaves when boiled is a wholesome vegetable and was eaten in several parts of Europe in the 19th century. Medicinal M. sylvestris has been used medicinally since ancient times, mucilage is present in many of the Malvaceae family including M. sylvestris, especially the fruit. The seeds are used internally in a decoction or herbal tea as a demulcent and diuretic, mallow can also be taken internally for its laxative effect. Other The species has long used as a natural yellow dye, perhaps more recently, cream color, yellow and green dyes can be obtained from the plant. A tincture of the flowers can make a very sensitive test for alkalis, Plants previously often described as Malva sylvestris var. malaca are now considered a Cultivar Group Malva sylvestris Mauritiana Group. It is often grown as a plant for its attractive flowers. Numerous cultivars have been selected and named, Malva sylvestris L. Canescens group Every part except for the flower is covered with dense white woolly hair, growing in the Montpellier region of France, and on the Balearic Isles. Some 19th-century botanical works called this group Malva sylvestris L. var. canescens, the virus can be found in Tasmania, Brazil, the former Czechoslovakia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Portugal, California, Russia and the former Yugoslavia. It also contains the naphtoquinone malvone A, which is also a phytoalaxin, data related to Malva sylvestris at Wikispecies Porter, Noah, ed. Websters entry needed. Springfield, Massachusetts, C. & G. Merriam Co, africa Malva sylvestris L. record n°81830
15.
Punica granatum
–
The pomegranate, botanical name Punica granatum, is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree in the family Lythraceae that grows between 5 and 8 m tall. The fruit is typically in season in the Northern Hemisphere from September to February, as intact arils or juice, pomegranates are used in baking, cooking, juice blends, meal garnishes, smoothies, and alcoholic beverages, such as cocktails and wine. The pomegranate originated in the region of modern-day Iran, and has been cultivated since ancient times throughout the Mediterranean region and it was introduced into Spanish America in the late 16th century and California, by Spanish settlers, in 1769. It is also cultivated in parts of Arizona and California, in recent years, it has become more common in the commercial markets of Europe and the Western Hemisphere. The name pomegranate derives from medieval Latin pōmum apple and grānātum seeded, possibly stemming from the old French word for the fruit, pomme-grenade, the pomegranate was known in early English as apple of Grenada—a term which today survives only in heraldic blazons. This is a folk etymology, confusing the Latin granatus with the name of the Spanish city of Granada, garnet derives from Old French grenat by metathesis, from Medieval Latin granatum as used in a different meaning of a dark red color. This derivation may have originated from pomum granatum, describing the color of pomegranate pulp, or from granum, referring to red dye, the French term for pomegranate, grenade, has given its name to the military grenade. A shrub or small tree growing 6 to 10 m high, P. granatum leaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow oblong, entire, 3–7 cm long and 2 cm broad. The flowers are red and 3 cm in diameter, with three to seven petals. Some fruitless varieties are grown for the flowers alone, the edible fruit is a berry, intermediate in size between a lemon and a grapefruit, 5–12 cm in diameter with a rounded shape and thick, reddish skin. The number of seeds in a pomegranate can vary from 200 to about 1400, each seed has a surrounding water-laden pulp — the edible sarcotesta that forms from the seed coat — ranging in color from white to deep red or purple. The seeds are exarillate, i. e. unlike some species in the order, Myrtales. The sarcotesta of pomegranate seeds consists of cells derived from the integument. The seeds are embedded in a white, spongy, astringent membrane, P. granatum is grown for its fruit crop, and as ornamental trees and shrubs in parks and gardens. Mature specimens can develop sculptural twisted-bark multiple trunks and an overall form. Pomegranates are drought-tolerant, and can be grown in dry areas with either a Mediterranean winter rainfall climate or in summer rainfall climates, in wetter areas, they can be prone to root decay from fungal diseases. They can be tolerant of moderate frost, down to about −12 °C, Pomegranate grows easily from seed, but is commonly propagated from 25 to 50 cm hardwood cuttings to avoid the genetic variation of seedlings. Air layering is also an option for propagation, but grafting fails, P. granatum var. nana is a dwarf variety of P. granatum popularly planted as an ornamental plant in gardens and larger containers, and used as a bonsai specimen tree
16.
Campsis grandiflora
–
Campsis grandiflora, commonly known as the Chinese trumpet vine, is a fast-growing, deciduous creeper with large, orange, trumpet-shaped flowers in summer. It can grow to a height of 10 meters, a native of East Asia, China and Japan it is less hardy than its relative Campsis radicans. Campsis grandiflora prefers moist, nutrient-rich soil and a position with full sun, the dark green leaves have serrated edges
17.
Kusumoto Ine
–
Kusumoto Ine was a Japanese physician. Ine was also known as O-Ine and later in life took the name Itoku, in Japanese she is often called Oranda O-Ine for her association with Dejima and its Dutch-language Western learning. She was the first female doctor of Western medicine in Japan, Siebold was banished from Japan in 1829 but managed to provide for Ine and her mother and arranged for his students and associates to care for them. Ines reputation grew after she became a doctor of Western medicine and she studied in various parts of Japan under numerous teachers, one of whom impregnated her—likely having raped her—resulting in her only daughter, she never married. She settled in Tokyo after the country ended its seclusion, since her death Ine has been the subject of novels, plays, comics, and musicals in Japan. Shiimoto Ine was born on 31 May 1827 in the city of Nagasaki, there he played a role in introducing Western medical techniques to Japan. Ines mother was Kusumoto Taki, a courtesan sent at 16 from the Nagasaki pleasure district Maruyama in 1823 to be Siebolds concubine, Ine lived with her parents on Dejima until Siebold was banished on 22 October 1829 for allegedly exporting restricted information illicitly gathered from the geographer Takahashi Kageyasu. He was accused of smuggling items including maps which it was believed could fall into the hands of Japans enemies, such as Russia, which posed a threat on Japans northern borders. Taki and the two-year-old Ine were not permitted to leave Japan, Taki soon after married a man named Wasaburō. The wealthy Siebold left Taki and Ine with a stockpile of valuable sugar to support themselves and he sent Ine books of Dutch grammar, important for Western studies at the time in Japan, and students of Siebolds contributed to her education. Ines medical training got a start in 1845 when she began studying obstetrics in Okayama Domain under another of Siebolds students, Ishii Sōken. She cut her studies with Sōken short when in 1851 he impregnated her and she returned to Nagasaki, where she gave birth in 1852 to a daughter, whom she named Tada, meaning free, symbolizing that heaven had granted her this child for free. Her account of her mothers life is amongst those that assert Ines pregnancy resulted from Sōken having raped her, Ine was to rebuff Sōkens attempts to become involved in Tadas life. Ine continued her studies in Nagasaki under Abe Roan, after he suffered a stroke in 1856, Keisaku returned to Nagasaki with Ine and Shūzō. Japans seclusion came to an end in 1854 and in 1859 Nagasaki was opened as a treaty port, Siebold received a pardon and returned to Nagasaki 4 August that year with his 13-year-old son Alexander, from his German marriage. Shūzō became Siebolds student, translator, and personal assistant, Ine lived at first in her fathers house, but the relationship was strained, in part over her command of Dutch, and in part over Siebolds impregnating a maid, Ine soon moved out. She worked closely with Shūzō, who assisted her communications with his advanced Dutch ability and her fathers reputation helped her gain patients of her own. In April 1862 Siebold was made to return to Europe again, Ine continued to learn from Dutch physicians in the Nagasaki community such as J. L. C
18.
Pale-edged stingray
–
The pale-edged stingray or sharpnose stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans from India to the western Malay Archipelago and southern Japan. This bottom-dwelling ray is most commonly found over sandy areas shallower than 100 m, measuring up to 29 cm across, the pale-edged stingray has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc, a long projecting snout, small eyes, and a whip-like tail with both dorsal and ventral fin folds. It is chocolate brown above and white below, the diet of the pale-edged stingray consists mainly of small crustaceans and fishes. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with females bearing litters of 1–3 young, german biologists Johannes Müller and Friedrich Henle originally described the pale-edged stingray from seven syntypes, in their 1841 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen. They named it Trygon zugei after zugu-ei, the Japanese name for this species, the genus Trygon was synonymized with Dasyatis by subsequent authors. These results support the consensus that neither Dasyatis nor Himantura are monophyletic. The range of the pale-edged stingray extends from the Indian subcontinent eastward to Java and Borneo and this species inhabits the inner continental shelf, favoring sandy flats in water under 100 m deep, and also frequently enters estuaries. The eyes are small, with a pair of larger spiracles immediately behind. There is a rectangular curtain of skin between the nares, with a fringed rear margin. The mouth is curved, without papillae on the floor. There are 40–55 tooth rows in either jaw, arranged with a pattern into pavement-like surfaces. The teeth of males have pointed cusps while those of juveniles and females are blunt. The tail is whip-like, much longer than the disc, a low dorsal fin fold originates just posterior of the spine tip while a deeper ventral fin fold originates below the spine base. Young individuals have smooth skin, while adults have a row of 5–9 small tubercles in front of the spine. The dorsal surface is a chocolate brown, darkening on the tail fin folds. This species reaches a length of 75 cm and width of 29 cm, the pale-edged stingray feeds mainly on bottom-dwelling crustaceans, in particular prawns, but also takes small fishes. Like other stingrays, the stingray is aplacental viviparous, with the young sustained initially by yolk. Females give birth to 1–3 young at a time, there is no defined reproductive seasonality, males mature sexually at a disc width of 18 cm and females at a disc width of 19 cm
19.
Starry handfish
–
The starry handfish, Halieutaea stellata, is a batfish of the family Ogcocephalidae found on the continental shelves of the Indo-Pacific oceans at depths of between 50 and 400 m. They are up to 30 cm long, froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. Tony Ayling & Geoffrey Cox, Collins Guide to the Sea Fishes of New Zealand, ISBN 0-00-216987-8
20.
British Museum
–
The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
21.
Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture
–
The Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture in Nagasaki, Japan is one of the few museums in Japan devoted to the theme of overseas exchange. The museum also contains a reconstruction of part of the Nagasaki Magistrates Office called bugyōsho, the permanent exhibition features exhibits dealing with exchange with the Netherlands, China and Korea, and shows artifacts brought to Japan by foreign traders. It also focuses on Nanban and the introduction of Christianity, the museum shows the role Nagasaki played in post-restoration Japan in the diplomatic sphere, as well as being at the forefront of modern medicine, printing, ship building and industrial technology. Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture
22.
Naturalis Biodiversity Center
–
Naturalis Biodiversity Center is a national museum of natural history and a research center on biodiversity in Leiden, Netherlands. Although its current name and organization is relatively recent, its history can be traced back to the early 1800s and its collections contain approximately 37 million specimens, one of the largest natural history collections in the world. In late 2016 the center closed its building for renovations. Temporary exhibitions are open in the entrance building during the renovations. The beginnings of Naturalis go back to the creation of the National Museum of Natural History by King William I on August 9,1820, in 1878, the geological and mineralogical collections of the museum separated into two institutions. In 1986, it was determined that the institution should become a museum. The buildings reception area incorporated the 1657-1661 Pesthuis, designed by Huybert Corneliszoon van Duyvenvlucht, completed in 1998, it was opened on April 7,1998 by Queen Beatrix. The new building cost about €60 million, making it the second most expensive building in the Netherlands. The combined institute was opened as part of the ‘International Year of Biodiversity 2010’ by Ronald Plasterk. As of 2012 the name became the Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Naturalis has partnered with ETI Bioinformatics in support of the Catalogue of Life, and is working with the Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Funding is in place to support digitization of the massed collections, as of 2015, further renovation and expansion is planned, with a proposed design from Neutelings Riedijk Architecten to be completed in 2018. However, the Pesthuis will no longer be part of the complex, some parts of the collections are stored in a depot in the former museum building at the Raamsteeg in the city centre of Leiden. Rex in Town exhibition of Trix, a Tyrannosaurus skeleton, September 10,2016 to June,52017, Naturalis had an estimated 285,000 visitors and was the 15th most visited museum of the Netherlands in 2013. The museum had a number of 339,550 visitors in 2015. Naturalis, official website Naturalis extinct birds, 3D presentation Naturalis Biodiversity Center at Google Cultural Institute
23.
SieboldHuis
–
Japan Museum SieboldHuis is a museum located at the Rapenburg in Leiden, Netherlands. It displays items that were collected by Philipp Franz von Siebold between 1823 and 1829 during his stay at Dejima, the Dutch trade colony nearby Nagasaki in Japan and it also functions as a museum of Japanese culture. Siebold was highly interested in all aspects of Japanese nature and culture, Japan Museum SieboldHuis has a permanent exhibition of maps, rocks, animals, plants, utensils and art. Temporary exhibitions offer a selection of Japanese art. The monumental house is property of the Dutch government and used to house the cantonal court, Philipp Franz von Siebold, Siebold museums Official website
24.
National Museum of Ethnology (Netherlands)
–
The National Museum of Ethnology is a museum about ethnology in the Netherlands is located in the university city of Leiden. The institution which was at first called the Museum Japonicum and it was the first museum in Europe which was designed to demonstrate that collecting the artefacts of man could mean more than the mere accumulation of curiosities. From the very outset, this innovative institution incorporated at least four basic principles, collecting, scientific research, presentation to the public, van de Kasteele to collect Japanese objects for his collection. The resulting gift of about 5,000 objects became the heart the new museums holdings, Siebolds home in Leiden—and the objects he brought to Europe after eight years in Japan—was opened to the public in the early 1830s. The Dutch crown had previously purchased the smaller collections of Jan Cock Blomhoff in 1826 and this institution would later evolve into the National Museum of Ethnology. In 1843, Siebold also encouraged other Europeans to create ethnographic institutions similar to what was developing in Leiden, the collection today contains a large number of objects from Africa, China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Latin America, North America, Oceania, and Asia. As Opperhoofd for the Dutch East India Company at Dejima island in Nagasaki harbor from 1817 through 1823, despite the Japanese closed door policy for Westerners, he did transport his wife, Titia, and children to join him. Johannes Gerhard Frederik van Overmeer Fischer began as a clerk at Dejima and this material was brought back to the Netherlands in 1829. In 1833, he published Bijdrage tot de kennis van het Japansche rijk, further information relating to this material was published in Siebolds Nippon. His professional interest was drawn to implements used in the practice of traditional Japanese medicine. As of 2005, a museum located in one of Siebolds former houses. The Leiden plate is a Maya belt plaque and important historical artifact from Guatemala and it is depicted on the reverse of a one Guatemalan quetzal banknote. Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam Edo-Tokyo Museum National Museum of Ethnology, Japan The Virtual Collection of Masterpieces Alpen, Jan van, Oriental Medicine, An Illustrated Guide to the Asian Arts of Healing. Book Review, Titia, The First Western Woman in Japan by Rene P. Bersma, Pacific Affairs, Vol.76, Museum Studies, An Anthology of Contexts. ISBN 978-0-631-22830-1 Frederiks, Johannes Godefridus and F. Jos. van den Branden, Johannes Gerhard Frederik van Overmeer Fischer, Biographisch woordenboek der Noord- en Zuidnederlandsche letterkunde. Otterspeer, W. Leiden Oriental Connections, 1850-1940, Vol. V, ISBN 978-90-04-09022-4 Siebold, Philipp Franz von. Lettre sur lutilité des Musées Ethnographiques et sur limportance de leur création dans états européens qui posèdents des Colonies, rudolf Effert, Royal cabinets and auxiliary branches, origins of the National Museum of Ethnology, 1816-1883. ISBN 978-90-5789-159-5 Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog, a Very Unique Collection of Historical Significance, The Kapitan Collection from the Edo Period—The Dutch Fascination with Japan
25.
Ukiyo-e
–
The ukiyo-e genre of art flourished in Japan from the 17th through 19th centuries. The term ukiyo-e translates as picture of the floating world, Edo became the seat of government for the military dictatorship in the early 17th century. The merchant class at the bottom of the social order benefitted most from the rapid economic growth. Many indulged in the entertainments of kabuki theatre, courtesans, the term ukiyo came to describe this hedonistic lifestyle. The earliest success was in the 1670s with Moronobus paintings and monochromatic prints of beautiful women, colour in prints came gradually—at first added by hand for special commissions. By the 1740s, artists such as Masanobu used multiple woodblocks to print areas of colour, from the 1760s the success of Harunobus brocade prints led to full-colour production becoming standard, each print made with numerous blocks. Specialists have prized the portraits of beauties and actors by masters such as Kiyonaga, Utamaro, Following the deaths of these two masters, and against the technological and social modernization that followed the Meiji Restoration of 1868, ukiyo-e production went into steep decline. Some ukiyo-e artists specialized in making paintings, but most works were prints, as printing was done by hand, printers were able to achieve effects impractical with machines, such as the blending or gradation of colours on the printing block. Ukiyo-e was central to forming the Wests perception of Japanese art in the late 19th century–especially the landscapes of Hokusai, Prints since the late 20th century have continued in an individualist vein, often made with techniques imported from the West. The Kanō school of painting incorporated features of both, since antiquity, Japanese art had found patrons in the aristocracy, military governments, and religious authorities. Later works appeared by and for townspeople, including inexpensive monochromatic paintings of female beauties and scenes of the theatre and pleasure districts, the hand-produced nature of these shikomi-e limited the scale of their production, a limit that was soon overcome by genres that turned to mass-produced woodblock printing. During a prolonged period of war in the 16th century. In the early 17th century Tokugawa Ieyasu unified the country and was appointed Shogun with supreme power over Japan and he consolidated his government in the village of Edo, and required the territorial lords to assemble there in alternate years with their entourages. The demands of the growing capital drew many male labourers from the country, the village grew during the Edo period from a population of 1800 to over a million in the 19th century. The centralized shogunate put an end to the power of the machishū and divided the population into four classes, with the ruling samurai class at the top. The experience of the quarters was open to those of sufficient wealth, manners. Woodblock printing in Japan traces back to the Hyakumantō Darani in 770 CE, until the 17th century such printing was reserved for Buddhist seals and images. Movable type appeared around 1600, but as the Japanese writing system required about 100,000 type pieces, in Saga Domain, calligrapher Honami Kōetsu and publisher Suminokura Soan combined printed text and images in an adaptation of The Tales of Ise and other works of literature
26.
WorldCat
–
WorldCat is a union catalog that itemizes the collections of 72,000 libraries in 170 countries and territories that participate in the Online Computer Library Center global cooperative. It is operated by OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc, the subscribing member libraries collectively maintain WorldCats database. OCLC was founded in 1967 under the leadership of Fred Kilgour and that same year, OCLC began to develop the union catalog technology that would later evolve into WorldCat, the first catalog records were added in 1971. It contains more than 330 million records, representing over 2 billion physical and digital assets in 485 languages and it is the worlds largest bibliographic database. OCLC makes WorldCat itself available free to libraries, but the catalog is the foundation for other subscribtion OCLC services, in 2006, it became possible to search WorldCat directly at its website. In 2007, WorldCat Identities began providing pages for 20 million identities, predominantly authors, WorldCat operates on a batch processing model rather than a real-time model. That is, WorldCat records are synchronized at intermittent intervals with the library catalogs instead of real-time or every day. Consequently, WorldCat shows that an item is owned by a particular library. WorldCat does not indicate whether or not an item is borrowed, lost, undergoing restoration or repair. Furthermore, WorldCat does not show whether or not a library owns multiple copies of a particular title, copac Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Library and Archives Canada Research Libraries UK Online Computer Library Center Grossman, Wendy M. Why you cant find a book in your search engine. Official website OCLC - Web scale discovery and delivery of library resources OCLC Bibliographic Formats and Standards WorldCat Identities
27.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
28.
National Diet Library
–
The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
29.
Netherlands Institute for Art History
–
The Netherlands Institute for Art History or RKD is located in The Hague and is home to the largest art history center in the world. The center specializes in documentation, archives, and books on Western art from the late Middle Ages until modern times, all of this is open to the public, and much of it has been digitized and is available on their website. The main goal of the bureau is to collect, categorize, via the available databases, the visitor can gain insight into archival evidence on the lives of many artists of past centuries. The library owns approximately 450,000 titles, of which ca.150,000 are auction catalogs, there are ca.3,000 magazines, of which 600 are currently running subscriptions. Though most of the text is in Dutch, the record format includes a link to library entries and images of known works. The RKD also manages the Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus, the original version is an initiative of the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles, California. Their bequest formed the basis for both the art collection and the library, which is now housed in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Though not all of the holdings have been digitised, much of its metadata is accessible online. The website itself is available in both a Dutch and an English user interface, in the artist database RKDartists, each artist is assigned a record number. To reference an artist page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, for example, the artist record number for Salvador Dalí is 19752, so his RKD artist page can be referenced. In the images database RKDimages, each artwork is assigned a record number, to reference an artwork page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, //rkd. nl/en/explore/images/ followed by the artworks record number. For example, the record number for The Night Watch is 3063. The Art and Architecture Thesaurus also assigns a record for each term, rather, they are used in the databases and the databases can be searched for terms. For example, the painting called The Night Watch is a militia painting, the thesaurus is a set of general terms, but the RKD also contains a database for an alternate form of describing artworks, that today is mostly filled with biblical references. To see all images that depict Miriams dance, the associated iconclass code 71E1232 can be used as a search term. Official website Direct link to the databases The Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus
30.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
_-_Kawahara_Keiga.jpg)
_-_Kawahara_Keiga_-_Siebold_Collection.jpg)
