1.
Alaska
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Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
2.
Cook Inlet
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Cook Inlet stretches 180 miles from the Gulf of Alaska to Anchorage in south-central Alaska. Cook Inlet branches into the Knik Arm and Turnagain Arm at its northern end, on its south end merges with Shelikof Strait, Stevenson Entrance, Kennedy Entrance and Chugach Passage. The watershed includes the areas of Denali. Within the watershed there are national parks and the active volcano Mount Redoubt. Cook Inlet provides navigable access to the port of Anchorage at the northern end, before the growth of Anchorage, Knik was the destination for most marine traffic in upper Cook Inlet. Approximately 400,000 people live within the Cook Inlet watershed, the Cook Inlet region contains active volcanoes, including Augustine Volcano and Mount Redoubt. Volcanic eruptions in the region have been associated with earthquakes and tsunamis, there was an earthquake of the magnitude of 7.1 on December 31,1901 generated by an eruption that caused several tsunamis. In 2009 a lahar from Mt. Redoubt threatened the Drift River oil terminal, the inlet was first explored and settled by Denaina people. In the 18th century, Russian fur hunters were among the first European visitors, the Lebedev Lastochkin Company leader Stepan Zaikov established a post at the mouth of the Kenai River, Fort Nikolaev, in 1786. Other Europeans to visit Cook Inlet include the 1778 expedition of James Cook, its namesake, the inlet was named after Cook in 1794 by George Vancouver, who had served under Cook in 1778. Turnagain Arm was named by William Bligh of HMS Bounty fame, Bligh served as Cooks Sailing Master on his 3rd and final voyage, the aim of which was discovery of the Northwest Passage. Upon reaching the head of Cook Inlet, Bligh was of the opinion that both Knik Arm and Turnagain Arm were the mouths of rivers and not the opening to the Northwest Passage. Under Cooks orders Bligh organized a party to travel up Knik Arm, afterwards a second party was dispatched up Turnagain Arm and it too returned to report only a river lay ahead. As a result of this frustration the second body of water was given the disingenuous name Turn Again, early maps label Turnagain Arm as the Turnagain River. The S. S. Farallon was a wooden Alaskan Steamship Company liner that struck Black Reef in the Cook Inlet on January 5,1910, all thirty-eight men on board survived, and were rescued twenty-nine days later. Few white people visited upper Cook Inlet until construction of the Alaska Railroad along the shores of Turnagain Arm. The natives of the Eklutna village are the descendants of the residents of eight villages around upper Cook Inlet. During the 1964 Alaska earthquake, areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near Girdwood and Portage dropped as much as 8 feet by subsidence, Girdwood was later relocated inland and Portage was abandoned
3.
Mount Redoubt
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Redoubt Volcano, or Mount Redoubt, is an active stratovolcano in the largely volcanic Aleutian Range of the U. S. state of Alaska. At 10,197 feet, in just over 5 miles Mount Redoubt attains 9,150 feet of prominence over its surrounding terrain and it is the highest summit in the Aleutian Range. Active for millennia, Mount Redoubt has erupted four times since it was first observed, in 1902,1966,1989 and 2009, the eruption in 1989 spewed volcanic ash to a height of 45,000 ft. It caught KLM Flight 867, a Boeing 747 aircraft, in its plume, after the plane descended 13,000 feet, the pilots restarted the engines and landed the plane safely at Anchorage. The ash blanketed an area of about 7,700 sq mi, as of August 2015, the Alaska Volcano Observatory has rated Redoubt as Aviation Alert Level Green and Volcano Alert Level Normal. The official name of the mountain is Redoubt Volcano, a translation of the Russian name Sopka Redutskaya, referring to, as does the word redoubt, a fortified place. A local name, Ujakushatsch, also means fortified place, the Board on Geographic Names decided on the name Redoubt Volcano in 1891. The Alaska Volcano Observatory also uses simply Redoubt, it lists the alternate names in addition to the following, Goryalaya, Redoute Mtn. and Redutskaya. The volcano is about 3.7 miles in diameter at its base with a volume of 7.2 to 8.4 cu mi. The sides of the cone are relatively steep. The current main vent is on the side of the crater by the head of the Drift glacier. Also present on the mountain are Holocene lahar deposits that extend as far as the Cook Inlet and this mountain has produced andesite, basalt and dacite, with relatively silicic andesite dominant in recent eruptions. But this besides being too small for one of those clouds, however, several sources call this a discredited eruption. There are several other of these activities that are not called eruptions, in 1819, smoke was observed at the mountain. However, this is not recorded as an eruption as the information was insufficient to identify it as such. Similarly, in 2003, a cloud of snow was mistaken by an employee of the ConocoPhillips Building in Anchorage for an ash plume. Possible steam-vapor let off was observed in 1933 at the mountain, there was apparently an eruption described as to the eastward, Redoubt Volcano,11,060 feet high, is constantly smoking, with periods of exaggerated activity. Fire has been seen issuing from its summit far out at sea, a great eruption took place in 1881, when a party of native hunters half-way up its slopes were overwhelmed by a lava-flow and only two escaped
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
7.
Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska
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Kenai Peninsula Borough is a borough of the U. S. state of Alaska. As of the 2010 census, the population was 55,400, the borough includes the Kenai Peninsula and adjacent areas of the mainland of Alaska. The borough has an area of 24,752 square miles. Both sites are managed by the Cook Inlet Aquaculture Association Some of the fish hatched at these facilities are released into the famous Homer fishing hole. Cook Inlet Keeper and the Cook Inlet Regional Citizens Advisory Council are groups that attempt to influence policy on the use of the areas resources. As of the census of 2000, there were 49,700 people,18,400 households, there were 24,900 housing units at an average density of 2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 86% white, 7% Native American, 2% Hispanic or Latino, black or African Americans, Asians, and Pacific Islanders each were less than 1% of the population. Just under 1% were from other races combined,1. 92% reported speaking Russian at home, while 1. 74% speak Spanish. 25% of all households were made up of individuals and 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.6 and the average family size was 3.2. In the borough the population was out with 30% under the age of 18, 7% from 18 to 24, 30% from 25 to 44, 26% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 109 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over there were 110 males. There is a Borough-wide government based in Soldotna, consisting of a strong mayor, incorporated towns also have their own local governments and city councils. The Alaska Department of Corrections operates the Spring Creek Correctional Center near Seward and the Wildwood Correctional Complex near Kenai
8.
Municipal corporation
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A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including cities, counties, towns, townships, charter townships, villages, and boroughs. Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which they are located, often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a municipal charter. A city charter or town charter is a document establishing a municipality such as a city or town. The concept developed in Europe during the Middle Ages and is considered to be a version of a constitution. Traditionally the granting of a charter gave a settlement and its inhabitants the right to town privileges under the feudal system, townspeople who lived in chartered towns were burghers, as opposed to serfs who lived in villages. Towns were often free, in the sense that they were protected by the king or emperor. Today the process for granting charters is determined by the type of government of the state in question, in monarchies, charters are still often a royal charter given by the Crown or the state authorities acting on behalf of the Crown. In federations, the granting of charters may be within the jurisdiction of the level of government such as a state or province. In Brazil, municipal corporations are called municípios and are created by means of legislation at the state level. All municipal corporations must also abide by a municipal law which is passed and amended at the municipal level. In Canada charters are granted by provincial authorities, in Germany, municipal corporations existed since antiquity and through medieval times, until they became out of favour during the absolutism. In order to strengthen the spirit, the city law of Prussia dated 19 November 1808 picked up this concept. It is the basis of municipal law. In India, a Municipal Corporation is a local government body. This standard varies from state to state, according to laws passed by state legislatures, the Corporation of Chennai was the first Municipal Corporation in India. It was established on 29 September 1688 by the British East India Company, the second was Hyderabad Municipal Corporation established in 1869 by the Nizam rulers of Hyderabad State. The third was the Calcutta Municipal Corporation, established in 1876, the Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1888 by the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act. The Delhi Municipal Council was established in 1911 during the Delhi Durbar when New Delhi was proclaimed to be the new Capital of India and it was elevated to Municipal Corporation level on 7 April 1958 by an Act of Parliament which established the Municipal Corporation of Delhi
9.
Alaska Senate
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The Alaska Senate is the upper house in the Alaska Legislature, the state legislature of the U. S. state of Alaska. It convenes in the Alaska State Capitol in Juneau, Alaska and is responsible for making laws and confirming or rejecting gubernatorial appointments to the cabinet, commissions. With just twenty members, the Alaska Senate is the smallest state upper house legislative chamber in the United States and its members serve four-year terms and each represent an equal amount of districts with populations of approximately 35,512 people, per 2010 Census figures. They are not subject to term limits, the Alaska Senate shares the responsibility for making laws in the state of Alaska. Bills are developed by staff from bill requests and information from the bills sponsor, bills undergo three or four readings during the legislative process. After the first reading, they are assigned to committee, committees can amend measures or hold legislation and prevent it from reaching the Senate floor. Once a committee has weighed in on a piece of legislation, the returns to the floor for second hearing and a third hearing. Once passed by the Senate, a bill is sent to the legislative house for consideration. If approved, without amendment, it is sent to the governor, once a piece of legislation approved by both houses is forwarded to the governor, it may either be signed or vetoed. If it is signed, it takes effect on the date of the legislation. If it is vetoed, lawmakers in a joint session may override the veto with a majority vote. The Alaska Senate has the responsibility in the states legislative branch for confirming gubernatorial appointees to positions that require confirmation. A senator must be at least 25 years old at the time the oath of office is taken, senators may expel a member with the concurrence of two-thirds of the membership of the house. This has happened once in Senate history. On February 5,1982, the Senate of the 12th Legislature expelled Bethel senator George Hohman from the body, Hohman was convicted of bribery in conjunction with his legislative duties on December 24,1981, and had defiantly refused to resign from his seat. Legislative terms begin on the second Monday in January following an election year. The term of senators is four years and half of the senators are up for every two years. The President of the Senate presides over the body, appointing members to all of the Senates committees and joint committees, unlike many other states, the Lieutenant Governor of Alaska does not preside over the Senate
10.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
11.
Alaska House of Representatives
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The Alaska House of Representatives is the lower house in the Alaska Legislature, the state legislature of the U. S. state of Alaska. The House is composed of 40 members, each of whom represents a district of approximately 17,756 people per 2010 Census figures, members serve two-year terms without term limits. With 40 representatives, the Alaska House is the smallest state legislative house in the United States. The House convenes at the State Capitol in Juneau, members of the Alaska House of Representatives are responsible for a portion of the process of making and amending state law. The first step of the process is filing a bill by giving it to the chief clerk of the Alaska House of Representatives. The chief clerk will then assign bills a number, bills are introduced and read the first time with the number, sponsor or sponsors, and the title of the bill and then referred to a committee. Committee chairs can choose whether or not hear a bill and committees can vote to approve a bill in its form or make modifications through a committee substitute. Once a bill is scheduled on the floor, it appears on the calendar in Second Reading, the bill is again read by number, sponsor or sponsors, and title along with the standing committee reports. A motion is made on the floor to adopt any committee substitutes, amendments can also be offered and voted on. Third Reading is where the motion is made to vote on the bill, after final passage in the Alaska House of Representatives, a bill is engrossed and sent to the Alaska Senate to go through the same process of introduction, committee referral and three readings. Likewise, bills that have been approved on Third Reading in the Alaska Senate are engrossed, when a bill is not modified in the second house, it can be sent to the governor on Third Reading, through enrollment. If the bill is modified, the house of origin must vote to accept or reject amendments by the opposite house, a Fourth Reading, in the case of acceptance, will send the bill to the governor, through enrollment. If amendments are rejected, the bill can be sent to conference, the governor can choose to sign or veto the legislation. In the case of the veto, a majority of a joint session can override the veto. An appropriations bill requires a majority vote in a joint session to override a veto. If signed or approved by a veto override, the legislation becomes law, a state representative must be 21 years of age at the time the oath of office is taken. The Alaska House of Representatives may expel a member with the concurrence of two-thirds of the membership of the house, legislative terms begin on the second Monday in January following a presidential election year and on the third Tuesday in January following a gubernatorial election. State representatives serve for terms of two years, the Speaker of the House presides over the House of Representatives
12.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
13.
Alaska Time Zone
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The Alaska Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting nine hours from Coordinated Universal Time. During daylight saving time its time offset is eight hours, the clock time in this zone is based on mean solar time at the 135th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. The zone includes all of the U. S. state of Alaska and is one hour behind the Pacific Time Zone. Standard time, Alaska Standard Time daylight saving time, Alaska Daylight Time The western Aleutian Islands observe Hawaii–Aleutian Time, one hour behind the remainder of the state. Effective from 2007, the time changes from AKST to AKDT at 02,00 LST to 03,00 LDT on the second Sunday in March. The Standard Time Act of 1918 authorized the Interstate Commerce Commission to define each time zone, the United States Standard Alaska Time was designated as UTC−10. Some references prior to 1967 refer to this zone as Central Alaska Standard Time or as Alaska Standard Time, in 1966, the Uniform Time Act renamed the UTC−10 zone to Alaska-Hawaii Standard Time, effective April 1,1967. This zone was renamed in 1983 to Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time when the majority of Alaska was moved out of the zone, prior to 1983, the current Alaska Time Zone was known as the Yukon Time Zone, observing Yukon Standard Time. This time zone included Canadas Yukon Territory and a portion of Alaska including Yakutat. The Alaska Panhandle communities were in the Pacific Time Zone, while most of the interior was on UTC−10, Nome and the Aleutians previously observed Bering Standard Time or UTC−11. In 1975, the Yukon Territory switched to Pacific Standard Time, with the reorganization of Alaskas time zones in 1983 to place the entire state in either a UTC−9- or UTC−10-based zone, the UTC−9-zone was renamed the Alaska Time Zone. The Alaska Time Zone applies to the territory of the state of Alaska east of 169°30′ W. Given that the UTC−9 time corresponds to the time at 9 × 15° = 135° W. This means that when a clock set to Alaska time, at a location just east of 169°30′ W, shows noon. When UTC−8 is applied in the summer, this becomes even more apparent. For example, on June 12 at noon AKDT, the time at the extreme westerly points of the Alaskan time zone will be only 8,42 a. m. By contrast, in Juneau, which is closer to the 135° west meridian, mean solar noon occurs around 11,57 a. m. very close to clock noon. In Anchorage, visitors from more southerly latitudes are often surprised to see the sun set at 11,41 p. m. on the summer solstice while the time is 9,41 p. m
14.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
15.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
16.
North American Numbering Plan
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The North American Numbering Plan is a telephone numbering plan that encompasses 25 distinct regions in twenty countries primarily in North America, including the Caribbean and the U. S. territories. Not all North American countries participate in the NANP, each participating country forms a regulatory authority that has plenary control over local numbering resources. The FCC also serves as the U. S. regulator, Canadian numbering decisions are made by the Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium. The NANP divides the territories of its members into numbering plan areas which are encoded numerically with a telephone number prefix. Each telephone is assigned a telephone number unique only within its respective plan area. The telephone number consists of a central office code and a four-digit station number. The combination of a code and the telephone number serves as a destination routing address in the public switched telephone network. For international call routing, the NANP has been assigned the calling code 1 by the International Telecommunications Union. The North American Numbering Plan conforms with ITU Recommendation E.164, from its beginnings in 1876 and throughout the first part of the 20th century, the Bell System grew from essentially local or regional telephone systems. These systems expanded by growing their subscriber bases, as well as increasing their service areas by implementing additional local exchanges that were interconnected with tie trunks and it was the responsibility of each local administration to design telephone numbering plans that accommodated the local requirements and growth. As a result, the Bell System as a developed into an unorganized system of many differing local numbering systems. The diversity impeded the efficient operation and interconnection of exchanges into a system for long-distance telephone communication. The new numbering plan was accepted in October 1947, dividing most of North America into 86 Numbering Plan Areas. Each NPA was assigned a Numbering Plan Area code, often abbreviated as area code and these codes were first used by long-distance operators to establish long-distance calls between toll offices. The first customer-dialed direct call using area codes was made on November 10,1951, from Englewood, New Jersey, to Alameda, California. Direct distance dialing was introduced across the country and by the early 1960s most areas of the Bell System had been converted and it was commonplace in cities. In the following decades, the system expanded to all of the United States and its territories, Canada, Bermuda. By 1967,129 area codes had been assigned, mexican participation was planned, but implementation stopped after two area codes had been assigned and Mexico opted for an international numbering format, using country code 52
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Area code 907
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Area code 907 covers the state of Alaska, except for the small southeastern community of Hyder, which uses area code 250 and area code 236 of neighboring Stewart, British Columbia. The Alaska numbering plan area was assigned the area code 907, the Alaska numbering plan area is geographically the largest of any in the United States, and is only second to Canadas area code 867. Because the Aleutian Islands of Alaska cross longitude 180, the Anti-Meridian,907 may be considered to be both the farthest west and the farthest east of all area codes in the NANP. Due to Alaskas low population,907 is one of only 12 remaining area codes serving an entire state and it is not projected to be exhausted until 2029. Many calls within Alaska are long-distance calls and must be dialed with the leading 1-907, local calls and cellphone calls for long-distance service within Alaska, only require seven-digit dialing. At the time of its creation, area code 907 was one of the two longest area codes to dial on a phone, taking 26 pulses to dial out in an era before the first touch tone phones. This is the number of pulses as Hawaiis area code 808. List of NANP area codes NANPA Area Code Map of Alaska List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload. com,907 Area Code
18.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
19.
Kachemak
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Kachemak, locally known as Kachemak City, is a small city in the southern portion of the Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska, United States. The city consists of several subdivisions and other properties along an approximately 2-mile stretch of East End Road. The population was 431 at the 2000 census and 472 as of the 2010 census, Kachemak is located at 59°40′24″N 151°25′59″W. The city lies just east of Homer on the side of Kachemak Bay in south central Alaska. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 1.6 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 431 people,169 households, the population density was 268.0 people per square mile. There were 219 housing units at a density of 136.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 87. 47% White,5. 80% Native American,0. 93% Asian,0. 23% from other races,1. 62% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 24. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.06. In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 23. 9% under the age of 18,8. 1% from 18 to 24,21. 6% from 25 to 44,33. 9% from 45 to 64, the median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 113.4 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was $43,068, males had a median income of $31,667 versus $26,908 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,030, about 1. 8% of families and 5. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 6. 9% of those age 65 or over. Note that in the 2010 Census Kachemak city FIPS Place Code should be 36540, it is incorrectly shown as 36550
20.
Dena'ina
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The Denaina or formerly Tanaina are an Alaska Native Athabaskan people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group. The Dena’ina homeland is more than 41,000 square miles in area and they arrived in the Southcentral Alaska sometime between 1,000 and 1,500 years ago. They were the only Alaskan Athabaskan group to live on the coast, Denaina culture is an hunter-gatherer culture and have a matrilineal system. The Iditarod Trails antecedents were the trails of the Denaina and Deg Hitan Athabaskan Indians. Their neighbors are other Athabaskan-speaking and Yupik Eskimo peoples, Deg Hitan, Upper Kuskokwim, Koyukon, Lower Tanana, Ahtna, Chugach Sugpiaq, Koniag Alutiiq, the name means The people, and is related to the autonym for the Southern Athabaskan Navajo people Diné. The Denaina name for Cook Inlet is Tikahtnu meaning Big Water River or Nuti meaning Saltwater, the Denaina are the only Northern Athabascan group to live on saltwater and this allowed them to have the most sedentary lifestyle of all Northern Athabascans. Their traditional language, Denaina, currently has about 70-75 fluent speakers out of a population of about 1,400. Denaina is one of eleven Alaska Athabascan languages, there are four primary dialects of Denaina, Inland, Iliamna, Upper Inlet, and Outer Inlet. The city of Anchorage chose to honor the Dena’ina by naming the new convention center the Denaina Civic
21.
Athabaskan
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Athabaskan or Athabascan is a large family of indigenous languages of North America, located in western North America in three groups of contiguous languages, Northern, Pacific Coast and Southern. Kari and Potter 2010,10 place the territory of the 53 Athabaskan languages at 1,563,000 mi2 or 4,022,000 km2. Chipewyan is spoken over the largest area of any North American native language and they are applying these terms to the entire language family. For example, following a motion by attendees in 2012, the annual Athabaskan Languages Conference changed its name to the Dené Languages Conference, the word Athabaskan is an anglicized version of a Cree language name for Lake Athabasca in Canada. Cree is one of the Algonquian languages, the name was assigned by Albert Gallatin in his 1836 classification of the languages of North America. The four spellings—“Athabaskan”, “Athabascan”, “Athapaskan”, and “Athapascan”—are in approximately equal use, particular communities may prefer one spelling over another. For example, the Tanana Chiefs Conference and Alaska Native Language Center prefer the spelling “Athabascan”, Ethnologue uses “Athapaskan” in naming the language family and individual languages. Several Athabaskan languages are languages in the Northwest Territories, including Chipewyan, Dogrib or Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì, Gwich’in. The seven or more Pacific Coast Athabaskan languages are spoken in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, the seven Southern Athabaskan languages are isolated by considerable distance from both the Pacific Coast languages and the Northern languages. Reflecting an ancient migration of peoples, they are spoken by Native Americans in the American Southwest and this group comprises the six Southern Athabaskan languages and Navajo. As a crude approximation, the differences between Athabaskan languages may be compared to differences between Indo-European languages, thus, Koyukon and Dena’ina are about as different as French and Spanish, while Koyukon and Gwich’in are as different as English and Italian. The following list gives the Athabaskan languages organized by their location in various North American states and provinces. Speakers of several languages, such as Navajo and Gwich’in, span the boundaries between different states and provinces and these languages are repeated by location in this list. For alternative names for the languages, see the classifications given later in this article, Tlingit is distantly related to the Athabaskan–Eyak group to form the Na-Dene family, also known as Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit. With Jeff Leers 2010 advances, the reconstructions of Na-Dene consonants, because both Tlingit and Eyak are fairly remote from the Athabaskan languages in terms of their sound systems, comparison is usually done between them and the reconstructed Proto-Athabaskan language. This resembles both Tlingit and Eyak much more than most of the languages in the Athabaskan family. Although Ethnologue still gives the Athabaskan family as a relative of Haida in their definition of the Na-Dene family, the Alaska Native Language Center, for example, takes the position that recent improved data on Haida have served to conclusively disprove the Haida-inclusion hypothesis. Haida has been determined to be unrelated to Athabaskan languages, a symposium in Alaska in February 2008 included papers on the Yeniseian and Na-Dené families
22.
Fort Nikolaevskaia
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Fort Nikolaevskaia was a fur trading post founded by the Lebedev-Lastochkin Company in Alaska, the first European settlement on the Alaskan mainland. It is located on the site of modern Kenai and it was one of several posts maintained by the company on Cook Inlet. With the creation of a monopoly in Russian America around the Russian-American Company in 1799, a LLC galiot under the command of Pytor Zaikov, the Sv. Pavel, sailed to Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island in 1786, the trade post was then center of Shelikhov-Golikov Company operations, a competing Russian fur company. The crew wintered at the station despite orders given to NEC managers by Grigory Shelikhov to remove, by force if necessary, Zaikov conferred with Evstratii Delarov about locating a suitable area to establish a trade post. Delarov recommended that the LLC employees make their station on Cook Inlet, pavel entered Cook Inlet on 1 June 1787 and sailed 15 miles past the NEC Fort Alexander to the entrance of the Kenai River where Fort Nikolaevskaia was established. Above the stockade a crude carving of the imperial arms was posted. The sea otters of the inlet were quickly hunted close to extermination by the rival Russian companies, SGC employees began sending recommendations to Aleksandr Baranov to close the SGC trade posts he managed. While leading the Vancouver Expedition, George Vancouver sailed to Fort Nikolaevskaia on 10 May 1794, the British captain recorded there were about 25 buildings within the stockade. Besides the residency of the officer, there 23 dwellings of different dimensions all huddled together without any kind of regularity. Inhabited by primarily Denaina laborers or relatives, all of whom but the commander reside in this house Fort Nikoleavskaia quickly became the center of LLC trapping operations on Cook Inlet. After overseeing activities for two years, Zaikov and a crew set sail for Okhotsk on 15 July 1789, the furs carried by the Sv. Pavel were valued at over ₽100,000, Fort Nikolaevskaia then had a staff of 38 Russians, Denainas and Itelmens, with Pytor Kolomin overseeing operations. Provisions dwindled as the staff waited two years for a ship to arrive. Coastal Alaskan Natives in general were outstanding hunters of marine mammals, while waiting for supplies, relations with neighboring Denaina soured with skirmishes and raids killing seven LLC employees. Reinforcements and provisions arrived on the Sv, georgii in August 1791, commanded by Grigorii Konovlov. Konovlov and his 63 LLC employees some forced Kolomin and his complement from the company post, acting as an unprincipled bully who robbed his rival, plundered and outraged the natives, and, eventually, threatened the trading-posts and shipyard of the Shelikof Company. Konovlov created a plethora of disputes in the area, during the winter of 1791 attacks by the Denaina heightened on Nikoleavskaia and other Russian posts on Cook Inlet, due to the destruction of traditional food sources utilised by Denaina
23.
Alaska Purchase
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The Alaska Purchase was the United States acquisition of Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, by a treaty ratified by the United States Senate, and signed by president Andrew Johnson. Russia wanted to sell its Alaskan territory, fearing that it might be seized if war broke out with the United Kingdom, Russias primary activities in the territory had been fur trade and missionary work among the Native Alaskans. The land added 586,412 square miles of new territory to the United States, the purchase threatened British control of its Pacific coast colony, giving added impetus to Canadian Confederation, which was realized just three months later, in July 1867. The Dominion of Canada would welcome British Columbia to confederation in 1871, ending US hopes of annexation and an uninterrupted connection of Alaska to the United States. Russia was in a financial position and feared losing Russian America without compensation in some future conflict, especially to the British. The Russians decided that in any war with Britain, their hard-to-defend colony might become a prime target. Therefore, the Russian emperor, Alexander II, decided to sell the territory, perhaps in the hope of starting a bidding war, both the British and the Americans were approached. However, the British expressed little interest in buying Alaska, in 1859 the Russians offered to sell the territory to the United States, hoping that its presence in the region would offset the plans of Russias greatest regional rival, Great Britain. However, no deal was reached, as the risk of an American Civil War was a pressing concern in Washington. Grand Duke Konstantin, a brother of the Tsar, began to press for the handover of Russian America to the United States in 1857. This proposal was a topic in the echelons of the Russian government throughout 1857 and 1858. Konstantins letter was shown to his brother, Tsar Alexander II, supporters of Konstantins proposal to immediately withdraw from North America included Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin and the Russian minister to the United States, Eduard de Stoeckl. Gorchakov agreed with the necessity of abandoning Russian America, but argued for a process leading to its sale. He found a supporter in the minister and former chief manager of the Russian-American Company. Wrangel pressed for some proceeds to be invested in the development of Kamchatka. The Emperor eventually sided with Gorchakov, deciding to postpone negotiations until the end of the RACs patent, over the winter of 1859–1860 de Stoeckl held meetings with American officials, though he had been instructed not to initiate discussions about the sale of the RAC assets. Communicating primarily with Assistant Secretary of State John Appleton and Senator William M. Gwin, while President James Buchanan kept these hearings informal, preparations were made for further negotiations. Senator Gwin tendered an offer of five million dollars for the Russian colony
24.
Klondike Gold Rush
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The Klondike Gold Rush was a migration by an estimated 100,000 prospectors to the Klondike region of the Yukon in north-western Canada between 1896 and 1899. Gold was discovered there by miners on August 16,1896 and. Some became wealthy, but the majority went in vain and it has been immortalized in photographs, books, films, and artifacts. To reach the fields most took the route through the ports of Dyea. Here, the Klondikers could follow either the Chilkoot or the White Pass trails to the Yukon River, each of them was required to bring a years supply of food by the Canadian authorities in order to prevent starvation. In all, their equipment weighed close to a ton, which for most had to be carried in stages by themselves, together with mountainous terrain and cold climate this meant that those who persisted did not arrive until summer 1898. Once there, they found few opportunities and many left disappointed, mining was challenging as the ore was distributed in an uneven manner and digging was made slow by permafrost. As a result, some chose to buy and sell claims, building up huge investments. To accommodate the prospectors, boom towns sprang up along the routes and at their end Dawson City was founded at the confluence of the Klondike, from a population of 500 in 1896, the town grew to house around 30,000 people by summer 1898. Built of wood, isolated and unsanitary, Dawson suffered from fires, high prices, despite this, the wealthiest prospectors spent extravagantly gambling and drinking in the saloons. The Native Hän people, on the hand, suffered from the rush, being moved into a reserve to make way for the stampeders. From 1898, the newspapers that had encouraged so many to travel to the Klondike lost interest in it. In the summer of 1899, gold was discovered around Nome in west Alaska, the boom towns declined and the population of Dawson City fell. Gold mining activity lasted until 1903 when production peaked after heavier equipment was brought in, since then the Klondike has been mined on and off, and today the legacy draws tourists to the region and contributes to its prosperity. The indigenous peoples in north-west America had traded in copper prior to European expansion. Most of the tribes were aware that gold existed in region, in the second half of the 19th century, American prospectors began to spread into the area. Making deals with the Native Tlingit and Tagish tribes, the early prospectors opened the important routes of Chilkoot and White Pass, here, they encountered the Hän people, semi-nomadic hunters and fishermen who lived along the Yukon and Klondike Rivers. The Hän did not appear to know about the extent of the deposits in the region
25.
Nome, Alaska
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Nome is a city in the Nome Census Area in the Unorganized Borough of the U. S. state of Alaska. The city is located on the southern Seward Peninsula coast on Norton Sound of the Bering Sea, according to the 2010 Census, the city population was 3,598. The 2014 population estimate was 3,788, suggesting a slight increase, Nome was incorporated on April 9,1901, and was once the most populous city in Alaska. Nome lies within the region of the Bering Straits Native Corporation, the city of Nome claims to be home to the worlds largest gold pan, although this claim has been disputed by the Canadian city of Quesnel, British Columbia. In the winter of 1925, a diphtheria epidemic raged among Alaska Natives in the Nome area, fierce territory-wide blizzard conditions prevented delivery of a life-saving serum by airplane from Anchorage. A relay of dog sled teams was organized to deliver the serum, the origin of the citys name Nome is debated, there are three theories. The first is that the name was given by Nomes founder, Jafet Lindeberg, within trekking distance of his home in Kvænangen, Norway. Name next to the unnamed cape, the mapmaker misread the annotation as C. Nome, or Cape Nome, and used that name on his own chart, the third proposed origin of the name is from a misunderstanding of the local Inupiaq word for Where at. The United States Post Office in Nome refused to accept the change, fearing a move of the post office to Nome City, a mining camp on the Nome River, the merchants unhappily agreed to change the name of Anvil City back to Nome. Nome is located at 64°30′14″N 165°23′58″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 21.6 square miles, of which 12.5 square miles is land and 9.1 square miles is water. Nome has a climate, with long, very cold winters. However, conditions in winter and summer are moderated by the citys coastal location, winters are less severe than in the Interior. For example, Fairbanks at a similar parallel quite far inland has much greater temperature swings with both very warm and cold temperatures throughout the year, the coldest month is January, averaging 5. Average highs stay below freezing from late October until late April, and the average first and last dates of freezing lows are August 30 and June 9, respectively, a freeze-free period of 81 days. The warmest month is July, with an average of 52.2 °F, Snow averages 76 inches per season, with the average first and last dates of measurable snowfall being October 4 and May 16, accumulating snow has not been officially observed in July or August. Precipitation is greatest in the months, and averages 16.8 inches per year. The annual average temperature is 27.35 °F, extreme temperatures range from −54 °F on January 27–28,1989 up to 86 °F on June 19,2013 and July 31,1977
26.
Fairbanks, Alaska
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Fairbanks /ˈfɛrbæŋks/ is a home rule city and the borough seat of the Fairbanks North Star Borough in the U. S. state of Alaska. Fairbanks is the largest city in the Interior region of Alaska,2014 estimates put the population of the city proper at 32,469, and the population of the Fairbanks North Star Borough at 99,357, making it the second most populous metropolitan area in Alaska. Fairbanks is home to the University of Alaska Fairbanks, the campus of the University of Alaska system. Captain E. T. Barnette founded Fairbanks in August 1901 while headed to Tanacross, the steamboat on which Barnette was a passenger, the Lavelle Young, ran aground while attempting to negotiate shallow water. Barnette, along with his party and supplies, were deposited along the banks of the Chena River 7 miles upstream from its confluence with the Tanana River, the two met Barnette where he disembarked and convinced him of the potential of the area. Barnette set up his trading post at the site, still intending to make it to Tanacross. Teams of gold prospectors soon congregated in and around the newly founded Fairbanks, they built drift mines, dredges, agricultural activity still occurs today in the Tanana Valley, but mostly to the southeast of Fairbanks in the communities of Salcha and Delta Junction. During the early days of Fairbanks, its vicinity was a producer of agricultural goods. What is now the northern reaches of South Fairbanks was originally the farm of Paul J. Rickert, Farmers Loop Road and Badger Road, loop roads north and east of Fairbanks, were also home to major farming activity. Badger Road is named for Harry Markley Badger, a resident of Fairbanks who later established a farm along the road. Ballaine and McGrath Roads, side roads of Farmers Loop Road, were named for prominent local farmers. The Haines - Fairbanks 626 mile long 8 petroleum products pipeline was constructed during the period 1953-55, the presence of the U. S. military has remained strong in Fairbanks. Ladd became Fort Wainwright in 1960, the post was annexed into Fairbanks city limits during the 1980s, Fairbanks suffered from numerous floods in its first six decades, whether from ice jams during spring breakup or due to heavy rainfall. On August 14,1967, after record rainfall upstream, the Chena began to surge over its banks, flooding almost the entire town of Fairbanks overnight. The project was designed to prevent a repetition of the 1967 flood by being able to water in the Chena upstream from Fairbanks into the Tanana River. Fairbanks is located in the central Tanana Valley, straddling the Chena River near its confluence with the Tanana River, immediately north of the city is a chain of hills that rises gradually until it reaches the White Mountains and the Yukon River. The southern border of the city is the Tanana River, South of the river is the Tanana Flats, an area of marsh and bog that stretches for more than 100 miles until it rises into the Alaska Range, which is visible from Fairbanks on clear days. To the east and west are low valleys separated by ridges of hills up to 3,000 feet above sea level, the Tanana Valley is crossed by many low streams and rivers that flow into the Tanana River
27.
Holy Assumption of the Virgin Mary Church
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Holy Assumption Orthodox Church, also known as Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, is a Russian Orthodox parish church in Kenai, Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska, United States. Completed in 1896, it is one of the oldest-standing Russian Orthodox churches in Alaska and was a center for the assimilation of the local Native population. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1970, Alaska became a diocese in the Russian Orthodox Church in 1840, and the Churchs popularity in the Kenai Peninsula region grew, particularly among the Kenaitze, the native people of the peninsula. Bishop Innocent created six parishes in Alaska, including one for the Kenai region, the first chapel was built that same year by the Russian-American Company near the village of Kenai within Fort St. Nicholas. The first priest to serve the parish, Igumen Nikolai Militov, arrived in 1844, Igumen Nikolai oversaw the construction of a church in 1849 on a different portion of the lot. He opened a school in the early 1860s, and Russian became the language in both education and commerce. The church served as a method of assimilating the natives to the Russian culture. In addition to religious and educational purposes, the served as an administrative. Built from 1895 to 1896, the church was the second Orthodox church at the site, the church was built from logs in the Pskov style, that is in the shape of a ship. The bell tower was completed later in 1900, the interior contains an elaborate iconostasis. The Chapel of St. Nicholas was built in 1906 and it rests over the graves of Igumen Nikolai, his assistant and reader Makari Ivanov, and an unrecorded monk. The chapel sits on the site of the chapel, across the street from the church, on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Kenai River. The rectory was built in 1881 and is considered the oldest building in the Peninsula, the church site, including the rectory, cemetery, and chapel, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1970. Today the church is a member of the Orthodox Church in America Diocese of Alaska and it is the oldest standing Orthodox church in Alaska. Early on, the parish was served by priests who emigrated from Russia, from 1860, Nikolai Militov and Makary Ivanov, in whose honor the Chapel of St. Nicholas was built, traveled the region and vaccinated thousands of Denaina from smallpox. Visiting priests would conduct Easter and other various services, aK-39-A, Holy Assumption Russian Orthodox Church, Church HABS No. AK-39-B, Holy Assumption Russian Orthodox Church, Chapel of St. Nicholas HABS No, aK-39-C, Holy Assumption Russian Orthodox Church, Rectory Holy Assumption Orthodox Church at National Historic Landmarks Holy Assumption Orthodox Church at National Park Service
28.
Kenai Municipal Airport
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Kenai Municipal Airport is a city owned, public use airport located in Kenai, a city in the Kenai Peninsula Borough of the U. S. state of Alaska. As per Federal Aviation Administration records, the airport had 96,565 passenger boardings in calendar year 2008,82,277 enplanements in 2009 and it is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a primary commercial service airport. Kenai Municipal Airport covers an area of 1,200 acres at an elevation of 99 feet above sea level. It has two runways, 1L/19R with a 7,830 by 150 feet asphalt pavement and 1R/19L with a 2,000 by 60 feet gravel surface and it also has a seaplane landing area designated 1W/19W which measures 4,600 by 252 feet. In addition, the airport has two asphalt helipads that are 100 by 100 feet. For the 12-month period ending December 1,2011, the airport had 40,178 aircraft operations, an average of 110 per day, 58% air taxi, 32% general aviation, 8% military, and 3% scheduled commercial. At that time there were 61 aircraft based at airport,88. 5% single-engine and 11. 5% multi-engine
29.
Homestead Acts
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The Homestead Acts were several United States federal laws that gave an applicant ownership of land, typically called a homestead, at little or no cost. The first of the acts, the Homestead Act of 1862, any adult who had never taken up arms against the U. S. government could apply. Women and immigrants who had applied for citizenship were eligible, the 1866 Act explicitly included and encouraged blacks to participate. Several additional laws were enacted in the half of the 19th. The Southern Homestead Act of 1866 sought to land ownership inequalities in the south during Reconstruction. The Timber Culture Act of 1873 granted land to a claimant who was required to plant trees—the tract could be added to a homestead claim and had no residency requirement. The Kinkaid Amendment of 1904 granted a section to new homesteaders settling in western Nebraska. An amendment to the Homestead Act of 1862, the Enlarged Homestead Act, was passed in 1909, another amended act, the national Stock-Raising Homestead Act, was passed in 1916 and again increased the land involved, this time to 640 acres. The Homestead Act of 1860 did pass in Congress, but it was vetoed by President James Buchanan, after the Southern states seceded from the Union in 1861, the bill passed and was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln. Daniel Freeman became the first person to file a claim under the new act, between 1862 and 1934, the federal government granted 1.6 million homesteads and distributed 270,000,000 acres of federal land for private ownership. This was a total of 10% of all land in the United States, Homesteading was discontinued in 1976, except in Alaska, where it continued until 1986. About 40% of the applicants who started the process were able to complete it, the Donation Land Claim Act allowed settlers to claim land in the Oregon Territory, then including the modern states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho and parts of Wyoming. Settlers were able to claim 320 or 640 acres of land for free between 1850 and 1854, and then at a cost of $1.25 per acres until the law expired in 1855. Southern Democrats had continually fought previous homestead law proposals, as they feared free land would attract European immigrants, after the South seceded and their delegates left Congress in 1861, the Republicans and other supporters from the upper South passed a homestead act. The intent of the first Homestead Act, passed in 1862, was to liberalize the homesteading requirements of the Preemption Act of 1841 and its leading advocates were Andrew Johnson, George Henry Evans and Horace Greeley. The homestead was an area of land in the West granted to any US citizen willing to settle on. The law required a three-step procedure, file an application, improve the land, and file for deed of title. Any citizen who had never taken up arms against the U. S. government and was at least 21 years old or the head of a household, could file an application to claim a land grant
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Anchorage, Alaska
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Anchorage is a unified home rule municipality in the U. S. state of Alaska. All together, the Anchorage metropolitan area, which combines Anchorage with the neighboring Matanuska-Susitna Borough, had a population of 401,635 in 2016. Anchorage is located in the portion of Alaska at the terminus of the Cook Inlet on a peninsula formed by the Knik Arm to the north. The city limits span 1,961.1 square miles encompass the urban core. Due to its location on the globe, being almost equidistant from New York City, Tokyo, Anchorage has been named an All-America City four times, in 1956,1965, 1984–85, and 2002, by the National Civic League. It has also named by Kiplinger as the most tax-friendly city in the United States. Russian presence in south central Alaska was well established in the 19th century, in 1867, U. S. Secretary of State William H. Seward brokered a deal to purchase Alaska from Imperial Russia for $7.2 million. His political rivals lampooned the deal as Sewards folly, Sewards icebox, by 1888, gold was discovered along Turnagain Arm. Alaska became a United States territory in 1912, Anchorage, unlike every other large town in Alaska south of the Brooks Range, was neither a fishing nor mining camp. The area surrounding Anchorage lacks significant economic metal minerals, a number of Denaina settlements existed along Knik Arm for years. By 1911 the families of J. D. Bud Whitney, jack Brown, and his bride, Nellie, in 1912 to have lived in the Ship Creek valley in the 1910s prior to the large influx of settlers. The city grew from its choice as the site, in 1914, under the direction of Frederick Mears. The area near the mouth of Ship Creek, where the headquarters was located. A town site was mapped out on higher ground to the south of the tent city, greatly noted in the years since for its order and rigidity compared with other Alaska town sites. In 1915, territorial governor John Franklin Alexander Strong encouraged residents to change the name to one that had more significance. In the summer of year, residents held a vote to change the citys name. However, the government ultimately declined to change the citys name. Anchorage was incorporated on November 23,1920, construction of the Alaska Railroad continued until its completion in 1923
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Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act
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The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 18,1971, constituting at the time the largest land claims settlement in United States history. ANCSA was intended to resolve long-standing issues surrounding aboriginal land claims in Alaska, the settlement established Alaska Native claims to the land by transferring titles to twelve Alaska Native regional corporations and over 200 local village corporations. A thirteenth regional corporation was created for Alaska Natives who no longer resided in Alaska. The act is codified as 43 U. S. C.1601 et seq, when Alaska became a state in 1959, section 4 of the Alaska Statehood Act provided that any existing Alaska Native land claims would be unaffected by statehood and held in status quo. Yet while section 4 of the act preserved Native land claims until later settlement, section 6 granted the state of Alaska the right to select lands then in the hands of the federal government, with the exception of Native territory. As a result, nearly 104.5 million acres from the domain would eventually be transferred to the state. The federal Bureau of Land Management began to process the Alaska governments selections without taking account the Native claims. It was against this backdrop that the language for a land claims settlement was developed. A9. 2-magnitude earthquake struck the state in 1964, recovery efforts drew the attention of the federal government, which found that Alaska Natives had the poorest living conditions in the country. The Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska decided that Natives should receive $100 million, nothing was done with this proposal, however, and a freeze on land transfers remained in effect. In 1968, Governor Walter Hickel summoned a group of Native leaders to work out a settlement that would be satisfactory to Natives, the group met for ten days and asked for $20 million in exchange for requested lands. They also asked for 10% of federal mineral lease revenue, in 1969 President Nixon appointed Hickel as Secretary of the Interior. The Alaska Federation of Natives protested against Hickel’s nomination, but he was eventually confirmed, Hickel worked with the AFN, negotiating with Native leaders and state government over the disputed lands. Offers went back and forth, with rejecting the other’s proposals. The AFN wanted rights to land, while then Governor Keith Miller believed Natives did not have claims to state land in light of the provisions of the Alaska Statehood Act. But a succeeding Alaska state administration under Governor William A. Egan would stake out positions upon which the AFN and other stakeholders could largely agree. Native leaders, in addition to the Alaskas congressional delegation and the newly elected Governor William A. Egan. The proposed settlement terms faced challenges in both houses but found an ally in Senator Henry M. Jackson from Washington state
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Swanson River
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The Swanson River is a stream,40 miles long, on the Kenai Peninsula of south-central Alaska in the United States. Beginning at Gene Lake in the Swanson Lakes district, it flows southwest then north to Number Three Bay on the Gompertz Channel of Cook Inlet, the rivers entire course lies within the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge. In its lower reaches, it passes through the Swanson River Oil Field east of Nikiski before turning sharply north, near its mouth, it flows through Captain Cook State Recreation Area and under North Kenai Road to enter Cook Inlet. Swanson River and the lakes around it are popular places for trips in light canoes. Two canoe trails involve lakes and streams rated Class I on the International Scale of River Difficulty, the Swan Lake Route of 60 miles includes 30 lakes with portages of up to 0.5 miles. The Swanson River Route,46 miles long, crosses 40 lakes and requires portages of up to a mile, the portages, which may cross swampy ground, vary from easy to difficult. In addition to boggy terrain, hazards include wind-driven waves, mosquitoes, and it is possible to float the Swanson River itself from the outlet at Gene Lake to the North Kenai Road bridge. A shorter float goes 19 miles by river from Gene Lake to Swanson River Landing near Swan Lake Road, the Swanson system of lakes and streams supports large populations of game fish. S
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All-America City Award
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The All-America City Award is given by the National Civic League annually to ten communities in the United States. It recognizes those whose citizens work together to identify and tackle community-wide challenges, winners can be neighborhoods, towns, villages, cities, counties, or regions. The All-America Award is the oldest community recognition program in the nation, since the programs inception in 1949, more than 600 communities have been named All-America Cities. Each year, interested communities submit a comprehensive package based on published criteria that are evaluated in the selection process. Deserving communities are named as finalists, and the years ten award winners are named from that pool of applicants, communities winning this award more than two times are listed below. These communities make up the All-America City Hall of Fame, the following cities have received the All-America City Award from the National Civic League
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Clean Water Act
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The Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution. It is one of the United States first and most influential environmental laws. As with many other major U. S. federal environmental statutes, it is administered by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C. F. R. Subchapters D, N, and O. Technically, the name of the law is the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. The first FWPCA was enacted in 1948, but took on its form when completely rewritten in 1972 in an act entitled the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. Major changes have subsequently been introduced via amendatory legislation including the Clean Water Act of 1977, the Clean Water Act does not directly address groundwater contamination. Groundwater protection provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, all waters with a significant nexus to navigable waters are covered under the CWA, however, the phrase significant nexus remains open to judicial interpretation and considerable controversy. The 1972 statute frequently uses the term navigable waters, but also defines the term as waters of the United States, including the territorial seas. Some regulations interpreting the 1972 law have included features such as intermittent streams, playa lakes, prairie potholes, sloughs. The 1972 act introduced the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, which is a system for regulating point sources of pollution. Municipal governments and other government facilities, and some agricultural facilities, point sources may not discharge pollutants to surface waters without a permit from the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. This system is managed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in partnership with state environmental agencies, EPA has authorized 46 states to issue permits directly to the discharging facilities. The CWA also allows tribes to issue permits, but no tribes have been authorized by EPA, in the remaining states and territories, the permits are issued by an EPA regional office. In previous legislation, Congress had authorized states to develop quality standards. However, these standards were only to be developed for interstate waters, and this system was not effective and there was no permit system in place to enforce the requirements. In the 1972 CWA Congress added the permit system and a requirement for technology-based effluent limitations, the 1972 CWA created a new requirement for technology-based standards for point source discharges. EPA develops these standards for categories of dischargers, based on the performance of pollution control technologies without regard to the conditions of a receiving water body. The intent of Congress was to create a playing field by establishing a basic national discharge standard for all facilities within a category
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Water pollution
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Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies. This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds, Water pollution affects the entire biosphere – plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and population, Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels. It has been suggested that pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases. An estimated 580 people in India die of water related illness every day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted, as of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the problems of water pollution in developing countries. The head of Chinas national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of Chinas seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause changes in water quality. Although interrelated, surface water and groundwater have often studied and managed as separate resources. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater, conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two based on their origin. Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U. S. Clean Water Act defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes, the CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites. Nonpoint source pollution refers to contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area, a common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoff in storm water from sheet flow over a field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, however, because this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, it becomes a point source
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Kenai Peninsula
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The Kenai Peninsula is a large peninsula jutting from the southern coast of Alaska. The name Kenai is derived from the word Kenaitze, the name of the Native Alaskan tribe that inhabited the area. The peninsula extends approximately 150 miles southwest from the Chugach Mountains and it is separated from the mainland on the west by Cook Inlet and on the east by Prince William Sound. Most of the peninsula is part of the Kenai Peninsula Borough, gerasim Izmailov was the first European man to explore and map the peninsula in 1789, though Athabaskan and Alutiiq Native groups have lived on the peninsula for thousands of years. The glacier-covered Kenai Mountains run along the southeast spine of the peninsula along the coast of the Gulf of Alaska, much of the range is within Kenai Fjords National Park. The northwest coast along the Cook Inlet is flatter and marshy, several larger lakes extend through the interior of the peninsula, including Skilak Lake and Tustumena Lake. Rivers include the Kenai River, famous for its population, as well as its tributary, the Russian River, the Kasilof River. Kachemak Bay, an inlet off the larger Cook Inlet, extends into the peninsulas southwest end. The Kenai Peninsula has many glaciers in its eastern and southern areas and it is home to both the Sargent Icefield and Harding Icefields and numerous glaciers that spawn off them. Homer famously marks the terminus of the highway system of North America and is a popular destination for travelers who have driven to Alaska from the lower 48 states. Seward is the terminus of the Alaska Railroad. There are airports with scheduled flights in Kenai and Homer as well as smaller general aviation airports in Soldotna. The Seward Highway connects Seward to Anchorage, and the Sterling Highway is the backbone of Kenai Peninsula connecting the towns to Anchorage. The peninsula has a climate that is relatively mild, with abundant rainfall. It is one of the few areas in Alaska that allows for agriculture, with a growing season adequate for producing hay, the peninsula also has natural gas, petroleum, and coal deposits, as well as abundant commercial and personal-use fisheries. Tourism is an industry, along with outfitting and guiding services for hunters and fishers. The Kenai Peninsula is known as Alaskas Playground
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Kenai River
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The Kenai River called Kahtnu in the Denaina language, is a river in the Kenai Peninsula of south central Alaska. The Kenai River is a river that drains the central Kenai Peninsula region. Its source is the Kenai Lake, near Cooper Landing, the lake narrows to form the river. About 12 miles from the lake, the passes through Kenai Canyon for about 2 miles of fast-flowing whitewater rapids. The Russian River empties into the Kenai several miles west of Cooper Landing,17.3 miles from Kenai Lake, the river enters Skilak Lake. The Kenai Lake to Skilak section is referred to as the Upper River. The 19.5 miles portion from Skilak Lake downstream to the Sterling Highway bridge near Soldotna is known as Mid-River, the final 21 miles from the bridge to the mouth at Cook Inlet is known as the Lower River, where the flow is much gentler. The final 12 miles are greatly influenced by changing tides, the Kenai River is the most popular sport fishing destination in Alaska, particularly for King or Chinook salmon. Each year there are two each of king salmon, silver salmon, red salmon, plus a run of pink salmon every other year. The world record king salmon, which weighed about 44 kg, was caught in the Kenai River in 1985, the Kenai is also the home of trophy size rainbow trout and Dolly Varden. Stretching to sizes over 76.2 cm, occasionally there will be reports of catching of Steelhead. The king salmon fishery is not as prolific as in other Alaskan rivers, a typical king in the second run, beginning in mid-July, weighs 40–85 pounds, with considerably larger specimens not uncommon. The Lower Kenai is well known for its run and sizes of its king salmon, in recent years, the king salmon fishery has been closed or heavily restricted due to low returns of fish. The silver salmon runs occur in early August and early October, the September run is favored by local anglers due to the larger size of the silver salmon. The red salmon runs are in late-June and early-August, reds are considered the premier salmon for eating, canning, and smoking. The pink salmon run occurs in even numbered years only, nevertheless, using super-light tackle, angling for pinks can be a real treat. On a heavy day, even a casual fisher might catch several dozen of the species, along with Kenais fish, the Kenai River area is home to other wildlife, including moose, bears, and multiple species of birds. Adjacent to the management district are fifteen different state parks, list of rivers of Alaska Stock assessment of rainbow trout in the upper Kenai River, Alaska, in 2001 / by Bruce E. King and Jeffery A. Breakfield
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Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
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United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
United States
Alaska
Media related to Kenai, Alaska at Wikimedia Commons
