1.
Khasas
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Khasas are a tribe mentioned in the ancient Indian and Tibetan literature. They lived at the periphery of the Indian subcontinent. They are thought to be connected to the medieval Khasa Malla kingdom, there is a possibility that the word Khas has roots in Central Asia, due to language migration. The word Kazakh was a common term throughout medieval Central Asia, the Mahabharata mentions the Khasas as one of the northern mleccha tribes. The Bhagavata Purana describes them as a previously outcast group who redeemed themselves by adopting Vaishnavism, the Manusmriti describes them as the descendants of outcast Kshatriyas. The 12th century text Rajatarangini describes the rulers of Rajapuri as the lord of the Khasas, the Khasas are also mentioned in several Indian inscriptions dated between 8th and 13th centuries CE. The Khasas are mentioned in the Tibetan chronicle Dpag-bsam-ljon-bzah, along people like the Yavanas, Kambojas, Tukharas, Hunas, Daradas etc. Aurel Stein identified the Khasas mentioned in the Rajatarangini with the modern Khakhas, the modern Khas people of Nepal have also been connected with the ancient Khasas, although their period of migration in Nepal remains ambiguous. In Nepal the Khas people first settled around present day Humla and Jumla, the Khasa kings of Nepal formed the famous Malla Kingdom, which ruled Humla from the eleventh century before collapsing and splintering into local chiefdoms during the fourteenth century. The Khaśas, An Early Indian Tribe, in K. K. Kusuman, A Panorama of Indian Culture, Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume, Mittal Publications, pp. 285–293, ISBN 978-81-7099-214-1
2.
Khas language
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Nepali, originally known as Khas Kura, Parbate Bhasa or Gorkhali, is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the language and de facto lingua franca of Nepal. It is also spoken in parts of India, particularly by Indian Gorkha. In India, Nepali language is listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India having a status in the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepali developed in proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages, most notably the Pahari languages and Magahi, however, owing to Nepals geographical area, it has also been influenced by Tibeto-Burman languages. Nepali is mainly differentiated from Central Pahari, both in grammar and vocabulary, by Tibeto-Burman idioms owing to close contact with the language group. Nepali language shares 40% lexical similarity with the Bengali language, in the nineteenth century, the British resident at Kathmandu Brian Houghton Hodgson observed that it was, in eight-tenths of its vocabulary, substantially Hindi. Historically, the language was first called the Khas language, then Gorkhali or Gurkhali before the term Nepali was adopted, in 1920, during Rana regime in Nepal, the term Nepal which resembled the Nepal Mandala was taken from its people. Soon after that, Nepal Bhasa was renamed into Newari and Parbate/Khas language took over as Nepali language, other names include Parbatiya and Dzongkha Lhotshammikha. It is also known as the Khey language or Partya language among the Newar people and Pahari language among Madhesi, however, due to protests for identity, Newars have restored their languages name as Nepal Bhasa and voices have been raise to re-instate Parbate language in its original name. Nepali developed a significant literature within a period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fueled by Adhyatma Ramayana, Sundarananda Bara, Birsikka, a collection of folk tales. The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal, Laxmi Prasad Devkota, the contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India, is also notable. In the past decade, there have been many contributions to Nepali literature from the Nepali diaspora in Asia, Europe, America, according to the 2011 national census,44.6 percent of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as a first language. The Ethnologue website reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal, Nepali is traditionally spoken in the Hill Region of Nepal, especially in the western part of the country. Although the Newar language dominated the Kathmandu valley, Nepali is currently the most dominant, Nepali is used in government and as the everyday language of a growing portion of the local population. Nevertheless, the use of Nepali in the courts and government of Nepal is being challenged. Recognition of other languages in Nepal was one of the objectives of the Communist Party of Nepals long war
3.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
4.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
5.
Garhwali language
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Garhwali language is a Central Pahari language belonging to the Northern Zone of Indo-Aryan languages. It is primarily spoken by the Garhwali people who are from the north-western Garhwal Division of the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand in the Indian Himalayas, the Central Pahari languages include Garhwali and Kumauni. Garhwali, like Kumauni, has many dialects spoken in different places in Uttarakhand. The script used for Garhwali is Devanagari, Garhwali is also spoken by Garhwali migrants to other parts of India including Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. According to various estimates, there are at least 2.5 million Garhwali migrants living in Delhi, however, due to a number of reasons, Garhwali is one of the languages which is shrinking very rapidly. UNESCOs Atlas of the Worlds Languages in Danger designates Garhwali as a language which is in the unsafe category, almost all people who can speak and understand Garhwali can also speak and understand Hindi, one of the most commonly spoken languages of India. In the middle period of the course of development of Indo-Aryan languages, of these, the Khas Prakrit is believed to be the source of Garhwali. The early form of Garhwali can be traced to the 10th century which is found in numismatics, royal seals, inscriptional writings on copper plates and temple stones containing royal orders, one such early example is the temple grant inscription of King Jagatpal at Dev Prayag. Most of the Garhwali literature is preserved in form, handed down verbally from generation to generation. Till the 17th century, Garhwal was always a sovereign nation under the Garhwali Kings, Garhwal Kingdom acceded to the Union of India as a part of Uttar Pradesh in 1949. Srinagariya – classical Garhwali spoken in erstwhile royal capital, Srinagar, tihriyali /Gangapariya – spoken in Tehri Garhwal. Badhani - spoken in Chamoli Garhwal, dessaulya Lohabbya Majh-Kumaiya - spoken at the border of Garhwal and Kumaon. Nagpuriya - spoken in Rudraprayag district, rathi - spoken in Rath area of Pauri Garhwal. Salani - spoken in Talla Salan, Malla Salan and Ganga Salan parganas of Pauri, ranwalti - spoken in Ranwain, the Yamuna valley of Uttarkashi. Bangani - spoken in Bangaan area of Uttarkashi, parvati – reportedly not mutually intelligible with other dialects. Jaunpuri - spoken in Uttarkashi and Tehri districts, gangadi Chaundkoti चौंदकोटी- spoken in Pauri. Standard Garhwalis & more of its dialects have an accusative case सणि while South Garhwalis dialects have different word ते for accusative case, but in Standard Garhwali or High Garhwali ते is used as oblique case. These are primarily the Munda, Bhil, Naag, Yaksha, the other non-Aryan tribes from the Northwest, such as Kunind, Kirat, Shak, Hun, Gurjar, Pisach, Darad also contributed to its vocabulary and influenced the language
6.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
7.
Kumauni people
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Kumauni or Kumaoni are people from Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, India. In colloquial language, people of Kumaon are also referred to as Pahari though that is not a specific reference, Pahari Rajput/Kumauni people are also in Nepal and North eastern India. Traditional Kumaoni society consisted of three major communities, Shilpkars Brahmins Kshatriya/Rajput Brahmins were the artists and shamanic spiritual people. They were educated and held in high esteem. Shilpkars were the artisans, Pahari Rajputs or Kshatriya were mostly the administrative, military and they held land in lieu of military service. The Katyuri dynasty was a branch of Kuninda origin founded by Vashudev Katyuri, brahmadev mandi in the Kanchanpur District of Nepal was established by Katyuris king Brahma Deo. Brahmadeo Mandi still exists by this name, at its peak, the Katyuri kingdom extended from Nepal in the east to Kabul, Afghanistan, in the west, before fragmenting into numerous principalities by the 12th century. They were displaced by the Chand Kings in the 11th century AD, architectural remains of the Katyur dynasty can be found in Baijnath and Dwarahat. The Rajbar dynasty of Askot in Pithoragarh was set up in 1279 AD by a branch of the Katyuri Kings, headed by Abhay Pal Deo, the dynasty ruled the region until it became part of the British Raj through the treaty of Sighauli in 1816. The Doti Kingdom is another kingdom of the Katyuri dynasty. They were known as Rainka Maharaj, presently, Doti is a part of Nepal, as per the manuscript found direct descendants of Katyuri kings are residing in pali pachau, Askot in Pithoragarh and in different parts of Nepal i. e. Khati, Manral, Rajwar. He continued to call his state Kurmanchal and established its capital in Champawat in Kali Kumaon, many temples built in this former capital city during the 11th and 12th centuries exist today, including the Baleshwar and Nagnath temples. However, they were able to establish their domain there, Baz Bahadur extended his territory east to the Karnali river. In 1672, Baz Bahadur, started a tax. Baz Bahadur also built the Golu Devata Temple, at Ghorakhal, near Bhimtal, named after Lord Golu and he also built famous Bhimeshwara Mahadev Temple at Bhimtal. Gyan chand, the king of Kumaun, ascended the throne in 1698, in 1699 he attacked Garhwal, which was under the king Fateh Shah. He crossed the Ramganga river and plundered Sabli, Khatli, in 1701, Fateh Shah entered in Chaukote, and Gewar Valley as reply. The Kumaonis defeated the Garhwalis in the battle of Duduli, in 1707, the Kumaon forces annexed Juniyagarh in Bichla Chaukot, and razed the old fort at Chandpur. Later, Jagat Chand, defeated the Raja of Garhwal and pushed him away from Srinagar, the Kumaon Regiment, established at Ranikhet in 1813, still gets its recruits from the Kumaonis of the Kumaon division and the Ahir from the plains
8.
Garhwali people
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Garhwali people are an ethno-linguistic group who primarily live in the Garhwal Himalayas of the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand. Any person who has ancestral Garhwali roots or lives in Garhwal and has a Garhwali heritage is called a Garhwali, according to various estimates, there are at least 2.5 million Garhwali migrants living in Delhi and the National Capital Region. The Kingdom of Garhwal was founded by Panwar/Parmar Rajputs nearly 700 years ago at a place called Chandpur Garhi, earlier Garhwal used to have 52 principalities called Garhs. He and his descendants ruled over Garhwal in a line till 1803. For twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the country with a rod of iron, another part taken by British was called British Garhwal and had an area of 5,629 mi2. Garhwal rapidly advanced in material prosperity, two battalions of the Indian army were recruited in the district, which also contained the military cantonment of Lansdowne. Grain and coarse cloth were exported, and salt, borax, livestock and wool were imported, the administrative headquarters were at Pauri, but Srinagar was the largest city. It was an important mart, as was Kotdwara -the terminus of a branch of the Oudh, Garhwal is a holy place of India. The Garhwali language, It is primarily spoken by the Garhwali people who are from the north-western Garhwal Division of the state of Uttarakhand in the Indian Himalayas. Uttarakhandi languages include Garhwali and Kumauni, Garhwali, like Kumauni, has many regional dialects spoken in different places in Uttarakhand. Garhwali is one of the 325 recognised languages of India, spoken by over 2,667,314 people in Tehri Garhwal, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Dehradun, and Rudraprayag districts of Uttarakhand. However, due to a number of reasons, Garhwali is one of the languages which is shrinking very rapidly, uNESCOs Atlas of the Worlds Languages in Danger designates Garhwali as a language which is in the unsafe category and requires consistent conservation efforts. Garhwali was the language of the Kingdom of Garhwal since 8th century. Any person who has ancestral Garhwali roots or lives in Garhwal and has a Garhwali heritage is called a Garhwali and they include all those who speak the Garhwali language or any of its numerous dialects. Garhwali people are divided into two castes- Garhwali Brahmin, & Garhwali Rajput, the later Aryans with their languages helped in adding to the vocabulary & had considerable influence in shaping the Garhwali Language. Garhwal was always a sovereign nation under the Garhwali Kings, the Garhwali language is a Central Pahari language belonging to the Northern Zone of Indo-Aryan languages and is native to Garhwal. Garhwali like other languages changed a lot with the course of time, ancient Garhwali was close to Sanskrit being a dialect of it and which was later influenced by Prakrit and the famous Saursheni apabhrasha of Hindi. Garhwali is also spoken by people in parts of India including Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
9.
Indo-Aryan peoples
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Indo-Aryan peoples are a diverse Indo-European ethnolinguistic group of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages. There are over one billion native speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, most of them native to South Asia and these migrations started approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. 1800–1400 BCE in the steppes around the Aral sea, present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, the proto-Indo-Iranians were influenced by the Bactria-Margiana Culture, south of the Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Levant, horseplay at Harappa - People Fas Harvard - Harvard University A tale of two horses - Frontline
10.
Nepali language
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Nepali, originally known as Khas Kura, Parbate Bhasa or Gorkhali, is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the language and de facto lingua franca of Nepal. It is also spoken in parts of India, particularly by Indian Gorkha. In India, Nepali language is listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India having a status in the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepali developed in proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages, most notably the Pahari languages and Magahi, however, owing to Nepals geographical area, it has also been influenced by Tibeto-Burman languages. Nepali is mainly differentiated from Central Pahari, both in grammar and vocabulary, by Tibeto-Burman idioms owing to close contact with the language group. Nepali language shares 40% lexical similarity with the Bengali language, in the nineteenth century, the British resident at Kathmandu Brian Houghton Hodgson observed that it was, in eight-tenths of its vocabulary, substantially Hindi. Historically, the language was first called the Khas language, then Gorkhali or Gurkhali before the term Nepali was adopted, in 1920, during Rana regime in Nepal, the term Nepal which resembled the Nepal Mandala was taken from its people. Soon after that, Nepal Bhasa was renamed into Newari and Parbate/Khas language took over as Nepali language, other names include Parbatiya and Dzongkha Lhotshammikha. It is also known as the Khey language or Partya language among the Newar people and Pahari language among Madhesi, however, due to protests for identity, Newars have restored their languages name as Nepal Bhasa and voices have been raise to re-instate Parbate language in its original name. Nepali developed a significant literature within a period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fueled by Adhyatma Ramayana, Sundarananda Bara, Birsikka, a collection of folk tales. The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal, Laxmi Prasad Devkota, the contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India, is also notable. In the past decade, there have been many contributions to Nepali literature from the Nepali diaspora in Asia, Europe, America, according to the 2011 national census,44.6 percent of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as a first language. The Ethnologue website reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal, Nepali is traditionally spoken in the Hill Region of Nepal, especially in the western part of the country. Although the Newar language dominated the Kathmandu valley, Nepali is currently the most dominant, Nepali is used in government and as the everyday language of a growing portion of the local population. Nevertheless, the use of Nepali in the courts and government of Nepal is being challenged. Recognition of other languages in Nepal was one of the objectives of the Communist Party of Nepals long war
11.
Ethno-linguistic group
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An ethnolinguistic group is one of the types of group identity that defines membership of an ethnic group. Members are unified by a common language, herodotus enumerated shared language, homoglōsson, as one of the four pillars of ethnic identity. Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity. Language, Identity and Conflict, A Comparative Study of Language in Ethnic Conflict in Europe, Language and ethnolinguistic identity, The bilingualism question. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 1979.20, 23-36, social identity theory, Constructive and critical advances 211,229. Towards a theory of language in group relations. Language, ethnicity and intergroup relations 307348, Language in ethnic interaction, A social psychological approach
12.
Kumaon division
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For Kumaoni people see Kumaoni people Kumaon or Kumaun is one of the two regions and administrative divisions of Uttarakhand, a mountainous state of northern India, the other being Garhwal. It includes the districts of Almora, Bageshwar, Champawat, Nainital, Pithoragarh and it is bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by Nepal, on the south by the state of Uttar Pradesh, and on the west by the Garhwal region. The people of Kumaon are known as Kumaonis and speak the Kumaoni language and it is home to a famous Indian Army regiment, the Kumaon Regiment. Important towns of Kumaon are Haldwani, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh, Rudrapur, Kashipur, Pantnagar, Mukteshwar, Nainital is the administrative centre of Kumaon Division and this is where the Uttarakhand high court is located. Kumaon is believed to have derived from Kurmanchal, meaning land of the Kurmavatar. The region of Kumaon is named after as such, during the time of the British control of the region, between 1815 and 1857. It was also known as Kemaon, the Kumaon region consists of a large Himalayan tract, together with two submontane strips called the Terai and the Bhabar. The rest of Kumaon is a maze of mountains, part of the Himalaya range, in a tract not more than 225 km in length and 65 km in breadth there are over thirty peaks rising to elevations exceeding 5500 m. The principal is the Sharda, the Pindari and Kailganga, whose waters join the Alaknanda, the river Sharda forms the international boundary between India and Nepal. The pilgrim route used to visit Kailash-Mansarovar goes along this river. The chief trees are the Chir Pine, Himalayan Cypress, Pindrow Fir, alder, sal or iron-wood, limestone, sandstone, slate, gneiss and granite constitute the principal geological formations. Mines of iron, copper, gypsum, lead and asbestos exist, except in the submontane strips and deep valleys, the climate is mild. The rainfall of the outer Himalayan range, which is first struck by the monsoon, is double that of the central hills, no winter passes without snow on the higher ridges, and in some years, it is universal throughout the mountain tract. Frosts, especially in the valleys, are often severe, later on, in 1581 AD after the defeat of Raika Hari Mall with the hand of Rudra Chand all these disintegrated parts came under King Rudra Chand and the whole region was as Kumaon. The Katyuri dynasty was of a branch of Kunindas origin and was founded by Vashudev Katyuri, brahmadev mandi in Kanchanpur District of Nepal was established by Katyuri king Brahma Deo. At their peak, the Katyuri kingdom extended from Nepal in the east to Kabul, Afghanistan in the west and they were displaced by the Chand Kings in the 11th century AD. Architectural remains of the Katyur dynastys rule can be found in Baijnath and Dwarahat. The Rajbar dynasty of Askot in Pithoragarh, was set up in 1279 AD, by a branch of the Katyuri Kings, headed by Abhay Pal Deo, the dynasty ruled the region till it became part of the British Raj through the treaty of Sighauli in 1816
13.
Garhwal division
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Garhwal, IPA, /ɡəɽʋːɔɭ/) is the northwestern region and administrative division of the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand which is home to the Garhwali people. Lying in the Himalayas, it is bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by Kumaon region, on the south by Uttar Pradesh state and it includes the districts of Chamoli, Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal, and Uttarkashi. The people of Garhwal are known as Garhwali and speak the Garhwali language, the administrative center for Garhwal division is the town of Pauri. The Divisional Commissioner is the head of the Division, and is a senior Indian Administrative Service officer. Mr. Vinod Sharma, IAS is currently the Divisional Commissioner of the Garhwal Division, Garhwal is the land of many garh’ or forts. This region was made up of small forts which were ruled by chieftains. Therefore, the history of Garhwal before the rule of the ‘Panwar’ rulers is very obscure. Kanak Pal was the first ruler of the state of Garhwal in 823 AD, the Garhwal Himalayas appear to have been a favorite locale for the voluminous mythology of the Puranic period. The traditional name of Garhwal was Uttarakhand, excavations have revealed that it formed part of the Mauryan Empire. The earliest reference regarding Garhwal and its spots are cited in the Skanda Purana. Skanda Purana defines the boundaries and extend of this holy land and it also finds mention in the 7th-century travelogue of Huen Tsang. The history of Garhwal as a whole began in the 15th century. For 300 years, Garhwal remained one kingdom, with its capital at Srinagar, then Pauri and Dehradun were perforce ceded to the Crown as payment for British help, rendered to the Garhwalis during the Gurkha invasion, in the early 19th century. The earliest ruling dynasty of Garhwal known is of the Katyuris, the Katyuri Raja of Uttarakhand was styled Sri Basdeo Giriraj Chakara Churamani. The earliest traditions record that the possessions of Joshimath Katyuris in Garhwal extended from Satluj as far as Gandaki and from the snows to plains, including the whole of Rohilkhand. Tradition gives the origin of their Raj at Joshimath in the north near Badrinath and subsequent migration to Katyur Valley in Almora district, Katyuris ruled Uttarakhand up to the 11th century and in certain pockets even after their decline. In Garhwal their disruption brought into existence 52 independent chiefs, one of the important principalities in that period was that of Parmars, who held their sway over Chandpur Garhi or Fortress. Katyuris ruled Uttarakhand up to the 11th century and in certain pockets even after their decline, kanak Pal was progenitor of this dynasty
14.
Himachal
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Himachal Pradesh is a state of India located in Northern India. It is bordered by Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Punjab and Chandigarh on the west, Haryana on the south-west, Uttarakhand on the south-east and by the Tibet Autonomous Region on the east. The name was coined from Sanskrit him snow and achal mountain, by Acharya Diwakar Datt Sharma, Himachal Pradesh is famous for its natural beauty, hill stations, and temples. Himachal Pradesh has been ranked fifteenth in the list of the highest per capita incomes of Indian states, many perennial rivers flow in the state, and numerous hydroelectric projects set up. Himachal produces surplus hydroelectricity and sells it to states such as Delhi, Punjab. Hydroelectric power projects, tourism, and agriculture form important parts of the states economy, the state has several valleys, and more than 90% of the population living in rural areas. Practically all houses have a toilet and 100% hygiene has been achieved in the state, the villages have good connectivity with roads, public health centres, and now with high-speed broadband. Shimla district has maximum urban population of 25%, according to a 2005 Transparency International survey, Himachal Pradesh was ranked the second-least corrupt state in the country, after Kerala. The history of the area that now constitutes Himachal Pradesh dates to the Indus valley civilisation that flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE, tribes such as the Koili, Hali, Dagi, Dhaugri, Dasa, Khasa, Kinnar, and Kirat inhabited the region from the prehistoric era. During the Vedic period, several small republics known as Janapada existed which were conquered by the Gupta Empire. After a brief period of supremacy by King Harshavardhana, the region was divided into several local powers headed by chieftains and these kingdoms enjoyed a large degree of independence and were invaded by Delhi Sultanate a number of times. Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 10th century, timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state and captured a number of forts and fought many battles. Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid tribute to the Mughals. The Gurkha people, a tribe, came to power in Nepal in the year 1768. They consolidated their power and began to expand their territory. Gradually, the Gorkhas annexed Sirmour and Shimla, under the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, the Gurkha laid siege to Kangra. They managed to defeat Sansar Chand Katoch, the ruler of Kangra, however, the Gurkha could not capture Kangra fort which came under Maharaja Ranjeet Singh in 1809. After the defeat, the Gurkha began to expand towards the south of the state, however, Raja Ram Singh, Raja of Siba State, captured the fort of Siba from the remnants of Lahore Darbar in Samvat 1846, during the First Anglo-Sikh War
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North India
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North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the Indus-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayas, other states sometimes included are Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Gujarat and West Bengal. North India has been the centre of the Mughal, Delhi Sultanate. The languages that have official status in one or more of the states and union territories located in North India are Hindi, Sanskrit, Urdu, Punjabi, Kashmiri/Koshur, Dogri, different authorities and sources define North India differently. Rajasthan is also included in North Central Culture Zone as well as West Cultural Zone, the Northern Zonal Council is one of the advisory councils, created in 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act to foster inter-state cooperation. It differs from the North Cultural Zone in its inclusion of Delhi, in contrast, the Geological Survey of India included Uttar Pradesh and Delhi in its Northern Region, but excluded Rajasthan and Chandigarh, with a regional headquarters in Lucknow. The Hindu newspaper puts Bihar as well as Uttar Pradesh and Delhi related articles on its North pages, however according to the Government of Bihar official page as well as Indian Zonal Coucil, it is considered to be an Eastern Indian state instead. North Indian states which are entirely above the Tropic of Cancer are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The term North Indian is sometimes used to people from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, often using the term bhaiya in a derogatory sense. In Punjab, people from the region are often referred to as Purabias. Some publications of the Government of Bihar place that state in the part of India. Within Uttar Pradesh itself, the divide between the east and the west is considerable, with the purabiyas often being clubbed with Biharis in the perception of the westerners. One demarcation between northern and southern nations has been the Vindhya mountain range, in centuries past this sometimes formed a border during periods of imperial expansion, such as the one ruled by the Gupta emperor Samudragupta. The Vindhyas also find mention in the narrative of Rishi Agastya as a dividing feature between North and South India, the Manusmṛti also describes the southern limit of Aryavarta as being defined by the Vindhya range. North India lies mainly on continental India, north of peninsular India, towards its north are the Himalayas which define the boundary between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. To its west is the Thar desert, shared between North India and Pakistan and the Aravalli Range, beyond lies the state of Gujarat. The Vindhya mountains are, in some interpretations, taken to be the boundary of North India. The state of Madhya Pradesh has large areas under forest cover, as do Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, North India lies mainly in the north temperate zone of the Earth
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Chhetri
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Chhetri, synonymous with Kshetri and Khatri are a caste among Nepali speaking peoples, which are a part of Khas people, along with some Brahmins, and Thakuris. According to 1854 Legal Code of Nepal, Chhetris are the group among the sacred thread bearers. Chhetris claim to be of the Kshatriya varna and they make up 16. 6% of Nepals population according to the census of 2011, making them the most populous caste or ethnic community in Nepal. The majority of Chhetris speak Nepali, an Indo-Aryan language as mother tongue Chhetris are primarily Hindu and those Chhetri who follow Hinduism may also follow Buddhism. The ancient religion of the Chhetri is Masto which uses nature worship and can still be seen in western Nepals Karnali district, in Nepals hill districts the Chhetri population rises to 41% compared to 31% Brahmin and 27% other castes. This greatly exceeds the Kshatriya portion in most regions with predominantly Hindu populations and they are thought to be connected to the Khasas mentioned in the ancient Indian literature and the medieval Khasa kingdom. The Chhetris first settled in Sinja Valley of Karnali in Nepal, the ancient name of this Himalayan region was Khas-des. There are several recognized ways to enter the Chhetri caste apart from Jharra Chettri, Having nothing, the child of a Chhetri father and a woman from lower but clean castes is still Chhetri. An arbitrary community can start following Chhetri caste rules, hiring Brahmin to conduct certain rituals, over generations these claims of Chhetri affinity become plausible to broader audiences. In the early history of Nepal, Chhetris played a key role in the unification of the country. During the monarchy, Chhetris continued to dominate the ranks of the Nepalese Army, police, Nepalese government administration and that marginalized the monarchy, and the Chhetri presence in the armed forces, police, and Government of Nepal. In traditional and administrative professions, Chhetris were given favorable treatment by the royal government, Chhetri had dominated high military positions and monopolized the military force at the times of Chhetri autocratic administrators like PM Bhimsen Thapa and PM Jung Bahadur Rana. Rana dynasty of Chhetri ruler Jung Bahadur Rana have marital ties with Maratha royal Gaekwad dynasty, asha Laxmi, the granddaughter of Chandra Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana was married to royals of Baroda. Also, the Scindia Dynasty was maritally linked to Rana dynasty of Nepal by Usha Raje Scindia, Madhavrao Scindia royal of Gwalior was also linked to Ranas by his mother Vijaya Raje Scindia. Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindias mother was daughter of General Yuvaraj SJB Rana, similarly, Dr. Karan Singh was married to Yasho Rajya Laxmi, daughter of General Sharada Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana. Gautama SJB Ranas son, Varun Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana was married to Padmaja Jadeja of Gujarat Jamnagar Royalty, as per 2011 census, almost all Chhetris are Hindu. Chhetri religion began with shamanism and nature worship, Thapa Politics in Nepal, With Special Reference to Bhim Sen Thapa, 1806–1839, New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company, p.278, ISBN9788180698132 Debra Skinner et. al. Selves in time and place, Identities, Experience and History in Nepal. Roman & Littlefield Publishers, Nepalese Language, Folklore and Practices for Foreigners
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Gurkha
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The name may be traced to the medieval Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath who has a historic shrine in Gorkha. The word itself derived from Go-Raksha, raksha becoming rakha, rakhawala means protector and is derived from raksha as well. Ethnically, Chhetri or Khas, Thakuri, Gurung and Magar mainly were the Gorkha tribes who united erstwhile Gorkha kingdom, but today, Gorkha soldiers mostly belong to the Gurung, Chhetri, Magar, Rai, Limbu, Sunuwar there is no ethnicity based restriction to join. There are Gurkha military units in the Nepalese, British and the Indian army enlisted in Nepal, United Kingdom and India. Although they meet many of the requirements of Article 47 of Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions regarding mercenaries, Gurkhas are closely associated with the khukuri, a forward-curving Nepalese knife, and have a well known reputation for fearless military prowess. The former Indian Army Chief of Staff Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw, once stated that If a man says he is not afraid of dying, he is either lying or he is a Gurkha. During the Anglo-Nepalese War between the Gorkha Kingdom and the East India Company, the Gorkhali soldiers made an impression on the British and their war cry was and is to this very day, Jai Mahakali, Ayo Gorkhali. In the peace treaty the parties agreed that Gorkhalis could be recruited to serve under contract in the East India Companys army, once more I hear the laughter with which you greeted every hardship. Once more I see you in your bivouacs or about your fires, on forced march or in the trenches, now shivering with wet and cold, now scorched by a pitiless and burning sun. Uncomplaining you endure hunger and thirst and wounds, and at the last your unwavering lines disappear into the smoke, bravest of the brave, most generous of the generous, never had country more faithful friends than you. Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab started recruiting Gurkha soldiers in his army, the elite wing of his Sikh Khalsa Army, the Fauj-i-Khas had one rajman of Gurkhas. The rajman was known for its excellent morale, gallantry, discipline, the well-known Gurkha freedom-fighter Balbhadra Kunwar was an officer in the Gorkha rajman. One of the best battles in which the Gurkhas served was the Battle of Nowshera, even though the Sikhs were losing in the beginning, Maharaja Ranjit Singh launched a decisive charge at the Afghan positions. The Gurkhas climbed the Pir Saibak hill, and together with their Sikh comrades, after the battle, Ranjit Singh personally met and awarded the Gurkhas, and promoted Balbhadra Kunwar into the captain of the regiment. The Gurkhas served also during the Sino-Sikh War, where they were praised for their excellent skirmishing at the Tibetan Hills and they also fought the First Anglo-Sikh War, where the Dogra commanders of the Sikh Khalsa Army, betrayed their forces and delivered battle plans to British. After the Treaty of Lahore, this regiment was added into the Bengal Army, the Anglo-Nepalese war was fought between the Gurkha Kingdom of Nepal and the British East India Company as a result of border disputes and ambitious expansionism of both the belligerent parties. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, david Ochterlony and the British political agent William Fraser were among the first to recognize the potential of Gurkha soldiers in British service. During the war the British were keen to use defectors from the Gurkha army and his confidence in their loyalty was such that in April 1815 he proposed forming them into a battalion under Lieutenant Ross called the Nasiri regiment
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Newar people
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The Newar or Newah are the historical inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding areas in Nepal, and the creators of its historic heritage and civilization. Newars form a linguistic and cultural community of primarily Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman ethnicities following Hinduism and Buddhism with Nepal Bhasa as their common language, Newars have developed a division of labour and a sophisticated urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. Newars have continued their traditions and practices, and pride themselves as the true custodians of the religion, culture. The valley and surrounding territories constituted the former Newar kingdom of the Nepal Mandala, Indo-Aryan immigrants like the Licchavis and Mallas that arrived at different periods eventually merged with the local population by adopting their language and customs. Newar rule in Nepal Mandala ended with its conquest by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1768, Newars are known for their contributions to culture, art and literature, trade, agriculture and cuisine. Today, Newars consistently rank as the most economically, politically and socially advanced community of Nepal, nepals 2011 census ranks Newars as the nations sixth-largest ethnicity/community, with 1,321,933 Newars throughout the country. The terms Nepāl, Newār, Newāl and Nepār are phonetically different forms of the same word, Nepal is the learned form and Newar is the colloquial form. The term Newar referring to inhabitant of Nepal appeared for the first time in an inscription dated 1654 in Kathmandu, italian Jesuit priest Ippolito Desideri who traveled to Nepal in 1721 has written that the natives of Nepal are called Newars. It has been suggested that Nepal may be a sanskritization of Newar, according to another explanation, the words Newar and Newari are vulgarisms arising from the mutation of P to V, and L to R. As a result of the process of dropping the last consonant and lengthening the vowel, Newā for Newār or Newāl. For about a thousand years, the Newar civilization in Central Nepal preserved a microcosm of classical North Indian culture in which Brahmanic, snellgrove and Richardson speak of the direct heritage of pre-Islamic India. The different divisions of Newars had different historical developments, the common identity of Newar was formed in the Kathmandu Valley. Until the conquest of the valley by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1769, so, the history of Newar correlates to the history of the Kathmandu Valley prior to the establishment of the modern state of Nepal. The earliest known history of Newar and the Kathmandu Valley blends with mythology recorded in historical chronicles, one such text, which recounts the creation of the valley, is the Swayambhu Purana. According to this Buddhist scripture, the Kathmandu Valley was a giant lake until the Bodhisattva Manjusri, with the aid of a sword, cut a gap in the surrounding hills. This apocryphal legend is supported by evidence of an ancient lakebed. According to the Swayambhu Purana, Manjusri then established a city called Manjupattan, now called Manjipā, a shrine dedicated to Manjusri is still present in Majipā. No historical documents have been found after this era till the advent of the Gopal era, a genealogy of kings is recorded in a chronicle called Gopalarajavamsavali
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Indo-European migrations
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Indo-European migrations were the migrations through which the earliest speakers of the Indo-European languages spread throughout Europe and Asia. Modern knowledge of these migrations is based on data from linguistics, archeology, anthropology, linguistics describes the similarities between various languages, and the linguistic laws at play in the changes in those languages. Recent genetic research has a contribution to the understanding of the historical relations between various historical cultures. The Indo-European languages and cultures spread in various stages, 4200–3000 BCE brought archaic proto-Indo-European into the lower Danube valley, Anatolia, and the Altai region. The Iranian languages spread throughout the steppes with the Scyths and into Iran with the Medes, the Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects. There are about 439 languages and dialects, according to the 2009 Ethnologue estimate and it includes most major current languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, the northern half of the Indian Subcontinent, Sri Lanka and was also predominant in ancient Anatolia. Indo-European languages are spoken by almost 3 billion native speakers, the largest number by far for any recognised language family.7 billion native speakers, several disputed proposals link Indo-European to other major language families. The Proto-Indo-European language is the reconstruction of a common ancestor of the Indo-European languages spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. PIE was the first proposed proto-language to be accepted by linguists. Far more work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto-language, scholars estimate that PIE may have been spoken as a single language around 3500 BCE, though estimates by different authorities can vary by more than a millennium. The most popular hypothesis for the origin and spread of the language is the Kurgan hypothesis, the existence of PIE was first postulated in the 18th century by Sir William Jones, who observed the similarities between Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Latin. By the early 20th century, well-defined descriptions of PIE had been developed that are accepted today. The largest developments of the 20th century have been the discovery of Anatolian and Tocharian languages, PIE is thought to have had a complex system of morphology that included inflections, and ablaut. Nouns used a system of declension and verbs used a similarly sophisticated system of conjugation. Relationships to other families, including the Uralic languages, have been proposed. The Indo-Hittite hypothesis postulates a common predecessor for both the Anatolian languages and the other languages, called Indi-Hittite or Indo-Anatolian. According to Kortlandt, Indo-Uralic is the pre-PIE, postulating that Indo-European, yet, Anthony also notes that the North Caucasian communities were southern participants in the steppe world. Archaeological research has unearthed a range of historical cultures which can be related to the spread of the Indo-European languages
20.
Brahmin
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Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising as priests of sacred learning across generations. However, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were often agriculturalists in medieval India, the Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas. The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines, the Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so. The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances, human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits. The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity. The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states, Except during a time of adversity and he should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. –4. 2–4.3 He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, one who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. –4. 11–4.12 The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmins occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others. It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin, teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts, of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts. The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six, in the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade. Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10. 83–10, the term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class. Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define Brahmin not in terms of family of birth and these virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the class from which most ascetics came. The earliest inferred reference to Brahmin as a social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once. Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The Adhvaryu is the assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin recites from the Atharvaveda, the Ritvij is the chief operating priest
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Kshatriya
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Kshatriya is one of the four varna of the Hindu society. The Sanskrit term kshatriya is used in the context of Vedic society wherein members organised themselves into four classes, brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, traditionally, the kshatriya constituted the ruling and military elite. Their role was to protect society by fighting in wartime and governing in peacetime, the Prakrit derivative of Kshatriya is Khatri. The administrative machinery in the Rig Vedic period functioned with a chief called Rajan whose position was not hereditary. The king was elected in an assembly, which included women. The Rajan protected the tribe and cattle, was assisted by a priest, the concept of fourfold varna system was non-existent. The hymn Purusha Sukta to the Rigveda describes the history of the four varna. Since not all dark-skinned Indians was fully regulated under the varna in the vedic society, the term rajanya unlike the word kshatriya essentially denoted the status within a lineage. Whereas kshatra, means ruling, one of the ruling order, jaiswal points out the term Brahman rarely occurs in the Rig-veda with the exception of the Purusha Sukta and may not have been used for the priestly class. Based on the authority of Panini, Patanjali, Katyayana and the Mahabharata, Jayaswal believes that Rajanya was the name of a people and that the Rajanyas were, therefore. Some examples were the Andhaka and Vrsni Rajanyas who followed the system of elected rulers and this later gave rise to the idea of kingship. In the period of the Brahmanas there was ambiguity in the position of the varna, in the Panchavimsha Brahmana, the Rajanya are placed first, followed by Brahmana then Vaishya. In Shatapatha Brahmana 13.8.3.11, the Kshatriya are placed second, in Shatapatha Brahmana 1.1.4.12 the order is—Brahmana, Vaishya, Rajanya, Shudra. The order of the brahmanical tradition—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra—became fixed from the time of dharmasutras, the kshatriya were often considered pre-eminent in Buddhist circles. Even among Hindu societies they were sometimes at rivalry with the Brahmins, the kshatriya caste constituted an aristocracy but were not always necessarily wealthy. Kings usually belonged to this caste and it was considered their duty to acquire a knowledge of weapons in addition to cultivating their aptitude for command, the science of weaponry was one of the 13 branches of learning which every educated kshatriya male was expected to study. Both the kings suite and the army were recruited from among this caste. Many kshatriya were authorised to take up a craft or trade rather than gaining their living as professional warriors and these families still retained the privileges accorded to their caste however, which included special forms of marriage which were their prerogative
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Doti
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Doti division covers the nine districts of Seti and Mahakali Zone, four in Mahakali and five in Seti Zone respectively. The name Doti is believed to have originated form the word Dovati, other view is that the original name of Doti was devatavi= dev+aatavi or aalaya. Doti was an ancient kingdom in far western region of Nepal which was formed after the disintegration of the Katyuri Kingdom of Kumaon around 13th century, Doti was one of eight different princely states Katiyuri Kingdom was divided into Eight for their eight Prince and became different independent Kingdom. Brahma Dev Mandi at Kanchanpur District of Mahakali Zone was established by Katyuri king Brahma Dev, Niranjan Malla Dev was the founder of Doti Kingdom around 13th century after the fall of the Katyuri Kingdom. He was the son of Last Katyuris of united Katyuris kingdom, kings of Doti were called Raikas. Later on Raikas, after defeating the Khas Malla of Karnali Zone, were able to establish a strong Raikas Kingdom in Far Western Region and Kumaun which was Doti. So far, the evidences of following Raikas have been discovered, Niranjan Malla Dev Nagi Malla Ripu Malla Nirai Pal. In the war with the Gorkhalis, the Doti kingdom was defeated, during the period of Akbars rule in the 16th century, the Moguls had attacked the Raikas of Doti. They invaded Ajemeru, capital of the Raika Kingdom, Ajemeru is now in Dadeldhura District of far western region of Nepal. Hussain Khan, army chief of Akbar residing in Lucknow had led the attack, raja Deep Shahi was expelled from Nepal in 1790 A. D and on arriving to Terai of Oudh he established Khairgarh-Singhai State in Khairigarh under British India. Kanchanpur Praganna was also the parts of his State or Zamindari and he succeeded in defeating the Banjaras rural of Khairigarh and establishing himself not only in that Pargana but also in parts of Bhur. His state was merged with India In 1947 after Indian Independence, raja Akshya Vikram Shah,37, is the present ruler of Khairigarh. The Far-Western Development Region has the Mid-Western Development Region to the east, Uttar Pradesh to the south, Uttarakhand to the west, the highest mountain in the region is the Api Peak, with 7,132 m high, it is in the Darchula district. Other high mountain is Saipal,7,031 m high, the most important rivers in the Far-Western Development Region are the Seti and the Mahakali rivers, both rivers are tributaries of the Ghaghara or Karnali river.6 persons/km2. Dotiyali or Dotyali and Kumauni is the language spoken in Doti region or far western region of Nepal. Dotiyali which is similar to Kumauni language is one of language of Indo-European family, according to Rahul Sankrityayan, Dotiyali is the dialect of Kumauni language which was brought in Doti by section of Katyuri dynasty of kumaoun which had ruled over Doti till 1790. Local intellectuals and people speaking Dotiyali language were increasingly demanding that their language be recognized as one of the national languages of Nepal. Inhabitants of two terai districts Kailali District and Kanchanpur District speak different languages, rana-tharu and Dangaura-tharu speaks their own language
23.
Shaka era
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This is about the historical calendar era. For the Śaka calendar of 1957, see Indian national calendar, the Shaka era is a historical calendar era, corresponding to Julian year 78. It is also known as Shalivahana Śaka era or rtgs, Mahasakkarat Greater Era), the origin of the Shaka era is highly controversial. The other is called Saka Era of 78 AD, or simply Saka Era, a parallel northern India system is the Vikrama Era, which is related to the Bikrami calendar linked to Vikramaditya. The beginning of the Shaka era is now equated to the ascension of king Chashtana in 78 CE. His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have found at Andhau in Kutch region. These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 and 52, a previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the ascension of Kanishka I in 78 CE. However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicates that Kanishka ascended the throne in 127 CE, moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a Kushana ruler. Other historical candidates have included such as Vima Kadphises, Vonones. Sircar also suggests that the association of the northern king Vikramaditya with Vikrama era might have led the southern scholars to fabricate a similar legend of their own. Another similar account claims that the legendary emperor Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas in 78 CE, and this legend has been mentioned in the writings of Brahmagupta, Al-Biruni, and others. However, this is an obvious fabrication, over time, the word Shaka became generic, and came to be mean an era, the era thus came to be known as Shalivahana Shaka. The earliest known users of the era are the Western Satraps, from the reign of Rudrasimha I, they recorded the date of minting of their coins in the Shaka era, usually written on the obverse behind the kings head in Brahmi numerals. The use of the era survived into the Gupta period. It was in use by the 6th to 7th centuries, e. g. in the works of Varāhamihira and Brahmagupta. The calendar era remained in use in India and Southeast Asia throughout the medieval period and it was used by Javanese courts until 1633, when it was replaced by Anno Javanico, a hybrid Javanese-Islamic system. It was adopted as the era of the Indian national calendar in 1957, the Shaka era is the vernal equinox of the year AD78. The year of the modern Shaka Calendar is tied to the Gregorian date of 22 March every year, except in Gregorian leap years when it starts on 21 March
24.
Vikram Samvat
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Vikram Samvat Nepali, नेपाली पात्रो, Listen ) is an era used in India and Nepal, just like the Christian era started in 1 CE. The Vikram Samvat started in 58/57 BCE in southern and 57/56 BCE in northern systems of Hindu calendar, the era is named after king Vikramaditya. The Vikram Samvat calendar is 56.7 years ahead of the solar Gregorian calendar, for example, the year 2073 BS began in 2016 CE and will end in 2017 CE. The new year begins with the first day of month Baishakh, the first day of the new year is passionately celebrated in a historical carnival that takes place every year in Bhaktapur, called Bisket Jatra. The Rana rulers of Nepal made it their official calendar, there have been calls for the Vikram Samvat to replace Saka as Indias official calendar. The classical Vikram Samvat uses lunar months and solar sidereal years, because 12 months do not match a sidereal year exactly, correctional months are added or occasionally subtracted. A Tithi or lunar day is defined as the time it takes for the angle between the moon and the Sun to increase by 12°. Tithis begin at varying times of day and vary in duration from approximately 19 to approximately 26 hours, a Paksa or lunar fortnight consists of 15 tithis. According to popular tradition, the legendary king Vikramaditya of Ujjain established the Vikrama Samvat era after defeating the Śakas. Kalakacharya Kathanaka by the Jain sage Mahesarasuri gives the account, Gandharvasena, the then-powerful king of Ujjain, abducted a nun called Sarasvati. The enraged monk sought the help of the Śaka ruler King Sahi in Sistan, despite heavy odds but aided by miracles, the Śaka king defeated Gandharvasena and made him a captive. Sarasvati was repatriated, although Gandharvasena himself was forgiven, the defeated king retired to the forest, where he was killed by a tiger. His son, Vikramaditya, being brought up in the forest, had to rule from Pratishthana, later on, Vikramaditya invaded Ujjain and drove away the Śakas. To commemorate this event, he started a new era called the Vikrama era, the Ujjain calendar started around 56-58 BCE, and the subsequent Shaka era calendar was started in 78 CE at Pratishthana. The association of the era beginning in 57 BCE with Vikramaditya is not found in any source before the 9th century CE, the earlier sources call this era by various names, including Kṛṭa, Kritaa, the era of the Malava tribe, or simply, Samvat. The earliest known inscription that calls the era Vikrama is from 842 CE and this inscription of Chauhana ruler Chandamahasena was found at Dholpur, and is dated Vikrama Samvat 898, Vaishakha Shukla 2, Chanda. The earliest known inscription that associates this era with a king called Vikramaditya is dated 971 CE, the earliest literary work that connects the era to Vikramaditya is Subhashita-Ratna-Sandoha by the Jain author Amitagati. V. A. Smith and D. R. Bhandarkar believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya, earlier, some scholars believed that the Vikrama Samavat corresponded to the Azes era of the Indo-Scythian king King Azes
25.
Devanagari
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Devanagari, also called Nagari, is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines. The Nagari script has roots in the ancient Brāhmī script family, the Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium. Nagari has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts, the Devanagari script is also used for classical Sanskrit texts. The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in ancient manuscripts of South India. Devanagari script has forty-seven primary characters, of which fourteen are vowels, the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters. The script has no distinction similar to the capital and small letters of the Latin alphabet, generally the orthography of the script reflects the pronunciation of the language. Devanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet and it is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts, the 7th-century Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gambo ordered that all foreign books be transcribed into the Tibetan language. Other closely related scripts such as Siddham Matrka was in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. Nāgarī is the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara relating or belonging to a town or city and it is a phrasing with lipi as nāgarī lipi script relating to a city, or spoken in city. The use of the name devanāgarī is relatively recent, and the older term nāgarī is still common, the rapid spread of the term devanāgarī may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish Sanskrit texts in print since the 1870s. As a Brahmic abugida, the principle of Devanagari is that each letter represents a consonant. This is usually written in Latin as a, though it is represented as in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya is derived क्नय् knay, the halant is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible. Consonant clusters are written with ligatures, for example, the three consonants क्, न्, and य्, when written consecutively without virāma form कनय, as shown above. Alternatively, they may be joined as clusters to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya and this system was originally created for use with the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which have a very limited number of clusters. When applied to Sanskrit, however, it added a deal of complexity to the script
26.
Gorkha Kingdom
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Gorkhā was a former kingdom in the confederation of 24 states known as Chaubisi rajya located in present-day western Nepal. The Kingdom of Gorkha extended from the Marshyangdi River in the west to the Trishuli River in the east, the inhabitants of Gorkha were known as Gorkhali. Shah/Jha/Khan controlled whole area of Ganges and Brahmaputra basin or simply whole land between Himalayas and Vindhyas, soon the empire divided into several kingdoms. Mughal Empire, Bengal and Gorakhpur formed after division, from 1736, the Gorkhalis engaged in a campaign of expansion begun by King Nara Bhupal Shah, which was continued by his son, King Prithvi Narayan Shah and grandson Prince Bahadur Shah. Over the years, they conquered huge tracts of land to the east and west of Gorkha, among their conquests, the most important and valuable acquisition was the wealthy Newar confederacy of Nepal Mandala centered in the Kathmandu Valley. Starting in 1745, the Gorkhalis mounted a blockade in a bid to starve the population into submission, the Newars appealed to the British East India Company for help, and in 1767, it sent an expedition under Captain Kinloch which ended in failure. The three Newar capitals of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur fell to the Gorkhalis between 1768 and 1769, the Gorkhali king subsequently moved his capital to Kathmandu. In 1788, the Gorkhalis turned their attention north and invaded Tibet and they seized the border towns of Kyirong and Kuti, and forced the Tibetans to pay an annual tribute. When the Tibetans stopped paying it, the Gorkhalis invaded Tibet again in 1791 and this time the Chinese army came to Tibets defence and advanced close to Kathmandu. The alarmed Gorkhalis appealed to the British East India Company for help, eventually, the Gorkhalis were forced to sign a peace treaty under which they had to pay tribute to Beijing every five years. The Gorkha dominion reached its height at the beginning of the 19th century, extending all along the Himalayan foothills from Kumaon and they were made to return much of the occupied territories after their defeat in the Anglo-Nepalese War. The Gorkha dominion continued to be known as Gorkha Rajya until the beginning of the 20th century, since the 1930s, the name Nepal was used to refer to the entire country as the capital was located in Kathmandu. The name Gorkha Sarkar was also changed to Nepal government, similarly, the Gorkhali language was renamed as Nepali in 1933. The term Gorkhali in the national anthem entitled Shreeman Gambhir was changed to Nepali in 1951. The government newspaper, launched in 1901, is known as Gorkhapatra. The Shah dynasty ruled Nepal until 2008 when it became a republic following a peoples movement, today, Gorkha District, roughly corresponding to the old kingdom, is one of the 75 administrative districts of Nepal. The community name is actually Gorkha/ Gorkhali as it was also called even in Nepal. Not to be confused with the inhabitants of the old Gorkha Kingdom only and their history goes back to the Anglo-Gorkha War and the Sugauli Treaty of 1816
27.
Jung Bahadur Rana
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Maharaja Junga Bahadur Rana was a ruler of Nepal and founder of the Rana Dynasty of Nepal. His real name was Bir Narsingh Kunwar but he became famous by the name Junga Bahadur, given to him by Mathabarsingh Thapa and his mother was daughter of Kaji Nayan Singh Thapa, brother of PM Bhimsen Thapa. His maternal uncle was PM Mathabarsingh Thapa, through the influence of his maternal side, he enjoyed privileges. Others exclusively blame his nephews, the Shumsher Ranas, for Nepals dark period of history, Rana rule was marked by tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation and religious persecution. His father, Bal Narsingh Kunwar, was in court the day Rana Bahadur Shah was murdered by his own half-brother Sher Bahadur Shah, as a retaliation Bal Narsingh killed him on the spot. For this action, he was rewarded with the position of Kaji and he was great grandson of Ram Krishna Kunwar, a great military leader at the times of King Prithvi Narayan Shah. Through his mother Ganesh Kumari, he was related to the aristocratic Thapa family of PM Bhimsen Thapa, through his maternal grandmother he was related to the aristocratic Pande family as his maternal grandmother Rana Kumari was the daughter of Kaji Ranajit Pande, an influential royal courtier. Jung Bahadur Kunwar joined the service at the age of sixteen. As maternal grandson of Bhimsen Thapa, he lost his job, after wandering in north India for several years, he returned to Nepal as a captain in the artillery in 1840. In November 1841, he was asked by the king to join his bodyguard, when his maternal uncle Mathbar Singh Thapa returned to power, Jung Bahadur rose with him. However Mathbar Singh disliked Jung Bahadurs ambition and had him removed to a position on the staff of the heir apparent. A caree opportunist, he was ready and waiting when the time came to act at the Kot massacre, Queen Rajya Lakshmi Devi, the favourite wife of King Rajendra Bikram was not pleased by the new prime minister. She conspired to eliminate Jung Bahadur Kunwar and elevate her son to the throne, a meeting of leading notables packed with Rana supporters found the queen guilty of complicity in the plot, stripped her of her powers, and sent her into exile in Banaras along with King Rajendra. The king still had delusions of grandeur and began plotting his return from India, in 1847 Jung Bahadur informed the troops of the exiled kings treasonous activities, announced his dethronement, and elevated Rajendras son to the throne as Surendra Bikram Shah. King Rajendra Bikram was captured later that year in the Tarai and brought back as a prisoner to Bhadgaon, at this point, he took the unprecedented step of travelling to Britain, France and Egypt leaving from Calcutta in April 1850 and returning to Kathmandu in February 1851. Although he unsuccessfully tried to deal directly with the British government while he was there, recognizing the power of industrialised Europe, he became convinced that close co-operation with the British was the best way to guarantee Nepals independence. From then on, European architecture, fashion, and furnishings became more prevalent in Kathmandu, in contrast to the older system, which had allowed execution or bodily mutilation for a wide range of offences, the Muluki Ain severely limited—without abolishing—corporal punishment. For example, the old system gave wide scope for blood vengeance by aggrieved parties, such as cuckolded husbands, substitutions included confiscation of property or prison terms
28.
Shah dynasty
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The Shah dynasty was the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of Gorkha until 1768 and of the Kingdom of Nepal from 1768 to 28 May 2008. According to legends, one of the earliest Shah rulers was Rishi-raj Rana-ji and he was made ruler of Chittorgarh and received the title of Bhattarak. The lunar dynasty remained in power for thirteen generations, then, the Muslim Yavanas took power. The Bhattarak had to abdicate and could retain his caste family name. The rajas were titled Rana-ji for four generations and Rana-ji Rava for a further seventeen generations, akbar, the Mughal emperor, wished to marry the daughter of Fatte Sinha Rana-ji Rava. Akbar was refused because he was of an unsatisfactory caste, many rajput, including Fatte Sinha Rana-ji Rava, were killed. The survivors of the war were led by Udaybam Rana-ji Rava, manmath Rana-ji Rava went to Ujjain. His son went to Ridi in the hills and in 1417 AD, to Sargha. The new ruler of Khium had sons, Kancha and Micha, plans for the boys to marry the daughters of the Raghibanshi Rajputs were made. Kancha, the son went to Dhor. He conquered Mangart and reigned over Garhon, Sathum and Birkot, Micha, the younger son, went to Nuwakot in the far west and became ruler there. From Micha, a dynasty of seven rajas commenced in Nuwakot, kumandan, the eldest son of Jagdeva, became ruler of Kaski. He was favoured and became Sah and succeeded his father, kalu, the second son was sent to Dura Danda in Lamjung at the peoples request to become their king. Kalu was killed by the Sekhant tribe, in the 1500s, another son, Yasobramha, became the ruler of Lamjung. The descendants of Yasobramha conquered the Ghale people of neighbouring Ligligkot, Dravya Shah was the first Shah king of Gorkha. Previously, the local Ghale people had chosen their king from the winners of a running race. Dravya Shah was not a physically robust man but he tricked his way to the win and he was backed by the Bhattarai, Aryal, Adhikari, Pant and Acharya clans who were Brahmin. By 1570, when Dravya Shah died, the race was
29.
Presidencies and provinces of British India
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Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
30.
Indo-Gangetic Plain
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The region is named after the Indus and the Ganges, and encompasses a number of large urban areas. The Indus-Ganga plain is bound on the north by the Himalayas which feed its numerous rivers and are the source of the alluvium deposited across the region by the two river systems. The southern edge of the plain is marked by the Chota Nagpur Plateau, on the west rises the Iranian Plateau. The region is known for the Indus Valley Civilization, which was responsible for the birth of ancient South Asian culture, during the Vedic and Epic eras of Indian history, this region was referred to as Aryavarta. According to Manusmṛti, Aryavarta is the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern Sea to the Western Sea. During the Islamic period, the Turkish, Afghan and Iranian rulers referred to this region as Hindustan, some geographers subdivide the Indo-Gangetic Plain into several parts, the Sindh, Punjab, Doab, and Bengal regions. This divide is only 300 metres above sea level, causing the perception that the Indus-Ganga Plain appears to be continuous between the two drainage basins, the middle Ganga plain extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in the east. The lower Ganges plain and the Assam Valley are more verdant than the middle Ganga plain, the lower Ganga is centered in West Bengal, from which it flows into Bangladesh. After joining the Jamuna, a distributary of Brahmaputra, both form the Ganges Delta. The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo River and flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, as a large plain, the exact extent can vary from source to source. The fertile Terai region is the Nepalese extension of the Plain, the rivers encompassed are the Beas, the Chambal, the Chenab, the Ganga, the Gomti, the Indus, the Ravi, the Sutlej and the Yamuna. The soil is rich in silt, making the one of the most intensely farmed areas of the world. Even rural areas here are densely populated, the Indus-Ganga plains, also known as the Great Plains, are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga–Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, the plains encompass an area of 700,000 km² and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. The major rivers of this system are the Ganga and the Indus along with their tributaries, Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej, extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground, the bhabar is generally narrow about 7–15 km wide. The Terai belt — lies next to the Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium, the underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested and it also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife
31.
Prithvi Narayan Shah
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Prithvi Narayan Shah, King of Gorkha was the first King of unified Nepal. He is credited for starting the campaign for a unified Nepal and he was the ninth generation descendant of Dravya Shah, the founder of the ruling house of Gorkha. Prithvi Narayan Shah succeeded his father, King Nara Bhupal Shah, to the throne of the Gorkha Kingdom in 1743, Prithvi Narayan Shah was born as a prince in the Gorkha Kingdom. Chandra Pravawati raised him, although his mother was Kaushalyavati Devi. From a young age, he took interest in the affairs of his fathers state, Prithivi Narayan Shah had an early dream of conquering Nuwakot, partially as his father had lost it to the Mallas of Kathmandu in an earlier war. After the death of his father in 1743, Prithivi Narayan Shah ascended to the throne of Gorkha at the age of 20, as king, he valued his people and enjoyed talking to his subjects about their general concerns. This practice helped him to build a rapport with his people, King Shah sealed his borders and maintained a peaceful environment except for distant relations with the British, who were refusing to trade with Nepal at the time. Prithvi Narayaṇ was succeeded by his son, Pratap Singh, King Prithvi Narayan Shahs reign began with an immediate military defeat, his invasion of Nuwakot in 1743 CE failed. Conquering Nuwakot was essential for the unification, as it lay between Kathmandu and the Gorkha District, making it a trading route to Tibet. However, he successfully conquered Nuwakot in a subsequent attack in 1744 CE, after capturing Nuwakot, he took possession of the strategic locations in the hills surrounding the Kathmandu Valley. The valley was cut off from the outside world and was controlled solely by Shah. He also occupied the Kuti Pass in c.1756 CE, halting all trade through the pass, after two humiliating defeats in Kirtipur, King Prithvi Narayan conquered the ancient city on his third attempt. Consequently, Jaya Prakash Malla of Kathmandu fled with his wife and took asylum in Patan and he eventually began to unify his conquered lands. King Prithvi Narayaṇ Shah was ultimately able to capture small principalities and this expansion was crucial as the British colonial forces had already begun colonizing the small kingdoms that form present-day India. Shah was convinced that the British forces would eventually approach his kingdom and he believed that 50 small principalities would easily be conquered by the British as part of their colonization strategy. Expanding his kingdom made it difficult for British forces to make their move. His expansion campaign was very ambitious, especially as he was the king of a small kingdom surrounded by strong. In January 1775, at the age of 52, Prithvi Narayan Shah died before he could organise the administration of his new country at Devighat
32.
Constitution of Nepal
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Nepal is governed according to the Constitution which came into effect on Sept 20,2015, replacing the Interim Constitution of 2007. The Constitution was drafted by the Second Constituent Assembly following the failure of the First Constituent Assembly to produce a constitution in its mandated period, the constitution was endorsed by 90% of the total lawmakers. Out of 598 CA members,538 voted in favor of the constitution while 60 voted against it, the Interim Constitution provides for a Constituent Assembly, which was charged with writing Nepals permanent constitution. Under the terms of the Interim Constitution, the new constitution was to be promulgated by April 28,2010, on May 25,2011, the Supreme Court of Nepal ruled that the 2010 extension of the Interim Constitution was not right. Since May 29,2011 the Constituent Assembly repeatedly extended the Interim Constitution, new elections were held on November 19,2013 to the Second Nepalese Constituent Assembly and political leaders pledged to draft a new constitution within a year. The new assembly expressly committed that the new constitution would be promulgated on January 22,2015, the constitution is largely written in gender neutral term. Some of the important aspects of the include the following. The Constitution has divided the nation into seven states and finalized the march of the Nation towards republicanism from constitutional monarchy, bicameral parliamentary system has been created with two houses at the Center and unicameral parliamentary system in each state. Recognizing the rights of women, the constitution of Nepal explicitly states that “women shall have equal ancestral right without any gender-based discrimination. ”Bans any acts leading to conversions from one religion to another and it also prohibits acts that undermine or jeopardize the religion of another. At the same time it declares the nation to be secular, Nepal also has continued to abolish the death penalty. Nepal had abolished death penalty in 1990 after the promulgation of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990, the Constitution defines wide range human rights as fundamental rights. Previous constitutions of Nepal were enacted in 1948,1951,1959,1962,1990 and 2007, in 1948, the Government of Nepal Act was enacted. Since the mid-nineteenth century, the country had been a monarchy where the prime ministers, the 1948 document introduced limited democratic elements, but the experiment was not successful due to the misgivings of the Rana rulers to give away power. The Interim Government of Nepal Act 1951 was promulgated after the Revolution of 1951 that the end of the Rana period, the CONSTITUTION OF THE KINGDOM OF NEPAL,1959 followed the previously mentioned interim text. The democratic experiment was short-lived, as in 1962 a new constitution came in to political parties. In this model, panchayats were councils organized at the local level, however, the king exercised much stronger authority than in the 1959 regime. And could modify the constitution or suspend it in case of emergency, in 1990, the first Jana Andolan, Popular Revolt, brought multi-party democracy back to Nepal. OF THE KINGDOM OF NEPAL lifted the ban on parties, described a democratic representative system where the authority of the king was curtailed
33.
Sanyasi
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Sannyasa is the life stage of renunciation within the Hindu philosophy of four age-based life stages known as ashramas, with the first three being Brahmacharya, Grihastha and Vanaprastha. Sannyasa has historically been a stage of renunciation, ahimsa peaceful and simple life, however, this has not always been the case. These warrior sanyasis played an important role in helping European colonial powers establish themselves in India, saṃnyāsa in Sanskrit means renunciation of the world and abandonment. It is a word of saṃ- which means together, all, ni- which means down and āsa from the root as. A literal translation of Sannyāsa is thus to put down everything, Sannyasa is sometimes spelled as Sanyasa. The term Saṃnyasa makes appearance in the Samhitas, Aranyakas and Brahmanas, the earliest layers of Vedic literature, but it is rare. The term Sannyasa evolves into a rite of renunciation in ancient Sutra texts, in Dravidian languages, sannyasi is pronounced as sanyasi and also sannasi in colloquial form. Sanyasis are also known as Bhiksu, Pravrajita/Pravrajitā, Yati, Sramana, jamison and Witzel state early Vedic texts make no mention of Sannyasa, or Ashrama system, unlike the concepts of Brahmacharin and Grihastha which they do mention. Instead, Rig Veda uses the term Antigriha in hymn 10.95.4, still part of extended family and it is in later Vedic era and over time, Sannyasa and other new concepts emerged, while older ideas evolved and expanded. The explicit use of the four stage Ashrama concept, appeared a few centuries later, however, early Vedic literature from 2nd millennium BC, mentions Muni, with characteristics that mirror those found in later Sannyasins and Sannyasinis. Rig Veda, for example, in Book 10 Chapter 136, mentions mendicants as those with Kesin, rigveda, however, refers to these people as Muni and Vati. The Munis, girdled with the wind, wear garments of soil hue, They, following the winds swift course and these Munis, their lifestyle and spiritual pursuit, likely influenced the Sannyasa concept, as well as the ideas behind the ancient concept of Brahmacharya. One class of Munis were associated with Rudra and this freedom has led to diversity and significant differences in the lifestyle and goals of those who adopt Sannyasa. There are, however, some common themes, a person in Sannyasa lives a simple life, typically detached, itinerant, drifting from place to place, with no material possessions or emotional attachments. They may have a stick, a book, a container or vessel for food and drink, often wearing yellow, saffron, orange. They may have hair and appear disheveled, and are usually vegetarians. Some minor Upanishads as well as monastic orders consider women, child, students, fallen men and others as not qualified for Sannyasa, the dress, the equipage and lifestyle varies between groups. For example, Sannyasa Upanishad in verses 2.23 to 2.29 and those who enter Sannyasa may choose whether they join a group
34.
Racial quota
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Racial quotas in employment and education are numerical requirements for hiring, promoting, admitting and/or graduating members of a particular racial group. It has been argued that such quotas are a form of racial discrimination and these quotas may be determined by governmental authority and backed by governmental sanctions. When the total number of jobs or enrollment slots is fixed, the Mongols divided different races into a four-class caste system during the Yuan dynasty. In 779 AD, Tang dynasty issued an Edict which forced Uighurs to wear their ethnic dress, in 836 AD Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and restricting foreigners to own properties, by 1935, the French government enacted a series of racial quotas on certain professions. See Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, the National Origins Formula was an American system of immigration quotas, between 1921 and 1965, which restricted immigration on the basis of existing proportions of the population. The goal was to maintain the ethnic composition of the United States. It had the effect of giving low quotas to Eastern and Southern Europe, such racial quotas were restored after the Civil Rights Act of 1964, especially during the 1970s. Richard Nixons Labor Secretary George P. Schultz demanded that anti-black construction unions allow a number of black people into the unions. The Department of Labor began enforcing these quotas across the country, in 1974, the Department of Justice and the United Steelworkers of America came to an agreement on the largest-to-then quota program, for steel unions. In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke that public universities could not set specific targets based on race for admissions or employment. The Court said that goals and timetables for diversity could be set instead, a 1979 Supreme Court case, United Steelworkers v. Weber, found that private employers could set rigid numerical quotas, if they chose to do so. In 1980, the Supreme Court found that a 10% racial quota for federal contractors was permitted, then in 1991, President George H. W. This claim led up to the creation of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 and it only covered the terms for settling cases where discrimination has been confirmed to have occurred. Opponents of quotas object that one group is favored at the expense of another whenever a quota is invoked rather than such as grade point averages or test scores. They argue that using quotas displaces individuals that would normally be favored based on their individual achievements, opponents of racial quotas believe that qualifications should be the only determining factor when competing for a job or admission to a school. It is argued this causes reverse discrimination where individuals in the majority to lose out to a minority, another critique of racial quotas is the process of reevaluating quota percentages after changes of racial ratios in a society. Advocates of affirmative action programs often deny that these programs involve quotas, although some openly do, as more students choose where to work based on the firms diversity rankings, firms face an increasing market pressure to change theirs
35.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
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