1.
Mainsail
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A mainsail is a sail located behind the main mast of a sailing vessel. On a square rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest sail on the main mast. On a fore-and-aft rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest and often the only sail rigged aft of the main mast, a sail rigged in this position without a boom is generally called a trysail, and is used in extremely heavy weather. Traditional fore-and-aft rigs used a four-sided gaff rigged mainsail, sometimes setting a gaff topsail above it, the modern Bermuda rig uses a triangular mainsail as the only sail aft of the mast, closely coordinated with a jib for sailing upwind. A large overlapping jib or genoa is larger than the mainsail. In downwind conditions a spinnaker replaces the jib, some mainsails are full-batten mainsails, meaning the batten extends all the way from the mast to the leeach of a sail. A partial batten extends from the mast partway to the leech, battens enable the mainsail to project farther away from the mast. However, there is some cost associated with the battens themselves, batten pockets need to be sewn into the sail, and batten cars may be needed to allow the sail to be raised and lowered. A mainsail may be fixed to the boom via slugs, cars, or a bolt-rope, or may be loose-footed, meaning it is attached at the tack. Before Nathanael Greene Herreshoffs invention of tracks and slides in the 1880s. Traditional mainsails were held against the mast by hoops that went the way around the mast. This meant a traditional mainsail could be raised no higher than the first point a rope or wire was required to keep the mast upright
2.
Staysail
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A staysail is a fore-and-aft rigged sail whose luff can be affixed to a stay running forward from a mast to the deck, the bowsprit, or to another mast. Most staysails are triangular, however some are four-cornered, notably some fishermans staysails, triangular staysails set forward of the foremost mast are called jibs, headsails, or foresails. The innermost such sail on a cutter, schooner, and many other rigs having two or more foresails is referred to simply as the staysail, while the others are referred to as jibs, flying jibs, etc. Types of staysail include the tallboy staysail, the staysail. Unlike the cutter staysail, none of these sails have their luff affixed to a stay, on large rigs, staysails other than headsails are named according to the mast and mast section on which they are hoisted. Thus, the staysail hoisted on a stay that runs forward, if two staysails are hoisted to different points on this mast, they would be the mizzen upper topgallant staysail and the mizzen lower topgallant staysail. In square rigged ships the staysails can help in tacking, overcoming the lumbering square sails tendency to prevent bearing up to windward, where a ship attempts to tack but fails and has to bear away again on the original tack, she is said to have missed her stays. In cutter rigged yachts the genoa will often need to be furled before changing tack due to the difficulty in passing the big sail between the two forestays, here the staysail can help bring the bow through the wind more effectively
3.
Spinnaker
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A spinnaker is a sail designed specifically for sailing off the wind from a reaching course to a downwind, i. e. with the wind 90°–180° off bow. The spinnaker fills with wind and balloons out in front of the boat when it is deployed, called flying and it is constructed of lightweight fabric, usually nylon, and is often brightly coloured. It may be optimised for a range of wind angles, as either a reaching or a running spinnaker, by the shaping of the panels. Some types of spinnaker can be carried by the side of the boat and this is called flying a shy spinnaker, and is used for reaching. The spinnaker is often called a kite, or a chute because it resembles a parachute in both construction and appearance. This should not be confused with the spinnaker chute which is a hull fitting sometimes used for launching and recovering the spinnaker, a purported etymology has the first boat to carry this sail being a Cowes yacht named Sphinx, from which Sphinxs Acre and eventually Spinnaker. A spinnaker is used for sailing with the direction of the wind, symmetrical spinnakers have large amounts of camber, making them nearly hemispherical. Both lift and drag propel the boat forward when moving with the wind, reaching spinnakers have less camber as they operate within an airflow that generates lift. A well designed spinnaker will have leading edges when filled. A well designed spinnaker will also have a curve when filled. Any deviations from a curve will cause the airflow over the leeward side of the sail to separate causing a reduction in lift. When running downwind in heavy weather or when hit by a gust, with or without a spinnaker, there may be a tendency for a roll of increasing amplitude to build up, known as the death roll. Excessive heel leads to loss of rudder effectiveness resulting in the boat slewing round uncontrollably in the direction opposite to the direction of heel, luffing carefully onto a broad reach may help to retain control, as can moving everyones weight as far aft as possible. There are two categories of spinnakers, symmetric and asymmetric depending on whether a plane of symmetry exists for that particular sail. Asymmetric spinnakers operate more like a jib, generating lift from the side and this makes asymmetrics a better choice on reaching courses than symmetric spinnakers, which excel when running. The symmetric one is the most classic type, running alongside the boat controlled by lines known as a sheet. The windward line, or guy, is attached to the called the tack of the sail. The leeward line is called the sheet and it attaches to the clew of the spinnaker and is used to control the shape of the sail
4.
Hull (watercraft)
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The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
5.
Rudder
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A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium. On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw, a rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the crafts stern, tail. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag, on simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels, in typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. Generally, a rudder is part of the apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull, that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles. More specifically, the gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types, in a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position. S, a steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the oar was required to steer a straight course. The steering oar or steering board is an oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes, in the Old Kingdom as much as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, the strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period, by the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds. A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage, interestingly, the boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern
6.
Skeg
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A skeg, is a sternward extension of the keel of boats and ships which have a rudder mounted on the centre line. The term also applies to the lowest point on a motor or the outdrive of an inboard/outboard. In more recent years, the name has been used for a fin on a surfboard which improves directional stability, the term is also often used for the fin on water skis in the U. S. and for the tail bumpers of aircraft in the US Navy. The word originates in the Scandinavian word for beard, in Old Norse, in Icelandic the word remains skegg, in modern Norwegian Bokmål and Nynorsk, it appears as skjegg, in Swedish, it is skägg and in Danish, skæg. The Norwegian pronunciation of the letter combination skj is as in the English sh, the word is related to the English shaggy. It also appears in the English place name Skegness - beard point, from the way in which a series of tombolos forms, here, the English pronunciation reflects a probable Danish origin, which pronounces the sk letter combination as an English speaker would expect. Where a vessels rudder is mounted on the centre-line, it is usual to hang it on gudgeons and pintles, the latter being upright pins and the former, rings to fit round them. This naturally leaves a gap between the sternpost and the rudder, into which stray items like kelp and rope can catch, causing drag. In ships such as Mary Rose, the skeg is a small feature. This somewhat beard-like sternward extension of the keel is the basic skeg, subsequently, the lowest pintle was commonly mounted below the rudder on a metal extension of the keel. This helped further stabilize and protect the rudder and the name skeg was transferred to it and it used to be relatively small until screw propellers were introduced, when it had to reach below the screw and became a proportionately larger feature protecting both screw and rudder from damage. On wooden vessels, the skeg may be protected from damage by the addition of a bug shoe. In more modern installations, with more than one screw, a fitting supports each propeller shaft just ahead of its screw. This is usually called a shaft bracket but the part of it extends below the shaft bearing to protect the lower part of the propeller is also a skeg. Similarly, the projection of the drive casing, below the rotational axis of the propeller of an outboard motor is another form of the skeg. Where a yacht is designed with a fin keel, it will normally and this link shows the profile of such a boat. This type of skeg is pictured at the bottom of the linked page. In surfing, windsurfing, and kitesurfing, skegs, usually known as fins, are attached toward the tail of the board to improve directional stability, fins allow the rider to control the boards direction by varying their side-to-side weight distribution
7.
Mast (sailing)
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The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a light, look-out position, signal yard, control position. Large ships have several masts, with the size and configuration depending on the style of ship, nearly all sailing masts are guyed. Until the mid-19th century all vessels masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the height, the masts were built from up to four sections, known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant. Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast, as opposed to sections formed from pieces of timber. Jigger-mast, typically, where it is the shortest, the aftmost mast on vessels with more than three masts. On a two-masted vessel with the main-mast forward and a smaller second mast, such as a ketch, or particularly a yawl. Although two-masted schooners may be provided with masts of identical size, the aftmost is still referred to as the main-mast, schooners have been built with up to seven masts in all, with several six-masted examples. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the sails are rigged. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC. While most of the ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels, a mosaic in Ostia depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Romes harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts, Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, although large enough to require full running rigging
8.
Spreader (sailboat)
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A spreader is a spar on a sailboat used to deflect the shrouds to allow them to better support the mast. Often, there are multiples, called spreaders, the spreader or spreaders serve much the same purpose as the crosstrees and tops in a traditional sailing vessel. Spreader design and tuning can be quite complex, the spreaders may be fixed or swinging. The purpose of the spreaders is to control, by either limiting, or inducing, the spreaders may be designed to be angled in a way that either forces bend in to the spar or reduces bend, depending on the desired results
9.
Shroud (sailing)
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On a sailboat, the shrouds are pieces of standing rigging which hold the mast up from side to side. There is frequently more than one shroud on each side of the boat, usually a shroud will connect at the top of the mast, and additional shrouds might connect partway down the mast, depending on the design of the boat. Shrouds terminate at their ends at the chain plates, which are tied into the hull. They are sometimes held outboard by channels, a ledge that keeps the shrouds clear of the gunwales, shrouds are attached symmetrically on both the port and starboard sides. For those shrouds which attach high up the mast, a structure projecting from the mast must be used to increase the angle of the shroud at the attachment point, providing more support to the mast. On most sailing boats, such structures are called spreaders, on large sailing ships, however, particularly square-riggers, the shrouds end at the projections and their loads are carried into the mast slightly further down by futtock shrouds
10.
Sheet (sailing)
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In sailing, a sheet is a line used to control the movable corner of a sail. Sheet derives from Old English scéata meaning the corner of a sail. Fore-and-aft rigs comprise the vast majority of sailing vessels in use today, including effectively all dinghies, the sheet on a fore-and-aft sail controls the angle of the sail to the wind, and should be adjusted to keep the sail just filled. Most smaller boats use the Bermuda rig, which has two or three sets of sheets, The mainsheet is attached to the boom, and is used to control the mainsail. In a rig with no boom on the mainsail, the mainsheet would attach directly to the mainsail clew, a mainsheet is a rope connected to the boom which allows a sailor to control the speed of a boat. The jib sheet attaches to the clew of the jib, the jib has a sheet on each side, only one of which will be in use at one time. The spinnaker sheet attaches to the clew of the spinnaker, if carried, a symmetrical spinnaker has two sheets, an active one and a lazy one, in the same way as a jib, but they are attached to the sails two separate clews. On boats larger than thirty feet, the spinnaker will also be fitted with guys. On smaller boats the lazy sheet is used as a guy, on the smallest boats, a sheet is often a simple rope, pulled by hand, on larger boats, usually on the mainsheet, it is often a system using several blocks to provide mechanical advantage. Square-rigged vessels are much less common, and are large ships. Nevertheless, they too have sheets on the corners of their square sails. They are then not adjusted significantly while sailing until the sail is to be handed again, the lowest sails, the courses, are trimmed using the sheets as these sails are loose footed and are secured to yards only at the head
11.
Boom (sailing)
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In sailing, a boom is a spar, along the foot of a fore and aft rigged sail, that greatly improves control of the angle and shape of the sail. The primary action of the boom is to keep the foot of the sail flatter when the angle is away from the centerline of the boat. The boom also serves as an attachment point for more sophisticated control lines, because of the improved sail control it is rare to find a non headsail without a boom. In some modern applications, the sail is rolled up into the boom for storage or reefing, the forward end of the boom attaches to a mast just below the sail, with a joint called the gooseneck. The gooseneck pivots allowing the end of the boom to move freely. The clew of the sail attaches to the end of the boom. The entire foot of the sail may be attached to the boom or just the clew, if the foot is not attached to the boom, the rig is known as loose footed. A boom may be found on small headsails, there the forward end of the boom is attached to the same stay as the sails luff. The control lines on the act in conjunction with the halyard. Two primary sail control lines are attached to every boom, The outhaul runs from the clew of the sail to the end of the boom. Hauling in on the outhaul increases foot tension in the main sail, modern loose footed sails are cut so that the outhaul is also able to pull the clew downwards towards the boom. The sheet is attached midway along the boom or at the free end, the block is typically attached to the boom by means of a bail, which is a U-shaped piece of metal, flattened at the ends to allow attachment with screws or rivets. In smaller boats such as dinghies it is used to control the angle of the sail to the wind on each point of sail. On largest boats this function is assumed by the traveller. Easing the main sheet increases twist and the twist is usually adjusted so that the aft end of the top batten in the main sail runs parallel to the boom. The traveller is a running from one side of the boat to the other upon which sits a car to which the other end of the sheet is attached. Moving the car side to side alters the angle of the boom to the centreline of the boat while minimising the effect on the twist of the sail. A boom will frequently have these additional sail control lines attached, A downhaul may be attached to the boom near the gooseneck to pull the boom down and increase tension on the luff of the sail
12.
Spinnaker pole
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A spinnaker pole is a spar used in sailboats to help support and control a variety of headsails, particularly the spinnaker. However, it is used with other sails, such as genoas and jibs. The spinnaker pole is rigged to run from the base of the mast, there, one of the control lines of whichever sail it is to be used with is run through a fitting on the other end of the spinnaker pole. This allows for precise control of the corner of the sail to which the line is attached. For a spinnaker, the attached to the pole is the guy, or brace. For other headsails, such as a jib, the line would be the sheet, a special line, the topping lift, runs from the middle of the spinnaker pole up to a block on the mast, and is used to support the weight of the spinnaker pole. Another line referred to as the downhaul or foreguy runs down so that the height of the pole is under control at all times
13.
Backstay
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A backstay is a piece of standing rigging on a sailing vessel that runs from the mast to either its transom or rear quarter, counteracting the forestay and jib. It is an important sail trim control and has an effect on the shape of the mainsail. Backstays are generally adjusted by block and tackle, hydraulic adjusters, backstays may be permanent or running. A permanent backstay is attached to the top of the mast, running backstays appear in pairs attached about two-thirds of the way up the mast. In general, most modern sailboats will have a permanent backstay, backstays are not always found on all vessels, especially smaller ones. A permanent backstay is attached at the top of the mast, in a masthead rig, tensioning the permanent backstay will directly tension the forestay. This control is used to adjust the amount of sag in the headsail, increased mast bend tends to reduce the draft of the mainsail. A running backstay always attaches to the mast at a point below the top of the mast and is used in conjunction with a permanent backstay. Running backstays are found on both masthead rigs and fractional rigs, there are some rigs for which running backstays may be used without a permanent backstay. This occurs most often where the mainsail has a significant roach or a large mainsail. Gaff rigged boats invariably have running backstays with no permanent backstay, in both of these cases the mainsail extends aft of a line from masthead to stern, and so a permanent backstay would interfere with the operation of the sail. As a direct consequence of its attachment point a running backstay is always adjustable because it must be engaged and disengaged during every tack or jibe. Adjusting the tension on the running backstay has two effects, First, the forestay is tensioned and Second, mast bend is increased, the overall effect of tensioning the running backstay is a shallower mainsail combined with a reduction in headsail sag. Both effects are desirable as the wind increases
14.
Forestay
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On a sailing vessel, a forestay, sometimes just called a stay, is a piece of standing rigging which keeps a mast from falling backwards. It is attached either at the top of the mast. The other end of the forestay is attached to the bow of the boat, often a sail is attached to the forestay. This sail may be a jib or a genoa, in a cutter rig, the jib or jibs are flown from stays in front of the forestay, perhaps going from the masthead to a bowsprit. The sail on the forestay is then referred to as the staysail or staysl, the dictionary definition of forestay at Wiktionary
15.
Boom vang
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A boom vang or kicking strap is a line or piston system on a sailboat used to exert downward force on the boom and thus control the shape of the sail. The Collins English Dictionary defines it as A rope or tackle extended from the boom of a mainsail to a deck fitting of a vessel when running. The vang typically runs from the base of the mast to a point about a third of the way out the boom. Due to the force necessary to change the height of the boom while a boat is under sail. Hydraulic piston vangs are used on sailboats and controlled by manual or electric hydraulic pumps. The term kicking strap is normally shortened to kicker whilst sailing, on some sailing boats, such as the 49er, rather than a set of lines pulling the boom downwards, a rigid member is used to push the boom down. By controlling leech tension, the boom vang is one of the three methods of controlling sail twist, on small sailboats and some cruising sailboats a vang may be omitted. If a vang is not installed, then the sheet has to try to control both horizontal and vertical angles of the boom, when the boom is near the centerline, the sheet is nearly vertical, and can exert downward force on the boom. As the sheet is loosened to increase the angle of the boom and sail. A vang works with the sheet to apply the force on the boom at all horizontal angles. While under sail, the force to the vang is supplied by the sail itself. When the sail is furled, a topping lift supplies the force on the boom. Some line vang systems incorporate a piston to provide the lift force. Hydraulic vangs can inherently act in the topping lift role
16.
Yacht
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A yacht /ˈjɒt/ is a recreational boat or ship. In modern use of the term, yachts differ from working ships mainly by their leisure purpose, there are two different classes of yachts, sailing and power boats. With the rise of the steamboat and other types of powerboat, sailing vessels in general came to be perceived as luxury, later the term came to encompass large motor boats for primarily private pleasure purposes as well. Yacht lengths normally range from 10 metres up to dozens of meters, a luxury craft smaller than 12 metres is more commonly called a cabin cruiser or simply a cruiser. A superyacht generally refers to any yacht above 24 m and a megayacht generally refers to any yacht over 50 metres and this size is small in relation to typical cruise liners and oil tankers. A few countries have a special flag worn by recreational boats or ships, although inspired by the national flag, the yacht ensign does not always correspond with the civil or merchant ensign of the state in question. Yacht ensigns differ from merchant ensigns in order to signal that the yacht is not carrying cargo that requires a customs declaration, carrying commercial cargo on a boat with a yacht ensign is deemed to be smuggling in many jurisdictions. Until the 1950s, almost all yachts were made of wood or steel, although wood hulls are still in production, the most common construction material is fibreglass, followed by aluminium, steel, carbon fibre, and ferrocement. The use of wood has changed and is no longer limited to traditional board-based methods, wood is mostly used by hobbyists or wooden boat purists when building an individual boat. Apart from materials like carbon fibre and aramid fibre, spruce veneers laminated with epoxy resins have the best weight-to-strength ratios of all boatbuilding materials. Sailing yachts can range in length from about 6 metres to well over 30 metres. Most privately owned yachts fall in the range of about 7 metres -14 metres, in the United States, sailors tend to refer to smaller yachts as sailboats, while referring to the general sport of sailing as yachting. Within the limited context of racing, a yacht is any sailing vessel taking part in a race. Many modern racing yachts have efficient sail-plans, most notably the Bermuda rig. This capability is the result of a sail-plan and hull design oriented towards this capability, day sailing yachts are usually small, at under 6 metres in length. Sometimes called sailing dinghies, they often have a keel, centreboard. Most day sailing yachts do not have a cabin, as they are designed for hourly or daily use and not for overnight journeys. They may have a cabin, where the front part of the hull has a raised solid roof to provide a place to store equipment or to offer shelter from wind or spray
17.
Susan Ford
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Susan Elizabeth Ford Bales is an American author, photojournalist, and former chair of the board of the Betty Ford Center for alcohol and drug abuse. Ford is the youngest child and only daughter of former U. S. President Gerald Ford and she was one of three people targeted for violence by the Symbionese Liberation Army and had Secret Service protection well before her father became president. As a teenager attending the Holton-Arms School in Bethesda, Maryland, she held her prom, for the class of 1975. She served as official White House hostess when her mother was hospitalized for breast cancer, Ford enrolled in Mount Vernon College for Women in northwest Washington, D. C. in 1975 when her father was in the White House. She later transferred to the University of Kansas for the semester of 1977. She was hired to shoot publicity stills for the film Jaws 2, in 1992 she became a member of the board of the Betty Ford Center and in 2005 became chair of the organization. She succeeded her mother, who remained a board member, in 2002 she wrote, with Laura Hayden, a novel, Double Exposure, A First Daughter Mystery, with a contemporary White House setting, in 2005 a sequel, Sharp Focus, was published. In recent years and in addition to her responsibilities at the Betty Ford Center, Ford has been active on behalf of her parents. That was particularly so during the December 26,2006 – January 3,2007 state funeral services and ceremonies for her father, Ford Presidential Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan. In addition, on January 1, she assisted her mother in receiving dignitaries, on January 16,2007, Susan Ford spoke at a Naming Ceremony at the Pentagon. At the ceremony, the aircraft carrier CVN-78, now under construction, was named the USS Gerald R. Ford. That same day Secretary of the Navy Donald Winter announced that Ford had been named the carriers ceremonial sponsor, on November 14,2009, Ford participated in the keel laying for the ship. On June 11,2007, she delivered remarks in Washington, in July 2007, Ford represented her mother at the funeral service of former First Lady Lady Bird Johnson. Also in July 2007, she and her husband Vaden Bales represented Mrs. Ford, on November 9,2013, she christened the Gerald R. Ford with a bottle of champagne. She married Charles Vance, one of her fathers former U. S, Secret Service agents, on February 10,1979. For a time operated a private security company in Washington. They have two daughters, Tyne Mary Vance and Heather Elizabeth Vance, but were divorced in 1988, Ford married attorney Vaden Bales in 1989. In Betty Fords Betty – A Glad Awakening, her mother credits Susan with having orchestrated an intervention in 1982 after the Ford family became concerned with her drinking, addictions and behavior
18.
USS Gerald R. Ford
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Gerald R. Ford is the lead ship of her class of United States Navy supercarriers. It is currently a pre-commissioning unit expected to be commissioned into the Navy in 2017. The ship is named after the 38th President of the United States Gerald R. Ford, the keel of Gerald R. Ford was laid down on 13 November 2009. Construction began on 11 August 2005, when Northrop Grumman held a ceremonial steel cut for a 15-ton plate that forms part of a side shell unit of the carrier and she was christened on 9 November 2013. The schedule called for the ship to join the U. S. Navys fleet in March 2016 with the first deployment in 2019, Gerald R. Ford will enter the fleet replacing the inactive USS Enterprise, which ended her 51 years of active service in December 2012. In 2006, while Gerald Ford was still alive, Senator John Warner of Virginia proposed to amend a 2007 defense-spending bill to declare that CVN-78 shall be named the USS Gerald Ford. The final version signed by President George W. Bush on 17 October 2006 declared only that it is the sense of Congress that, CVN-78 should be named the U. S. S. Since such sense of language is typically non-binding and does not carry the force of law, rumsfeld indicated that he had personally told Ford of the honor during a visit to his home in Rancho Mirage a few weeks before Fords death. This makes the aircraft one of the few U. S. ships named after a living person. Later in the day, the Navy confirmed that the carrier would indeed be named after the former President. On 16 January 2007, Navy Secretary Donald Winter officially named CVN-78 USS Gerald R. Ford, Fords daughter Susan Ford Bales was named the ships sponsor. The announcements were made at a Pentagon ceremony attended by Vice President Dick Cheney, Senators Warner and Levin, swan III, Bales, Fords other three children, and others. The USS America Carrier Veterans Association had pushed to name the ship USS America, the CVA is an association of sailors who served aboard USS America. The carrier was decommissioned in 1996 and scuttled in the Atlantic, as part of a damage test of large aircraft carriers in 2005. On 10 September 2008, the U. S. Navy signed a $5.1 billion contract with Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding in Newport News, Virginia, to design, Northrop had begun advance construction of the carrier under a $2. 7 billion contract in 2005. The carrier is being constructed at the Huntington Ingalls Newport News Shipbuilding facilities in Newport News, Virginia, the keel of the new warship was ceremonially laid on 14 November 2009 in Dry Dock 12 by Fords daughter, Susan Ford Bales. And that is the legacy we remember this morning, as of August 2011, the carrier was reported to be structurally halfway complete. In April 2012, it was said to be 75 percent complete, on 24 May 2012, the important milestone of completing the vessel up to the waterline was reached when the critical lower bow was lifted into place
19.
Keel laying
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Laying the keel or laying down is the formal recognition of the start of a ships construction. It is often marked with a ceremony attended by dignitaries from the shipbuilding company, keel laying is one of the four specially-celebrated events in the life of a ship, the others are launching, commissioning, and decommissioning. In earlier times, the event recognized as the keel laying was the placement of the central timber making up the backbone of a vessel. As steel ships replaced wooden ones, the central timber gave way to a steel beam. Modern ships are now built in a series of pre-fabricated. The event recognized as the keel laying is the first joining of modular components and it is now often called keel authentication, and is the ceremonial beginning of the ships life, although modules may have been started months before that stage of construction. Keel-related traditions from the times of wooden ships are said to bring luck to the ship during construction and to the captain, the first milestone in the history of a ship is the generally simple ceremony that marks the laying of the keel. Invitations to the ceremony are issued by officials, and the ceremony is conducted by them. The builder may be the commander of a shipyard or the president of a private company. The ships prospective name, without the USS, is mentioned in the invitation, if known, otherwise her type and number are given, e. g. DD2217
20.
Huntington Ingalls Industries
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Huntington Ingalls Industries is an American Fortune 500 shipbuilding company formed on March 31,2011 as a spin-off of Northrop Grumman. Mike Petters is currently the president and CEO of Huntington Ingalls Industries, HII is the sole designer, builder, and refueler of nuclear-powered aircraft carriers in the United States. It is one of two nuclear-powered submarine builders,70 percent of the current, active US Navy fleet has been built by HIIs erstwhile units. The company takes its name from the founders of its two facilities, Collis Potter Huntington and Robert Ingalls.5 billion. HII is to build ten Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carriers for the US Navy and it is scheduled to deliver one carrier every five years starting in 2015. The US Navy awarded HII a $2.4 billion fixed-price incentive contract for the design and construction of the amphibious assault ship America. Work will be performed primarily at the shipyard in Pascagoula, Miss. In June,2016 Huntington Ingalls Industries has been awarded a million contract to build the U. S. Navy’s newest amphibious assault warship. The total contract value for the construction of the third America-class ship is over $3 billion and this contract included planning, advanced engineering and procurement of long-lead material for the new vessel. In April 2011, the US Navy awarded HII a $1.5 billion contract for the construction of John P. Murtha and this was the first Navy contract awarded to HII, though Ingalls Shipbuilding had already built three ships of the class. The US Navy is building Virginia-class submarines as replacements for the Los Angeles-class submarines which are currently being phased out, HII and Electric Boat alternate work on the reactor plant, final assembly, test, outfit and delivery
21.
Newport News Shipbuilding
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Founded as the Chesapeake Dry Dock and Construction Co. in 1886, Newport News Shipbuilding has built more than 800 ships, including both naval and commercial ships. Located in the city of Newport News, their facilities more than 550 acres. The shipyard is building the aircraft carriers USS Gerald R. Ford, also under construction are the Virginia-class submarines USS Indiana and USS Washington. In 2013, Newport News Shipbuilding began the deactivation of the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, USS Enterprise, Newport News Shipbuilding also performs refueling and complex overhaul work on Nimitz-class aircraft carriers. This is a four-year vessel renewal program that not only involves refueling of the nuclear reactors. The yard has completed RCOH for four Nimitz-class carriers, as of May 2016 this work was underway for the fifth Nimitz-class vessel, USS Abraham Lincoln. Industrialist Collis P. Huntington provided crucial funding to complete the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad from Richmond, however, building the railroad and coal pier was only the first part of Huntingtons dreams for Newport News. In 1886 he built a shipyard to repair ships servicing this transportation hub, in 1891 Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company delivered its first ship, the tugboat Dorothy. By 1897 NNS had built three warships for the US Navy, USS Nashville, Wilmington and Helena, when Collis died in 1900, his nephew Henry E. Huntington inherited much of his uncles fortune. He also married Collis widow Arabella Huntington, and assumed Colliss leadership role with Newport News Shipbuilding, under Henry Huntingtons leadership, growth continued. In 1906 the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought launched a naval race worldwide. Between 1907 and 1923, Newport News built six of the US Navys total of 22 dreadnoughts – USS Delaware, Texas, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, Maryland, all but the first were in active service in World War II. In 1907 President Theodore Roosevelt sent the Great White Fleet on its round-the-world voyage, NNS had built seven of its 16 battleships. In 1914 NNS built SS Medina for the Mallory Steamship Company, in the early years, leaders of the Newport News community and those of the shipyard were virtually interchangeable. Post served from March 9,1911 to Feb.12,1912, earlier, he had come to the area as one of the builders of the C&O Railways terminals, and had served as the first mayor of Newport News after it became an independent city in 1896. It was on March 14,1914 that Albert Lloyd Hopkins and his assistant, Frederic Gauntlett, was also on board, but was able to swim to safety. Homer Lenoir Ferguson was company vice president when Hopkins died, and he saw the company through both world wars, became a noted community leader, and was a co-founder of the Mariners Museum with Archer Huntington. He served until July 31,1946, after the second World War had ended on both the European and Pacific fronts
22.
Fluid dynamics
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In physics and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids. It has several subdisciplines, including aerodynamics and hydrodynamics, before the twentieth century, hydrodynamics was synonymous with fluid dynamics. This is still reflected in names of some fluid dynamics topics, like magnetohydrodynamics and hydrodynamic stability, the foundational axioms of fluid dynamics are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of mass, conservation of linear momentum, and conservation of energy. These are based on mechanics and are modified in quantum mechanics. They are expressed using the Reynolds transport theorem, in addition to the above, fluids are assumed to obey the continuum assumption. Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects, however, the continuum assumption assumes that fluids are continuous, rather than discrete. The fact that the fluid is made up of molecules is ignored. The unsimplified equations do not have a general solution, so they are primarily of use in Computational Fluid Dynamics. The equations can be simplified in a number of ways, all of which make them easier to solve, some of the simplifications allow some simple fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form. Three conservation laws are used to solve fluid dynamics problems, the conservation laws may be applied to a region of the flow called a control volume. A control volume is a volume in space through which fluid is assumed to flow. The integral formulations of the laws are used to describe the change of mass, momentum. Mass continuity, The rate of change of fluid mass inside a control volume must be equal to the net rate of flow into the volume. Mass flow into the system is accounted as positive, and since the vector to the surface is opposite the sense of flow into the system the term is negated. The first term on the right is the net rate at which momentum is convected into the volume, the second term on the right is the force due to pressure on the volumes surfaces. The first two terms on the right are negated since momentum entering the system is accounted as positive, the third term on the right is the net acceleration of the mass within the volume due to any body forces. Surface forces, such as forces, are represented by F surf. The following is the form of the momentum conservation equation
23.
Ceremonial ship launching
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Ceremonial ship launching is the process of transferring a vessel to the water. It is a tradition in many cultures, dating back thousands of years. It has been observed as a celebration and a solemn blessing. The process also involves many traditions intended to invite good luck, such as christening by breaking a bottle of champagne over the bow as the ship is named aloud. There are three methods of conveying a new ship from building site to water, only two of which are called launching. The oldest, most familiar, and most widely used is the launch, in which the vessel slides down an inclined slipway. With the side launch, the ship enters the water broadside and this method came into use in the 19th-century on inland waters, rivers, and lakes, and was more widely adopted during World War II. The third method is float-out, used for ships that are built in basins or dry docks and then floated by admitting water into the dock. In all cases, heavy chains are attached to the ship, normally, ways are arranged perpendicular to the shore line and the ship is built with its stern facing the water. The barricades support the two launch ways, the vessel is built upon temporary cribbing that is arranged to give access to the hulls outer bottom and to allow the launchways to be erected under the complete hull. When it is time to prepare for launching, a pair of standing ways is erected under the hull, the surface of the ways is greased. A pair of sliding ways is placed on top, under the hull, the weight of the hull is then transferred from the build cribbing onto the launch cradle. On launching, the vessel slides backwards down the slipway on the ways until it floats by itself, some slipways are built so that the vessel is side-on to the water and is launched sideways. This is done where the limitations of the channel would not allow lengthwise launching. The Great Eastern designed by Brunel was built this way as were many landing craft during World War II and this method requires many more sets of ways to support the weight of the ship. Sometimes ships are launched using a series of inflated tubes underneath the hull and this procedure has the advantages of requiring less permanent infrastructure, risk, and cost. The airbags provide support to the hull of the ship and aid its launching motion into the water and these airbags are usually cylindrical in shape with hemispherical heads at both ends. The Xiao Qinghe shipyard launched a tank barge with marine airbags on January 20,1981, egyptians, Greeks, and Romans called on their gods to protect seamen
24.
Keelboat
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A keelboat is a riverine cargo-capable working boat, or a small- to mid-sized recreational sailing yacht. The two terms may draw from cognate words with different final meaning and they were also used extensively for transporting cargo to market, and for exploration and trading expeditions, for water transport was then most effective means to move bulky or heavy cargo. Keelboats were similar to riverboats, but like other barges were unpowered and were controlled with oars or poles—usually the latter. Keelboats have been used for exploration, such as the Lewis and Clark Expedition, the process of moving a keelboat upriver was extremely difficult, though current dependent. Most of these keelboats were 50 to 80 feet long and 15 feet wide and they usually had a cabin in the middle, but were sometimes constructed with an open deck. Mike Fink is probably the most noted keelboater in history, the Republican had in tow keel boats, the Hoosier Lady and the Hoosier Boy, bringing freight to Lafayette, Messrs Taylor & Harter, Taylor & Li. J. McCormick, J. B. Semans and Hunter, and for Messrs, Ewing of the Bridge at Logansport and this is the first arrival at Lafayette this year. We understand the Republican is going to try and ascend the Wabash at Logansport, the Wabash is in steam boating condition, and we may experience several arrivals, in a few days. The term keel was associated in Great Britain with three particular working boat types, the Norfolk Keel ancestor of the Norfolk Wherry, the Humber Keel and the Tyne Keel and their Keelmen. A keelboat is technically any sailboat with a keel—as opposed to a centerboard or daggerboard, in New Zealand the term keeler is frequently used as a generic alternative - meaning any sailboat with a keel, regardless of size. ISAF usage differentiates keelboats from generally larger yachts, despite overlap in the sizes of boats in the two classes
25.
USS United States (CVA-58)
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USS United States was to be the lead ship of a new design of aircraft carrier. On 29 July 1948, President Harry Truman approved construction of five supercarriers, the keel of the first of the five planned postwar carriers was laid down on 18 April 1949 at Newport News Drydock and Shipbuilding. The program was canceled, United States was not completed, nevertheless, USS United States is the ancestor of all U. S. supercarriers. The chief proponent for the new carrier was Admiral Marc Mitscher. He wanted a carrier that would be able to handle the most effective weapons of the day, early design discussions centered around developing a carrier that would be able to support combat missions using the new jet aircraft. These were faster, larger and significantly heavier than the aircraft the Essex and it was thought that the aircraft carried would have to have longer range to allow the carrier to operate farther away from the target. The deck would have to be able to handle the weight of the jet aircraft landing on the deck. Furthermore, the experience gained against the Kamikazes at the end of the war drove home the need for the ship to have a flight deck. Too many pilots had been lost from kamikaze attack while they were sitting below the flight deck in the pilot ready room. The implication then is that the strength deck would have to be the flight deck rather than the hangar deck. That would mean the ship would have a tendency to roll in rough weather. Based on the size of the aircraft that the new ship was to carry and this was done to create more space for large winged aircraft. The flush-deck design carried with it two major areas of concern, the first was concern over how smoke from the power plants would be diverted away from the flight deck. This had been an issue with the US Navys first aircraft carrier, USS Langley. The second was the placement of warning radar equipment to allow the ship to detect incoming attacks. One solution was for a ship to be close by which would carry the commander of the task force. The command ship would radio information and orders from its command center over to the carrier. A second was for the ship to aircraft that could fly the early warning radar
26.
Dry dock
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A dry dock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in, then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform. Dry docks are used for the construction, maintenance, and repair of ships, boats, the use of dry docks in China goes at least as far back the 10th century A. D. The upper works included several decks with cabins and saloons. After many years, their hulls decayed and needed repairs, so in the Hsi-Ning reign period a palace official Huang Huai-Hsin suggested a plan. A large basin was excavated at the end of the Chin-ming Lake capable of containing the dragon ships. Then so that the quickly filled with water, after which the ships were towed in above the beams. The the water was pumped out by wheels so that the ships rested quite in the air, when the repairs were complete, the water was let in again, so that the ships were afloat once more. The first English and oldest surviving dry dock still in use was commissioned by Henry VII of England at HMNB Portsmouth in 1495 and this dry dock currently holds the worlds oldest commissioned warship, HMS Victory. Possibly the earliest description of a floating dock comes from a small Italian book printed in Venice in 1560, called Descrittione dellartifitiosa machina. In the booklet, an unknown author asks for the privilege of using a new method for the salvaging of a ship and then proceeds to describe. The included woodcut shows a ship flanked by two large floating trestles, forming a roof above the vessel, the ship is pulled in an upright position by a number of ropes attached to the superstructure. The Alfredo da Silva Dry Dock, of the Lisnave Dockyards in Almada, Portugal, was the largest in the world until 2000, harland and Wolff Heavy Industries in Belfast, Northern Ireland, is the site of a large dry dock 556 by 93 metres. The massive cranes are named after the Biblical figures Samson and Goliath, Goliath stands 96 m tall, while Samson is taller at 106 m. The Saint-Nazaires Chantiers de lAtlantique owns one of the biggest in the world,1,200 by 60 metres, the largest graving dock of the Mediterranean as of 2009 is at the Hellenic Shipyards S. A. The largest roofed dry dock is at the German Meyer Werft Shipyard in Papenburg, Germany, it is 504 m long,125 m wide, Dry Dock 12 at Newport News Shipbuilding is 662 by 76 metres the largest dry dock in the USA. The largest floating-dock in North America named The Vigorous and it is operated Vigor Industries in Portland, OR, in the Swan Island industrial area along the Willamette River. The keel blocks as well as the block are placed on the floor of the dock in accordance with the docking plan of the ship. Routine use of dry docks is for the graving i. e. the cleaning, removal of barnacles and rust, some fine-tuning of the ships position can be done by divers while there is still some water left to manoeuvre it about
27.
Ship
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Historically, a ship was a sailing vessel with at least three square-rigged masts and a full bowsprit. Ships are generally distinguished from boats, based on size, shape, Ships have been important contributors to human migration and commerce. They have supported the spread of colonization and the trade, but have also served scientific, cultural. After the 16th century, new crops that had come from, Ship transport is responsible for the largest portion of world commerce. As of 2016, there were more than 49,000 merchant ships, of these 28% were oil tankers, 43% were bulk carriers, and 13% were container ships. Military forces operate vessels for naval warfare and to transport and support forces ashore, the top 50 navies had a median fleet of 88 surface vessels each, according to various sources. There is no definition of what distinguishes a ship from a boat. Ships can usually be distinguished from boats based on size and the ability to operate independently for extended periods. A legal definition of ship from Indian case law is a vessel that carries goods by sea, a common notion is that a ship can carry a boat, but not vice versa. American and British 19th Century maritime law distinguished vessels from other craft, ships and boats fall in one legal category, a number of large vessels are usually referred to as boats. Other types of vessel which are traditionally called boats are Great Lakes freighters, riverboats. Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargoes, in most maritime traditions ships have individual names, and modern ships may belong to a ship class often named after its first ship. The first known vessels date back about 10,000 years ago, the first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat and this allowed men to explore widely, allowing for the settlement of Oceania for example. By around 3000 BC, Ancient Egyptians knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull and they used woven straps to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Sneferus ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded to a ship being referred to by name, the ancient Egyptians were perfectly at ease building sailboats. A remarkable example of their skills was the Khufu ship. Aksum was known by the Greeks for having seaports for ships from Greece, a panel found at Mohenjodaro depicted a sailing craft
28.
Bow (ship)
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The bow /ˈbaʊ/ is the forward part of the hull of a ship or boat, the point that is usually most forward when the vessel is underway. Both of the fore and forward mean towards the bow. The other end of the boat is the stern, from Middle Dutch boech or Old Norse bógr. The bow is designed to reduce the resistance of the cutting through water. On slower ships like tankers, a bow shape is used to maximise the volume of the ship for a given length. A wet bow results from seawater washing over the top of the hull, a raked stem can help to reduce the wetness of the bow. Aside from making the deck slippery, water can corrode the metal of the ship, if the temperature is low enough this water can also freeze on the deck, rails, turrets, and other exposed surfaces, increasing the topside weight. The bow may be reinforced to serve as an ice-breaker, one example being the bow of container-ship Sea Witch whose reinforcement assisted its destruction of another ship in a 1973 collision, the forward part of the bow, usually on the ships centreline, is called the stem. Traditionally, the stem was a timber or metal bar into which side planks or plates were joined. ISBN 0-7566-0944-5 Steward, Robert, Boatbuilding Manual, 3rd ed. International Marine Publishing Company
29.
Stern
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The stern is the back or aft-most part of a ship or boat, technically defined as the area built up over the sternpost, extending upwards from the counter rail to the taffrail. The stern lies opposite of the bow, the foremost part of a ship, originally, the term only referred to the aft port section of the ship, but eventually came to refer to the entire back of a vessel. The stern end of a ship is indicated with a navigation light at night. Sterns on European and American wooden sailing ships began with two forms, the square or transom stern and the elliptical, fantail, or merchant stern. This frame is designed to support the beams that make up the stern. In 1817 the British naval architect Sir Robert Seppings first introduced the concept of the round or circular stern, the square stern had been an easy target for enemy cannon, and could not support the weight of heavy stern chase guns. The United States began building the first elliptical stern warship in 1820, USS Brandywine became the first sailing ship to sport such a stern. In naval architecture, the term transom has two meanings, in this sense, a transom stern is the product of the use of a series of transoms, and hence the two terms have blended. But until a new form of stern appeared in the 19th century, the stern was a floating house—and required just as many timbers, walls, windows. The stern frame provided the structure of the transom stern, and was composed of the sternpost, wing transom. If the stern had transoms above the transom, they would no longer be affixed to the sternpost. The first of these might be called a counter transom, next up was the window sill transom, above that, the larger the vessel, the more numerous and wider the transoms required to support its stern. Stern timbers – These timbers are mounted vertically in a series, each timber typically rests or steps on the transom and then stretches out. Those not reaching all the way to the taffrail are called short stern timbers, the two outermost of these timbers, located at the corners of the stern, are called the side-counter timbers or outer stern timbers. The flat surface of any transom stern may begin either at or above the waterline of the vessel. The geometric line which stretches from the transom to the archboard is called the counter. The visual unpopularity of Seppings circular stern was soon rectified by Sir William Symonds, in this revised stern, a set of straight post timbers stretches from the keel diagonally aft and upward. It rests on the top of the sternpost and runs on either side of the rudder post to a point well above the vessels waterline, the finished stern has a continuous curved edge around the outside and is raked aft
30.
Ship stability
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Ship stability is an area of naval architecture and ship design that deals with how a ship behaves at sea, both in still water and in waves, whether intact or damaged. Stability calculations focus on the center of gravity, center of buoyancy, ship stability, as it pertains to naval architecture, has been taken into account for hundreds of years. Historically, ship stability calculations for ships relied on rule of thumb calculations, some of these very old equations continue to be used in naval architecture books today. Master shipbuilders of the past used a system of adaptive and variant design, ships were often copied from one generation to the next with only minor changes being made, by replicating a stable design serious problems were not often encountered. Before this a breach in any part of a vessel could flood the entire length of the ship. Longitudinal bulkheads have a purpose, but damaged stability effects must be taken into account to eliminate excessive heeling. Today, most ships have means to equalize the water in sections port and starboard and these systems are designed to reduce the effects of waves or wind gusts. They do not increase the stability of the vessel in a calm sea, the International Maritime Organization International Convention on Load Lines does not mention active stability systems as a method of ensuring stability. The hull must be stable without active systems, a bilge keel is a long fin of metal, often in a V shape, welded along the length of the ship at the turn of the bilge. Bilge keels are employed in pairs, a ship may have more than one bilge keel per side, but this is rare. Bilge keels increase the resistance when a vessel rolls, thus limiting the amount of roll a vessel has to endure. Outriggers may be employed on vessels to reduce rolling. Rolling is reduced either by the required to submerge buoyant floats or by hydrodynamic foils. In some cases these outriggers may be of sufficient size to classify the vessel as a trimaran, antiroll tanks are tanks within the vessel fitted with baffles intended to slow the rate of water transfer from the port side of the tank to the starboard side. The tank is designed such that an amount of water is trapped on the higher side of the vessel. This is intended to have a completely opposite to that of the free surface effect. Paravanes may be employed by slow-moving vessels to reduce roll, many vessels are fitted with active stability systems. Active stability systems are defined by the need to input energy to the system in the form of a pump, hydraulic piston and these systems include stabilizer fins attached to the side of the vessel or tanks in which fluid is pumped around to counteract the motion of the vessel
31.
Sailboat
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A sailboat or sailing boat is a boat propelled partly or entirely by sails smaller than a sailing ship. Distinctions in what constitutes a sailing boat and ship vary by region, although sailboat terminology has varied across history, many terms have specific meanings in the context of modern yachting. A great number of sailboat-types may be distinguished by size, hull configuration, keel type, purpose, number and configuration of masts, and sail plan. Once a common racing configuration, today it gives versatility to cruising boats, a catboat has a single mast mounted far forward and does not carry a jib. Most modern designs have only one sail, the mainsail, however, a dinghy is a type of small open sailboat commonly used for recreation, sail training, and tending a larger vessel. They are popular in youth sailing programs for their short LOA, simple operation and they have three sails, the mainsail, jib, and spinnaker. Ketches are similar to a sloop, but there is a shorter mast astern of the mainmast. The second mast is called the mizzen mast and the sail is called the mizzen sail, a ketch can also be Cutter-rigged with two head sails. A schooner has a mainmast taller than its foremast, distinguishing it from a ketch or a yawl, a schooner can have more than two masts, with the foremast always lower than the foremost main. Traditional topsail schooners have topmasts allowing triangular topsails sails to be flown above their gaff sails, the most common modern sailboat is the sloop, which features one mast and two sails, typically a Bermuda rigged main, and a headsail. This simple configuration is very efficient for sailing into the wind, a smaller headsail is easier for a short-handed crew to manage. A yawl is similar to a ketch, with a mizzen mast carried astern the rudderpost more for balancing the helm than propulsion. Traditional sailboats are monohulls, but multi-hull catamarans and trimarans are gaining popularity, monohull boats generally rely on ballast for stability and usually are displacement hulls. This stabilizing ballast can, in boats designed for racing, be as much as 50% of the weight of the boat and it creates two problems, one, it gives the monohull tremendous inertia, making it less maneuverable and reducing its acceleration. Secondly, unless it has built with buoyant foam or air tanks, if a monohull fills with water. Multihulls rely on the geometry and the stance of the multiple hulls for their stability. Indeed, multihulls are designed to be as light-weight as possible and this absence of ballast also results in some very real performance gains in terms of acceleration, top speed, and maneuverability. The lack of ballast makes it easier to get a multihull on plane, reducing its wetted surface area and thus its drag. The absence of drag improves wind precision
32.
Winged keel
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The Winged Keel is a sailboat keel originally designed by Ben Lexcen and made its first appearance on the 12-metre class yacht Australia II in the 1983 Americas Cup. Along with Australia IIs efficient sail design, this keel was one of the factors contributing to Australia IIs success, the wings were angled downwards at about 20 degrees, which, since they were lifting downwards, acted as a dihedral. The lateral wings of a winged keel are usually of moderate aspect ratio, that uses a horizontal foil. Note that, contrary to classic configuration, the keel is upside down under the hull (the root chord is smaller than the tip chord, each wing acts as a winglet, effectively doubling the keel aspect ratio and reducing lift-induced drag. Winged keels are generally found on high performance sailboats, if they are not prohibited by class rules and they are only of benefit for yachts sailing upwind where stability and the ability to produce side force are important and if the draft is limited by the class rule. Downwind the extra skin friction drag is a hindrance, besides the performance benefits, winged keels can also be applied to pleasure boats as a way to reduce draft, allowing for greater versatility when gunkholing. Winged keels may incorporate a significant amount of ballast where the wings join the keel and this feature makes these winged keels also another type of bulb keel
33.
Bulb keel
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A bulb keel is a keel, usually made with a high aspect ratio foil, that contains a ballast-filled bulb at the bottom, usually teardrop shaped. The purpose of the keel is to place the ballast as low as possible, therefore gaining the maximum possible amount of leverage. An example of a class of boats that use a bulb keel is the International 110 racing class, which uses a 300 lb cast iron bulb keel on a boat whose minimum racing weight is 910 lb. Since bulb keels work best on long, thin keels or daggerboards, they are not used on sailboats intended for shallow waters. Daggerboards built like bulb keels are often referred to as lifting keels, and they can be retracted into the boat to reduce the draft, and to allow the boat to be loaded onto a trailer. Lifting keels are also likely to be found on craft built for speed. It is also possible to shape the bulb into a horizontal foil, when the bulb protrudes past the leading edge of the keel, it is called a T-bulb. It offers better performance, but is prone to hook into flotsam
34.
Twin keel
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Twin keels or bilge keels are two keels that emerge at an angle from the hull of a sailboat, at or near the bilge. The angle allows the boat to have a shallower draft while still allowing for minimum leeway while sailing, twin-keeled boats are typically used in coastal areas that experience extreme changes in tide. When the tide is low, the boat will sit on her keels and remain stable, twin keels are meant to make sailing safer and easier in shallow or extremely tidal waters while preserving the stability and performance of deep-keel vessels. Yet, twin keels are often shown to provide better performance on paper. They are also said to be safer in conditions as they are more resistant to rolling. The first twin-keeled sailing vessel is believed to be the Bluebird that was built by Lord Riverdale. This gave her speed and seaworthiness, and the ability to point closely to the wind, the vessels other characteristics included self-steering ability, efficiency under power, and structural strength. The most notable benefit presented at the time was care-free grounding that includes the ability to sail away from an incident by righting the vessel. Riverdale succeeded the Bluebird with two vessels named Bluebird of Thorne, the first was a step backwards in that it re-introduced a normal keel as a place for ballast and to collect bilgewater. It is advanced, nonetheless, as its fins were aft of the center keel, the total performance gains by this Bluebird of Thorne over Riverdales previous twin keelers was about 15%. One performance tweak was giving slight toe-in to the keels to produce better upwind performance and her ocean handling was considered to be safer than similar single-keeled craft as she rolls less, and is hence less likely to broach going downwind. Both Bluebird of Thornes were built from steel and are still sailing, david Thomas engineered twin keel designs that were used successfully in Hunters production line of cruisers in the UK starting in the 1980s, and production continues today. The majority of these are in the Horizon line, ranging from about 20 feet to 35 feet and they are exceedingly aesthetic and accommodating craft, have been produced in large numbers, and many have performed well in competition—tending to come in second. An added and probably unexpected advantage of the Horizons with a twin keel arrangement is that they hold their value better than single keel equivalents, the twin keels are lifing, the windward, keel, hinges aft and lays against the side of the hull. There is a 250 kg bulb, or weight, at the end of each keel that is shaped such that it remains hydrodynamic when lifted. The HEOL7.4 is also built with a fin keel. When the fin keeled and lifting keel HEOLs have raced each other, in low or no wind conditions, the windward appendage that is the lifted keel of the twin keel model adds slight drag. In strong wind conditions, the difference is smaller
35.
Lift (force)
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A fluid flowing past the surface of a body exerts a force on it. Lift is the component of force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction. It contrasts with the force, which is the component of the surface force parallel to the flow direction. If the fluid is air, the force is called an aerodynamic force, in water, it is called a hydrodynamic force. Lift is also exploited in the world, and even in the plant world by the seeds of certain trees. When an aircraft is flying straight and level most of the lift opposes gravity, however, when an aircraft is climbing, descending, or banking in a turn the lift is tilted with respect to the vertical. Lift may also be entirely downwards in some aerobatic manoeuvres, or on the wing on a racing car, in this last case, the term downforce is often used. Lift may also be horizontal, for instance on a sail on a sailboat. Aerodynamic lift is distinguished from other kinds of lift in fluids, Aerodynamic lift requires relative motion of the fluid which distinguishes it from aerostatic lift or buoyancy lift as used by balloons, blimps, and dirigibles. An airfoil is a shape that is capable of generating significantly more lift than drag. A flat plate can generate lift, but not as much as a streamlined airfoil, there are several ways to explain how an airfoil generates lift. Some are more complicated or more rigorous than others, some have been shown to be incorrect. For example, there are based directly on Newton’s laws of motion. Either can be used to explain lift, an airfoil generates lift by exerting a downward force on the air as it flows past. According to Newtons third law, the air must exert an equal and opposite force on the airfoil, the air flow changes direction as it passes the airfoil and follows a path that is curved downward. According to Newtons second law, this change in flow direction requires a force applied to the air by the airfoil. Then, according to Newtons third law, the air must exert a force on the airfoil. The overall result is that a force, the lift, is generated opposite to the directional change
36.
Windward and leeward
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Windward is the direction upwind from the point of reference. Leeward is the direction downwind from the point of reference, the side of a ship that is towards the leeward is its lee side. If the vessel is heeling under the pressure of the wind, during the age of sail, the term weather was used as a synonym for windward in some contexts, as in the weather gage. Windward and leeward directions are important factors to consider when sailing a sailing ship, other terms with broadly the same meaning are widely used, particularly upwind and downwind. The windward vessel is normally the more maneuverable vessel, for this reason, rule 12 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea stipulates that the windward vessel gives way to the leeward vessel. The opposing warship to leeward could often do little but comply without exposing itself unduly and this was particularly important once artillery was introduced to naval warfare. The ships heeled away from the wind so that the vessel was exposing part of her bottom to shot. Leeward and windward refer respectively to what a game stalker would call downwind and upwind, the terms are used by seamen in relation to their ships but also in reference to islands in an archipelago and to the different sides of a single island. In the latter case, the side is that side of an island subject to the prevailing wind. The leeward side is the side protected by the elevation of the island from the prevailing wind, thus, leeward or windward siting is an important weather and climate factor on oceanic islands. In the case of an archipelago, windward islands are upwind and leeward islands are the downwind ones
37.
Centreboard
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A centreboard or centerboard is a retractable keel which pivots out of a slot in the hull of a sailboat, known as a centreboard trunk or centerboard case. A centreboard which consists of just a metal plate is called a centerplate. A daggerboard is similar but slides vertically rather than pivoting, the analog in a scow is a bilgeboard, these are fitted in pairs and used one at a time. Lt. John Schank was an officer of the British Royal Navy and is credited with the invention of the centerboard, Schank, however, gave credit for the idea to British Brigadier General Earl Percy. A centreboard is used to lift to counter the lateral force from the sails. This is required for sailboats to move in directions other than downwind, the more a yacht heels the more asymmetric its hull shape becomes. The centerboard, daggerboard or bilgeboard can be used as a platform upon which to stand, providing increased leverage. The efficiency of a centreboard improves with increasing aspect ratio, a long narrow centreboard produces less drag than a short, wide one for a given amount of lift, resulting in a faster boat that can point closer into the wind. A fore and aft, pivoting centreboard can also be used to move the centre of lateral resistance aft to match a change in sail plan, such as furling or dropping the jib. A retracting centreboard is more complex than a keel. Other types feature a casing under the boat, which does not take up space, for this reason, it is not uncommon to find boats with a combination of shallow keel and centreboard. The keel provides the housing for the centreboard, moving it out of the hull, the centreboard can then be lowered in deeper waters to increase the amount of lift. Ballast is usually provided in the keel, keeping the lighter and easier to handle. Centreboards are often ballasted in keelboats, ballasted centreboards are generally not locked in place when lowered, the mass of the ballast keeps them down. The mass of a ballasted foil means that a system of pulleys may be required to allow the sailor to lift the foil, and a method of latching the board in the upward position is needed. A centreboard differs from a ballast keel in that centreboards do not contribute to the stability of the vessel, in small sailing dinghies it is rare to find a ballasted centreboard. On larger sailing vessels, a design is sometimes incorporated to enable navigation into shallower water than a fixed keel would allow. In these situations the appendage is generally referred to as a keel or a swing keel
38.
Hydrofoil
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A hydrofoil is a lifting surface, or foil, that operates in water. They are similar in appearance and purpose to aerofoils used by aeroplanes, boats that use hydrofoil technology are also simply termed hydrofoils. As a hydrofoil craft gains speed, the lift the boats hull out of the water, decreasing drag. The hydrofoil usually consists of a wing like structure mounted on struts below the hull, as a hydrofoil equipped watercraft increases in speed, the hydrofoil elements below the hull develop enough lift to raise the hull out of the water, which greatly reduces hull drag. This provides an increase in speed and fuel efficiency. Wider adoption of hydrofoils is prevented by the complexity of building and maintaining them. Hydrofoils are generally more expensive than conventional watercraft. However, the design is simple enough that there are many human-powered hydrofoil designs, amateur experimentation and development of the concept is popular. Since air and water are governed by similar fluid equations—albeit with different levels of viscosity, density, the foil shape moves smoothly through the water, deflecting the flow downward, which, following the Euler equations, exerts an upward force on the foil. This turning of the water creates higher pressure on the bottom of the foil and this pressure difference is accompanied by a velocity difference, via Bernoullis principle, so the resulting flowfield about the foil has a higher average velocity on one side than the other. When used as an element on a hydrofoil boat, this upward force lifts the body of the vessel, decreasing drag. The lifting force eventually balances with the weight of the craft, reaching a point where the no longer lifts out of the water. Hydrofoils of this type are known as surface-piercing since portions of the V-shape hydrofoils rise above the surface when foilborne. Some modern hydrofoils use fully submerged inverted T-shape foils, fully submerged hydrofoils are less subject to the effects of wave action, and, therefore, more stable at sea and more comfortable for crew and passengers. This type of configuration, however, is not self-stabilizing, the angle of attack on the hydrofoils must be adjusted continuously to changing conditions, a control process performed by sensors, a computer, and active surfaces. Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini began work on hydrofoils in 1898 and used a ladder foil system, Forlanini obtained patents in Britain and the United States for his ideas and designs. Between 1899 and 1901, British boat designer John Thornycroft worked on a series of models with a stepped hull, in 1909 his company built the full scale 22-foot long boat, Miranda III. Driven by a 60 hp engine, it rode on a bowfoil, the subsequent Miranda IV was credited with a speed of 35 kn
39.
Sailing ballast
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Ballast is used in sailboats to provide moment to resist the lateral forces on the sail. Insufficiently ballasted boats will tend to tip, or heel, excessively in high winds, too much heel may result in the boat capsizing. If a sailing vessel should need to voyage without cargo then ballast of little or no value would be loaded to keep the vessel upright, some or all of this ballast would then be discarded when cargo was loaded. The simplest form of ballast used in small day sailers is so-called live ballast, by sitting on the windward side of the hull, the heeling moment must lift the weight of the crew. On larger modern vessels, the keel is made of or filled with a high density material, such as concrete, iron, by placing the weight as low as possible the maximum righting moment can be extracted from the given mass. Traditional forms of ballast carried inside the hull were stones or sand, there are disadvantages to using high-density ballast. The first is the mass of the boat, a heavier boat sits lower in the water, increasing drag when it moves. A heavier boat is more difficult to put on a trailer. Secondly, since the ballast needs to be as low as possible, it is placed into a centerboard or retracting keel. The simplest solution is to use a fixed ballasted keel, but that makes the boat nearly incapable of sailing in shallow water. While prohibited by most class racing rules, some cutting-edge boats use a bulb of ballast on a long and this lets the ballast be placed on the windward side, providing a far greater righting moment with a lower angle of heel. A common type of ballast for small boats that avoids many of the problems of high-density ballast is water ballast, while it seems counter-intuitive that placing water in the hull would add any stability, adding water ballast below the vertical center of gravity increases stability. The water ballast does not need to be lifted above the waterline to affect stability and it is the relationship between centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy that dictates the righting moment. The advantage of water ballast is that the tanks can be emptied, reducing draft or the weight of the boat and water added back in after the boat is launched or cargo unloaded. Pumps can also be used to empty the leeward ballast tank and fill the tank as the boat tacks. On empty cargo vessels water is added to ballast tanks to increase propeller immersion, to improve steering, a disadvantage of water ballast is that water is not very dense and therefore the tanks required take up more space than other forms of ballast. Some manufacturers offer flexible ballast bags that are mounted outboard of the hull on both sides, and pumps that use the speed through the water for power. When under way, the pump can be used to fill the windward side and this system, while not very attractive, does allow significant gains in righting force with no modifications to the hull
40.
Winch
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A winch is a mechanical device that is used to pull in or let out or otherwise adjust the tension of a rope or wire rope. In its simplest form it consists of a spool and attached hand crank, in larger forms, winches stand at the heart of machines as diverse as tow trucks, steam shovels and elevators. The spool can also be called the winch drum, more elaborate designs have gear assemblies and can be powered by electric, hydraulic, pneumatic or internal combustion drives. Some may include a solenoid brake and/or a mechanical brake or ratchet, the rope is usually stored on the winch. When trimming a line on a sailboat, the member turns the winch handle with one hand. Some winches have a stripper or cleat to maintain tension and these are known as self-tailing winches. Winches are frequently used as elements of mechanics to move scenery in large theatrical productions. They are often embedded in the floor and used to move large set pieces on. Winches have recently been fabricated specifically for water and snow sports and this new generation of winches is designed to pull riders swiftly across a body of water or snow, simulating a riding experience that is normally supplied by a boat, wave runner, or snow mobile. Lever winches are winches that use self-gripping jaws instead of spools to move rope or wire through the winch, powered by moving a handle back and forth, they allow one person to move objects several tons in weight. Brand names include Tirfor™ and Griphoist™ and this is a vertical spool with a ratchet mechanism similar to a conventional winch, but with no crank handle or other form of drive. The line is wrapped around the spool and can be tightened and reeled in by pulling the tail line and they also allow controlled release of the tension by the operator using the friction of the line around the ratcheted spool. They are used on small sailing boats and dinghies to control sheets and other lines, wakeskate winching is a growing hobby for many watersports enthusiasts. The winch consists of an engine, spool, rope, handle, frame, the person being towed walks away from the winch and pulls out all of the rope. When the winch is engaged, it pulls the boarder usually between 15 to 25 miles per hour, the winch may be mounted on the trailer hitch of a vehicle, set into the ground by stakes, or tied to a tree. These winches have been modified for use by skiers and snowboarders in cities, gliders are often launched using a winch mounted on a trailer or heavy vehicle. This method is used at European gliding clubs, as a cheaper alternative to aerotowing. The engine is usually a large Petrol, LPG or diesel, though hydraulic fluid engines, the winch pulls in a 1,000 to 1, 600-metre cable, made of high-tensile steel wire or a synthetic fibre, attached to the glider
41.
Canting keel
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The canting keel must be able to pivot to either port or starboard, depending on the current tack. The traditional fin keel, pointing straight down from the boat, the heeling force of the wind on the sails is therefore not counteracted until the boat has heeled over by a certain amount, moving the fixed keel to windward of the centerline. With the canting keel handling the ballast functions, lateral resistance and steering can be managed separately with a foil and this allows for much quicker maneuverability than traditional keelboats, with about half the weight usually required for ballast. The earliest version of canting keel was aboard the Jim Young designed Fiery Cross and was called a keel at the time. Fiery Cross was launched in 1959 predating other canting keel mechanisms by many decades, first patented 27-2-1981 by NSW business man Mr Arthur S Walker patent number 67911. A version of the technology was invented and patented by CBTF Technology in the 1990s, development of the yacht and the events of the Race are described in detail in Petes subsequent book Close to the Wind. Subsequent use in competition was in September 2004, when five boats using the canting keel in the Maxi Yacht Rolex Cup placed ahead of the previously unbeaten world champion Alfa Romeo. Alfa Romeo II, designed by Reichel/Pugh features a canting keel, a variation of the canting keel is the 3d keel invented by François Lucas in 1998, which allows movement in three directions. The Schock 40 owned by Tom Schock famously lost its keel and capsized, illustrating the fundamental problem with complicated keel design, without a keel, most boats cannot float upright. The Volvo Open 70 class boats in the 2006 around-the-world Volvo Ocean Race are perhaps the most well known boats to use canting keels for ballast, while previous years boats showed a few percent improvement in speed each race the VO70 class are showing a 30% improvement in speed. The current canting keel technology is far from perfect, at least three of the seven boats in the 2006 Volvo Ocean Race, one of the first major long term races allowing canting keels, had problems with the keels. One area in particular, the sealing the opening through which the keel passes, are prone to leaks. Unlike a centerboard or daggerboard trunk, the opening for a canting keel must allow significant lateral motion, the boat movistar had problems on Leg 4 of the Volvo Ocean Race,200 miles off Cape Horn, during the night on 2 March 2006. It sprung a significant leak when the plates that covered the keel opening fell off in the middle of the night. This was a problem that had occurred earlier, movistars aft keel pivot broke loose and began flooding the boat. They made repairs in Ushuaia on the Beagle Channel, later on, in Leg 7 the same problem occurred in the north Atlantic. When this failure caused the yacht to nearly capsize, the boat was abandoned, on 25 November 2006, the boats Sat C transponder stopped transmitting. The abandoned hull was found washed up on the shores of Patagonia 9 years later, in December 2016, Wild Oats XI has retired from the 72nd Sydney to Hobart yacht race, citing a broken hydraulic ram
42.
Volvo Ocean Race
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The Volvo Ocean Race is a yacht race around the world, held every three years. Presently, the Netherlands holds the record of three wins, with Dutchman Conny van Rietschoten the only skipper to win the race twice, the 2008–09 race started in Alicante, Spain, on October 11,2008. The route for the 2008–2009 race was altered from previous years to include stopovers in India and Asia for the first time, the 2008–09 route covered nearly 39,000 nmi, took over nine months to complete, and reached a cumulative TV audience of 2 billion people worldwide. Each of the entries has a team of 9 professional crew who race day. The crew members are required to be more than sailors, some of them will be trained in response, sail-making, diesel engine repair, electronics. There is also a media crew member who does not contribute to the sailing of the boat. In the 2017-2018 race the number of crew can between 9-11 depending on the gender ratio. No fresh food is taken on board, so the crew lives off freeze-dried fare, they will experience temperature variations from −5 to +40 degrees Celsius and will only take one change of clothes. In 1972 Englands Whitbread company and the British Royal Naval Sailing Association agreed to sponsor a globe-circling regatta,17 yachts and 167 crew started the first race of 27,500 nmi, which began from Portsmouth, United Kingdom on September 8,1973. Approximately 3000 spectator boats set out to witness the historic start, from 2001 the ownership of the race was taken over by Volvo and Volvo Cars and the race was renamed the ‘Volvo Ocean Race’. Stopover ports were added in Germany, France, and Sweden being Volvos three biggest car markets in Europe, winning the race does not attract a cash prize, as the feat of competing is presented as sufficient reward. Many of the crew in the Volvo Ocean Race race crew other professional teams in high profile events, such as Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race. The worst weather conditions are encountered in the Southern Ocean where waves sometimes top 100 feet. The 2014–15 race covered 39,379 nautical miles, which is the longest route in its history, the 2008–09 race featured Stealth play, a tactic that allowed a crew to hide its position from its competitors for a period of 12 hours. The ploy can first be used on leg one, leg two, leg five, leg six and leg seven, if it is not used on one leg, it cannot be accumulated for use on a following leg. The Volvo Open 70 has been replaced by the Volvo Ocean 65, a new class of high performance one-design racing yacht created by Farr Yacht Design and built by a consortium of four European boatyards. List of Volvo Ocean Race sailors Danger on the high seas – whales, debris and weather just some of the obstacles in the Volvo Ocean Race - Steve Elling, The National,9 October 2014 Official website
43.
Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
44.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
45.
Gildas
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He is one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sub-Roman period, and was renowned for his Biblical knowledge and literary style. In his later life, he emigrated to Brittany where he founded a monastery known as St. Gildas de Rhuys. Differing versions of the Life of Saint Gildas exist, but both agree that he was born in what is now Scotland on the banks of the River Clyde, and these works were written in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and are regarded by scholars as unhistorical. He is now thought to have his origins further south, in his own work, he claims to have been born the same year as the Battle of Mount Badon. He was educated at a center, possibly Cor Tewdws under St. Illtud. He became a teacher, converting many to Christianity and founding numerous churches and monasteries throughout Britain. He is thought to have made a pilgrimage to Rome before emigrating to Brittany, however, his life of solitude was short-lived, and pupils soon sought him out and begged him to teach them. He is thought to have died at Rhuys, and was buried there, the 9th century Rhuys Life is generally accepted as being more accurate. The First Life of St. Gildas was written by a monk at the monastery which Gildas founded in Rhuys. According to this tradition, Gildas is the son of Caunus, king of Alt Clut in the Hen Ogledd and he had four brothers, his brother Cuillum ascended to the throne on the death of his father, but the rest became monks in their own right. Gildas was sent as a child to the College of Theodosius in Glamorgan, under the care of St. Illtud and his master St. Illtud loved him tenderly and taught him with special zeal. He was supposed to be educated in arts and divine scripture, but elected to study only holy doctrine. After completing his studies under St. Illtud, Gildas went to Ireland where he was ordained as a priest and he returned to his native lands in northern Britain where he acted as a missionary, preaching to the pagan people and converting many of them to Christianity. He was then asked by Ainmericus, high king of Ireland, to order to the church in Ireland. Gildas obeyed the summons and travelled all over the island, converting the inhabitants, building churches. He then travelled to Rome and Ravenna where he performed many miracles, intending to return to Britain, he instead settled on the Isle of Houat off Brittany where he led a solitary, austere life. At around this time, he preached to Nonnita, the mother of Saint David. He was eventually sought out by those who wished to study under him and he built an oratory on the bank of the River Blavetum, today known as St. Gildas de Rhuys
46.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
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