1.
Croatian language
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It is the official and literary standard of Croatia and one of the official languages of the European Union. Croatian is also one of the languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a recognized minority language in Serbia. Croatian is written in Gajs Latin alphabet, besides the Shtokavian dialect, on which Standard Croatian is based, there are two other main dialects, Chakavian and Kajkavian. It is still used now in parts of Istria, which became a crossroads of various mixtures of Chakavian with Ekavian/Ijekavian/Ikavian dialects, the cultural apex of this 17th century idiom is represented by the editions of Adrianskoga mora sirena by Petar Zrinski and Putni tovaruš by Katarina Zrinska. However, this first linguistic renaissance in Croatia was halted by the execution of Petar Zrinski. Subsequently the Croatian elite in the 18th century gradually abandoned this combined Croatian standard, specifically, three major groups of dialects were spoken on Croatian territory, and there had been several literary languages over four centuries. The leader of the Illyrian movement Ljudevit Gaj standardized the Latin alphabet in 1830–1850, the uniform Neo-Shtokavian then became common in the Croatian elite. In the 1860s, the Zagreb Philological School dominated the Croatian cultural life, drawing upon linguistic, while it was dominant over the rival Rijeka Philological School and Zadar Philological Schools, its influence waned with the rise of the Croatian Vukovians. Croatian is commonly characterized by the Ijekavian pronunciation, the use of the Latin alphabet. Some differences are absolute, while some appear mainly in the frequency of use, Croatian, although technically a form of Serbo-Croatian, is sometimes considered a distinct language by itself. Differences between various forms of Serbo-Croatian are often exaggerated for political reasons. Most Croatian linguists regard Croatian as a language that is considered key to national identity. The issue is sensitive in Croatia as the notion of a language being the most important characteristic of a nation is widely accepted. The terms Serbo-Croatian or Serbo-Croat are still used as a term for all these forms by foreign scholars. Within ex-Yugoslavia, the term has largely replaced by the ethnic terms Serbian, Croatian. In 2013, the EU started publishing a Croatian language version of its official gazette, Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and, along with Standard Bosnian and Standard Serbian, one of three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also official in the regions of Burgenland, Molise, additionally, it has co-official status alongside Romanian in the communes of Carașova and Lupac, Romania. Croatian is officially used and taught at all the universities in Croatia, there is no regulatory body that determines the proper usage of Croatian
2.
Hungarian language
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Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries. Like Finnish and Estonian, it belongs to the Uralic language family, its closest relatives being Mansi and it is one of several European languages not part of the Indo-European languages, and the most widely-spoken European language that does not belong to the Indo-European family. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar or magyar nyelv, the word Magyar is used as an English and Hungarian word to refer to Hungarian people as an ethnic group. Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family, the name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur, there are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian /aː/ corresponds to Khanty /o/ in certain positions, for example, Hungarian ház house vs. Khanty xot house, and Hungarian száz hundred vs. Khanty sot hundred. The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular, during the later half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian. Following an academic debate known as Az ugor-török háború, the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, foremost based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz. The traditional view argues that the Hungarian language separated from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium b. c. e. in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from settled hunters to nomadic pastoralists, in Hungarian, Iranian loans date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include tehén ‘cow’, tíz ‘ten’, tej ‘milk’, increasing archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan found in the previous decades confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and Ural Mountains. The Onogurs later had a influence on the language, especially between the 5th-9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied, and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic, e. g. borjú ‘calf’, dél ‘noon, many words related to agriculture, to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a dramatic way during these 300 years. After the arrival of the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin the language came into contact with different speech communities, Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians who settled in Hungary during the 12th-13th centuries, e. g. koboz ‘cobza’, komondor ‘mop dog’. Hungarian borrowed many words from especially the neighbouring Slavic languages, in exchange, these languages also borrowed words from Hungarian, e. g. Serbo-Croatian ašov from Hung ásó ‘spade’. Approximately 1. 6% of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin, on the basis of the growing genetic evidence, the accepted origin theory is contested by geneticists too
3.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
4.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
5.
Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
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This union of polities is sometimes denominated Archiregnum Hungaricum, pursuant to Medieval Latin terminology. Pursuant to Article 1 of the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868, this territory was defined as a state union of Kingdom of Hungary. The Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen disintegrated with the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. The Latin name Transleithania referred to the parts of the Empire beyond the Leitha River, as most of its area lay to the east of that river — or beyond it, from an Austrian perspective. Cisleithania, i. e. the Habsburg lands of the Dual Monarchy that had part of the Holy Roman Empire with Galicia and Dalmatia lay to the west — on this side — of the Leitha river. The Croatian part of Transleithania was a site, especially in times of war against The Ottoman Empire. The territory reached from the arc of the Carpathian Mountains in present-day Slovakia to the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea, the capital of Transleithania was Budapest. The Military Frontier was under administration until 1873-1882, when it was abolished and incorporated into Hungary proper. However, the new government faced severe problems and the growing restiveness of ethnic minorities. The First World War led to the disintegration of Austria-Hungary, and in the aftermath of the war, the Transleithanian lands were under the rule of the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I as Apostolic King of Hungary and King of Croatia and Slavonia. He was succeeded by his grand-nephew Emperor Charles I in 1916, on 18 February 1867 the Hungarian Minister-President Count Gyula Andrássy convened the diet. The Hungarian government consisted of a minister and cabinet appointed by the emperor. Joint Austro-Hungarian affairs were managed through common ministries of foreign affairs, defense, the respective ministers were responsible to delegations representing separate Austrian and Hungarian parliaments. The compromise designated that commercial and monetary policy, tariffs, the railroad, the compromise also returned Transylvania to Hungarys jurisdiction. At Franz Josephs insistence, Hungary and Croatia reached a compromise in 1868. In fact, this half of Austria-Hungary was officially defined as a union of Kingdom of Hungary. The agreement recognized the Croatias distinct identity and granted the Croats autonomy over their internal affairs, in practice, however, this autonomy was fairly limited. The Croatian Ban would now be nominated by the Hungarian prime minister, areas of common policies included finance, currency matters, commercial policy, the post office, and the railroad
6.
Flag of Croatia
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The national flag of Croatia is one of the state symbols of Croatia. It consists of three equal size, horizontal stripes in red, white and blue. In the middle is the coat of arms of Croatia, the flag combines the colours of the flags of the Kingdom of Croatia, the Kingdom of Slavonia and the Kingdom of Dalmatia. Those three kingdoms are the constituent states of the Croatian Kingdom. The red-white-blue tricolour has been used as the Croatian flag since 1848, while the Banovina of Croatia existed within the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, it had a similar flag without the modern crown above the chequy. During the Independent State of Croatia, the flag was like the modern, also, the first field of Croatian chequy was white. While Croatia was part of SFR Yugoslavia its tricolour was the same, the star was replaced by the coat in May 1990, shortly after the first multiparty elections. The shield is in the red and white checks of Croatia, above is a crown made of shields of its various regions. From left to right they are the ancient arms of Croatia, Dubrovnik, in 1626 Grand Prince Jure Sinovčić of Dalmatia adopted the Dalmatian shield to represent the Sinovčić Royal family as the Royal familys official coat of arms. Until 1526 this coat of arms was used to represent Croatia in general, apparent from the coat of arms of several kings, Louis I, Mary, Matthias Corvinus. It is also found on the seals of Sigismund of Luxembourg, Albert II, John Zápolya, Ferdinand I. Originally the coat of arms was three lion heads on red background, turned to left
7.
Coat of arms of Croatia
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The coat of arms of the Republic of Croatia consists of one main shield and five smaller shields which form a crown over the main shield. The main coat of arms is a checkerboard that consists of 13 red and 12 silver fields and its also informally known in Croatian as šahovnica. The five smaller shields represent five different historical regions within Croatia, the checkerboard coat of arms is first attested as an official symbol of the kingdom of Croatia on an Innsbruck tower depicting the emblem of Maximilian I, Archduke of Austria in 1495. It appeared on a seal from the Cetingrad Charter that confirmed the 1527 election of Ferdinand I, the origin of the design has often been purported as being medieval. Historic tradition states it to be the arms of Stephen Držislav in the 10th century, the size of the checkerboard ranges from 3×3 to 8×8, but most commonly 5×5, like in the current design. It was traditionally conjectured that the colours originally represented two ancient Croat states, Red Croatia and White Croatia, but there is no evidence to support this. Towards the Late Middle Ages the distinction for the three crown lands was made, the šahovnica was used as the coat of arms of Croatia proper & together with the shields of Slavonia and Dalmatia was often used to represent the whole of Croatia in Austria-Hungary. It was used as a coat of arms of the Kingdom of Croatia adopted in 1848. When the Banovina of Croatia was formed, the šahovnica was retained as the official symbol, the Ustashe regime which had ruled Croatia during the World War II superimposed their ideological symbol, the letter U above or around the šahovnica as the official national symbol during their rule. After the Second World War, the new Socialist Republic of Croatia became a part of the federal Second Yugoslavia, the šahovnica was included in the new socialist coat of arms. It was designed in the socialist tradition, including symbols like wheat for peasants and an anvil for workers, as well as a sun to symbolize a new morning. The choice of upper left square red or upper left square white was often dictated by heraldic laws, the first-field-white variant was adopted by the Republic of Croatia and used briefly in 1990. The new design added the five crowning shields which represent the regions from which Croatia originated. The government has accepted their criticism insofar as not accepting further non-traditional designs for the county coats of arms, unlike in many countries, Croatian design more commonly uses symbolism from the coat of arms, rather than from the Croatian flag. This is partly due to the design of the shield which makes it appropriate for use in many graphic contexts. Most coats of arms used in the crown on the coat of arms differ significantly from historically accurate versions. Michael McAdamas, Croatia - Myth and Reality
8.
Zagreb
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Zagreb is the capital and the largest city of Croatia. It is located in the northwest of the country, along the Sava river, Zagreb lies at an elevation of approximately 122 m above sea level. In the last official census of 2011 the population of the City of Zagreb was 792,875, the wider Zagreb metropolitan area includes the City of Zagreb and the separate Zagreb County bringing the total metropolitan area population up to 1,237,887. It is the biggest metropolitan area in Croatia, and the one with a population of over one million. Zagreb is a city with a history dating from the Roman times to the present day. The oldest settlement located in the vicinity of the city was the Roman Andautonia, the name Zagreb is recorded in 1134, in reference to the foundation of the settlement at Kaptol in 1094. Zagreb became a royal town in 1242. In 1851 Zagreb had its first mayor, Janko Kamauf, and in 1945 it was made the capital of Croatia when the demographic boom, the city extends over 30 kilometres east-west and around 20 kilometres north-south. The transport connections, concentration of industry, scientific, and research institutions, Zagreb is the seat of the central government, administrative bodies, and almost all government ministries. Almost all of the largest Croatian companies, media, and scientific institutions have their headquarters in the city and it is a city known for its diverse economy, high quality of living, museums, sporting, and entertainment events. Its main branches of economy are high-tech industries and the service sector, the etymology of the name Zagreb is unclear. It was used of the city only from 1852, but it had been in use as the name of the Zagreb dioecese since the 12th century. The name is first recorded in a charter by Ostrogon archbishop Felician, dated 1134, the older form of the name is Zagrab, the modern Croatian form Zagreb is first recorded in a 1689 map by Nicolas Sanson. An even older form is reflected in Hungarian Zabrag, for this, Desy proposes the etymology of Chabrag, a well-attested hypocorism of the name Cyprian. The same form is reflected in a number of Hungarian toponyms, the name Agram was used in German in the Habsburg period, this name has been classified as probably of Roman origin but according to Desy it could be an Austrian German reanalysis of *Zugram. In Middle Latin and Modern Latin, Zagreb is known as Agranum, in Croatian folk etymology, the name of the city has been derived from either the verb za-grab-, meaning to scoop or to dig. One folk legend illustrating this derivation ties the name to a drought of the early 14th century, in another legend, a city governor is thirsty and orders a girl named Manda to scoop water from Manduševac well, using the imperative, zagrabi, Mando. The oldest settlement located near todays Zagreb was a Roman town of Andautonia, now Šćitarjevo, Gradec and Kaptol were united in 1851 by ban Josip Jelačić, who was credited for this, with the naming the main city square, Ban Jelačić Square in his honour
9.
Franz Joseph I of Austria
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Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, and many others from 2 December 1848 until his death on 21 November 1916. From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866 he was also President of the German Confederation, in December 1848, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne at Olomouc as part of Ministerpräsident Felix zu Schwarzenbergs plan to end the Revolutions of 1848 in Hungary. This allowed Ferdinands nephew Franz Joseph to accede to the throne, largely considered to be a reactionary, Franz Joseph spent his early reign resisting constitutionalism in his domains. Franz Joseph was troubled by nationalism during his entire reign and he concluded the Ausgleich of 1867, which granted greater autonomy to Hungary, hence transforming the Austrian Empire into the Austro-Hungarian Empire under his dual monarchy. After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria-Hungary turned its attention to the Balkans, the Bosnian crisis was a result of Franz Josephs annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, which had been occupied by his troops since the Congress of Berlin. On 28 June 1914, the assassination of his nephew Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo resulted in Austria-Hungarys declaration of war against the Kingdom of Serbia and this activated a system of alliances which resulted in World War I. Franz Joseph died on 21 November 1916, after ruling his domains for almost 68 years and he was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles. His name in German was Franz Joseph I and I and his names in other languages were, Croatian and Bosnian, Franjo Josip I. Ukrainian, Фра́нц Йо́сиф I, Romanian, Francisc Iosif Slovene, serbian, Фрања Јосиф Franz Joseph was born in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, the eldest son of Archduke Franz Karl, and his wife Princess Sophie of Bavaria. Franzl came to idolise his grandfather, der Gute Kaiser Franz, at the age of thirteen, Franzl started a career as a colonel in the Austrian army. From that point onward, his fashion was dictated by army style, Franz Joseph was soon joined by three younger brothers, Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Archduke Karl Ludwig, and Archduke Ludwig Viktor, and a sister, Maria Anna, who died at the age of four. Instead, Franz was sent to the front in Italy, joining Field Marshal Radetzky on campaign on 29 April, by all accounts he handled his first military experience calmly and with dignity. Around the same time, the Imperial Family was fleeing revolutionary Vienna for the setting of Innsbruck. Soon, the Archduke was called back from Italy, joining the rest of his family at Innsbruck by mid-June. It was at Innsbruck at this time that Franz Joseph first met his cousin Elisabeth, his bride, then a girl of ten. Following victory over the Italians at Custoza in late July, the court felt safe to return to Vienna, but within a few months Vienna again appeared unsafe, and in September the court left again, this time for Olomouc in Moravia. By now, Prince Alfred I of Windisch-Grätz, the military commander in Bohemia, was determined to see the young Archduke soon put on the throne. By the abdication of his uncle Ferdinand and the renunciation of his father, at this time he first became known by his second as well as his first Christian name
10.
Charles I of Austria
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Charles I was the last ruler of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was the last Emperor of Austria, the last King of Hungary, and he spent the remaining years of his life attempting to restore the monarchy until his death in 1922. Following his beatification by the Catholic Church in 2004, he has become known as Blessed Charles of Austria. Charles was born 17 August 1887 in the Castle of Persenbeug in Lower Austria and his parents were Archduke Otto Franz of Austria and Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony. At the time, his granduncle Franz Joseph reigned as Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, as a child, Archduke Charles was reared a devout Roman Catholic. He spent his early years wherever his fathers regiment happened to be stationed, later on he lived in Vienna and he was privately educated, but, contrary to the custom ruling in the imperial family, he attended a public gymnasium for the sake of demonstrations in scientific subjects. In 1907, he was declared of age and Prince Zdenko Lobkowitz was appointed his chamberlain, in the next few years he carried out his military duties in various Bohemian garrison towns. In 1911, Charles married Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma and they had met as children but did not see one another for almost ten years, as each pursued their education. In 1909, his Dragoon regiment was stationed at Brandýs nad Labem in Bohemia and it was during one of these visits that Charles and Zita became reacquainted. Due to Franz Ferdinands morganatic marriage in 1900, his children were excluded from the succession, as a result, the Emperor severely pressured Charles to marry. Zita not only shared Charles devout Catholicism, but also a royal lineage. Zita later recalled, Charles became heir presumptive after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914, only at this time did the old Emperor take steps to initiate the heir-presumptive to his crown in affairs of state. But the outbreak of World War I interfered with this political education, Charles spent his time during the first phase of the war at headquarters at Teschen, but exercised no military influence. Charles then became a Feldmarschall in the Austro-Hungarian Army, in the spring of 1916, in connection with the offensive against Italy, he was entrusted with the command of the XX. Corps, whose affections the heir-presumptive to the throne won by his affability, the offensive, after a successful start, soon came to a standstill. Shortly afterwards, Charles went to the front as commander of an army operating against the Russians and Romanians. Charles succeeded to the thrones in November 1916, after the death of his grand-uncle, on 2 December 1916, he assumed the title of Supreme Commander of the whole army from Archduke Friedrich. His coronation as King of Hungary occurred on 30 December, in 1917, Charles secretly entered into peace negotiations with France
11.
Ban of Croatia
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Ban of Croatia was the title of local rulers or office holders and after 1102 viceroys of Croatia. From earliest periods of Croatian state, some provinces were ruled by Bans as a rulers representative, in the 18th century, Croatian bans eventually become chief government officials in Croatia. They were at the head of Bans Government, effectively the first prime ministers of Croatia, the institution of ban in Croatia persisted until the 20th century. References from the earliest periods are scarce, but history recalls that the first known Croatian ban is Pribina in the 10th century, Ban on his territory was pursuing administrative, judicial and military authority. The meaning of the title was elevated to that of governor in the Kingdom of Croatia. Croatia was governed by the ban as a whole between 1102 and 1225, when it was split into two separate banovinas, Slavonia and Croatia. Two different bans were appointed until 1476, when the institution of a single ban was resumed. Most of bans were native nobles but some were also of Hungarian ancestry, most notable bans from this period were Pavao Šubić, Petar Berislavić. From 1225 to 1476 there were bans of the Croatia and Dalmatia. The following is the list of the former, the latter are listed at Ban of Slavonia, during the period of separate titles of ban, several persons held both titles, which is indicated in the notes. After the death of King Louis I of Hungary, his daughter Mary succeeded to the throne, a war erupted between forces loyal to Mary and later to her husband and successor, Sigismund of Luxembourg, and those loyal to Ladislaus. During this time, Sigismund appointed Nikola II Gorjanski the ban of Croatia and Dalmatia in 1392, Butko Kurjaković in 1394, and then again Gorjanski in the period 1394–1397. Nikola Gorjanski, between 1397 and 1402, was also at the time the Ban of Slavonia, succeeded by Ladislav Grdevacki, Pavao Besenyő, Pavao Pecz, Ladislaus in turn appointed his own bans, including Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić. In 1409, this struggle was resolved when Ladislaus sold his rights over Dalmatia to the Republic of Venice. Among the most distinguished bans in Croatian history were the three members of Šubić/Zrinski family - Nikola Šubić Zrinski and his great-grandsons Nikola Zrinski and Petar Zrinski, in the 18th century, Croatian bans eventually become chief government officials in Croatia. They were at the head of Bans Government, effectively the first prime ministers of Croatia, between then and 1918 the following bans were appointed, Ban was also the title of the governor of each province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941. The weight of the title was far less than that of a medieval bans feudal office, most of Croatian territory was divided between Sava and Littoral Banovina, but also some parts were outside this provinces. In 1939 Banovina of Croatia was created with Cvetković-Maček agreement as a unit of limited autonomy and it consisted of Sava and Littoral Banovina along with smaller parts of Vrbas, Zeta, Drina and Danube Banovinas
12.
Levin Rauch
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Baron Levin Rauch de Nyék was an Austrian-Hungarian politician and appointed Ban of Croatia-Slavonia between 1867 and 1871. He is most notable for securing victory of the Unionist Party through changing the election law, Rauch was a member of the unionist party that advocated an integration of Croatia and Hungary. By this, the Croatian autonomy within the Hungarian kingdom was automatically abolished, during this time a new Croatian-Hungarian Settlement was negotiated and put in effect by which Croatia reinstated some of its earlier autonomy, but also lost some other rights. Rauch was made the ban on December 8,1868. His heritage spawns from the house of “Rauch” literally meaning ‘Smoke’. The daughter of General Gustav Rauch, Rosalie von Rauch, married Prince Albert of Prussia, at this time, Princess Rosalie assumed the title of Countess von Hohenau. Povijest država i prava naroda SFR Jugoslavije
13.
Croatian Parliament
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The Croatian Parliament or the Sabor is the unicameral representative body of the citizens of the Republic of Croatia, it is Croatias legislature. Under the terms of the Croatian Constitution, the Sabor represents the people and is vested with legislative power, the Sabor is composed of 151 members elected to a four-year term on the basis of direct, universal and equal suffrage by secret ballot. The Sabor is presided over by a Speaker, who is assisted by at least one deputy speaker, the Sabors powers are defined by the Constitution and they include, defining economic, legal and political relations in Croatia, preservation and use of its heritage and entering into alliances. The Sabor has the right to deploy the Croatian armed forces abroad, the oldest Sabor with extant records was held in Zagreb on 19 April 1273. This was the Sabor of Slavonia, and not of Croatia and Dalmatia, the earliest Sabor of the Kingdom of Croatia and Dalmatia dates to 1351. The Parliament session held in 1527 in Cetin affirmed the House of Habsburg as Croatian rulers, after this, the Sabor became a regular gathering of the nobility, and its official title gradually stabilised by 1558 as the Parliament of the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia. Since 1681, it has formally called the Diet of the Kingdom of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia. In 1712, the Sabor once again invoked its prerogative to select the ruler, since the mid-1800s, the Sabor has regularly met and its members have been regularly elected. The Sabor did not meet between 1918 and 1945, except for an unelected Sabor convened in 1942, the Sabor initially reconvened as an assembly of ZAVNOH in 1943 and evolved since through various structures following the November 1945 elections and several changes of the constitution. The Parliament represents the citizens of the Republic of Croatia, it acts as the countrys legislature, the sessions are open to the public. The parliament may authorise the government to enact regulations dealing with matters normally covered by parliamentary acts, such regulations expire one year after the authorisation is issued. The authorisation does not apply to matters that must be decided upon by a parliamentary two-thirds vote, legislation enacted by the parliament is either endorsed by the President of Croatia within eight days or referred to the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Croatia. The members are granted immunity, their criminal prosecution is possible only after parliamentary consent. The parliament may appoint investigative commissions for any matter of public interest, the Croatian parliaments powers are defined by the Constitution of Croatia. The parliament has the right to deploy Croatian armed forces abroad, in addition, in those circumstances parliamentary members terms may be extended. The parliament reserves the right to amend the borders of Croatia, becoming the Prime Minister of Croatia requires majority support in the parliament. The Government is responsible to the parliament, some institutions, such as the Croatian National Bank. The parliament appoints an ombudsman to promote and protect rights and liberties established by the constitution, parliamentary legislation
14.
New Imperialism
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New Imperialism or Neo-imperialism was a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and the Empire of Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The period is distinguished by a pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new advances and developments, making their territory bigger through conquest. During the era of New Imperialism, the Western powers conquered almost all of Africa, the new wave of imperialism reflected ongoing rivalries among the great powers, the economic desire for new resources and markets, and a civilizing mission ethos. Many of the colonies established during this era gained independence during the era of decolonization that followed World War II, the qualifier new is used to differentiate between imperialism which generally refers to the first wave of European colonization between the 15th and early 19th centuries. In the first wave of colonization, European powers conquered and colonized the Americas and later established outposts in Africa, the American Revolution and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America around 1820 ended the first era of European imperialism. Especially in Great Britain these revolutions helped show the deficiencies of mercantilism, in 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed and manufacturers gained, as the regulations enforced by the Corn Laws had slowed their businesses. With the repeal in place, the manufacturers were able to trade more freely. Thus, Britain began to adopt the concept of free trade, the establishment of nation-states in Germany and Italy resolved territorial issues that had kept potential rivals embroiled in internal affairs at the heart of Europe, to Britains advantage. The years from 1871 to 1914 would be marked by an unstable peace. The imposition of rule in terms of effective occupation necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples. One of the goals of the conference was to reach agreements over trade, navigation, however, of all of the 15 nations in attendance of the Berlin Conference, none of the countries represented were African. The main dominating powers of the conference were France, Germany, Great Britain and they remapped Africa without considering the cultural and linguistic borders that were already established. At the end of the conference, Africa was divided into 50 different colonies, the attendants established who was in control of each of these newly divided colonies. They also planned, noncommittally, to end the trade in Africa. In Britain, the age of new imperialism marked a time for significant economic changes, because the country was the first to industrialize, Britain was technologically ahead of many other countries throughout the majority of the nineteenth century. However, by the end of the century, other countries such as Germany, the United States, Russia. After several decades of monopoly, the country was battling to maintain a dominant economic position while other became more involved in international markets
15.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
16.
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
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The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, or Composition of 1867, established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The Compromise partially re-established the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hungary, separate from, and no longer subject to, under the Compromise, the lands of the House of Habsburg were reorganized as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Cisleithanian and Transleithanian regions were governed by separate parliaments and prime ministers, the armed forces were combined with the Emperor-King as commander-in-chief. The names conventionally used for the two realms were derived from the river Leitha, or Lajta, a tributary of the Danube and the traditional border between Austrian and Magyar lands. The Leitha did not, however, form the border, nor was its whole course part of the border. Hungarian political leaders had two main goals, according to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, only three people contributed to the compromise, There were three of us who made the agreement, Deák, Andrássy and myself. In the Middle Ages Austria was a quasi-independent state within the Holy Roman Empire, ruled by the House of Habsburg, in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, Hungary was defeated and partially conquered by the Ottoman Empire. The young king Louis II of Hungary, who had no legitimate heir, the crown of Hungary was inherited by the Habsburgs. The Ottomans were subsequently out of Hungary in 1699. From 1526 to 1804, Austria and Hungary were in a union under the Habsburgs. In 1804, Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, until the 1848 revolution, the workings of the overarching structure and the status of its component lands stayed much the same as they had been under the composite monarchy that existed before 1804. Hungarys affairs continued to be administered by its own institutions as they had been previously, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The Holy Roman Empire was abolished in 1806, after the Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, the independent customs system of Hungary was abolished, and Hungary became part of the unified imperial customs system on 1 October 1851. In the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Magyars came close to regaining independence, after the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under martial law. Prime Minister Félix von Schwarzenberg and his government, operating from November 1848, the centralist March Constitution of Austria introduced the so-called neo-absolutism in Habsburg ruled territories, and it provided absolute power for the monarch. A military dictatorship was created in Hungary, every aspect of Hungarian life was put under close scrutiny and governmental control. German became the language of public administration
17.
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
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Although internationally unrecognized, this was the first incarnation of a Yugoslav state and had been founded on the Pan-Slavic ideology behind the incentive. A month after it was proclaimed, the State joined the Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, in 1918, the final year of World War I, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was suffering from an internal crisis caused by unrest amongst its numerous Slavic populations. The neighbouring duchies of Styria and the Carinthia also included a significant South Slavic population, transleithania, The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and Fiume were under Hungarian jurisdiction. The Kingdom of Hungary itself included a significant South Slavic populations in Prekmurje, Međimurje, Baranja and territories that had part of the Voivodeship of Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, activities to strengthen pro-Yugoslav forces in the Transleithanian Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia were initiated by the Yugoslav parliamentary club, a group of South Slavic deputies in the Reichsrat. Significantly, however, the ruling Croat-Serb Coalition and its opposition the Croatian Peoples Peasant Party were excluded, in July and August 1918, the so-called Peoples organizations of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs were formed in Split, Sušak and Ljubljana to advance these policies. In late August, the Croatia-Slavonia parties met again in Zagreb to discuss how to proceed and, in particular, how to gain the support of the Croat-Serb Coalition. On September 14,1918, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Burián issued a statement advocating a settlement of World War I by peace treaty, by early October, the Slovene-Croat-Serb movement were planning to set up a National Assembly. At the same time, the organizers obtained support from the Croatian Peoples Peasant Party, on October 5 and 6, a provisional assembly was convened and the formation of executive committees begun. Seats were apportioned to members of all parties, but not without acrimony over the ad hoc nature of the proceedings, the National Council or the Peoples Council was established on 5–8 October 1918 in Zagreb, as an extension of the decisions reached in March 1918. The Council established its own Central Committee and Presidency, while one member of the Council was to be representative of a 100,000 people, in addition, it comprised five representatives of Croatian Sabor, the Diet of Bosnia and Reichsrat for a total of 95 representatives. 32 voting members were required to form the quorum, and two-thirds majority was needed for any decisions, members of regional parliaments were allowed to attend as non-voting observers. The Council elected up to 30 Central Committee members, who could appoint further 10 to the committee by a two-thirds vote, numerous meetings were held during October, and on October 16 Emperor Karl made a declaration on the federalization of Cisleithania. The Ministry of War had also decided to allow the military commands to approach the peoples councils in order to help maintain law. All this was taken as a sign that the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was disintegrating, the state was proclaimed officially on 29 October 1918. Its first president was a Slovene, Anton Korošec, the two vice presidents were a Serb, Svetozar Pribićević, and a Croat, Ante Pavelić. The new state aspired to include all territories of the former Austria-Hungary that were inhabited by Slovenes, Croats. Vojvodina then joined the Kingdom of Serbia on 25 November 1918, one day earlier, on 24 November 1918, the region of Syrmia, which had become part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, seceded and also joined the Kingdom of Serbia
18.
Austro-Hungarian gulden
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The Gulden or forint was the currency of the lands of the House of Habsburg between 1754 and 1892, when it was replaced by the Krone/korona as part of the introduction of the gold standard. In Austria, the Gulden was initially divided into 60 Kreuzer, and in Hungary, the currency was decimalized in 1857, using the same names for the unit and subunit. The name Gulden was used on the pre-1867 Austrian banknotes and on the German language side of the post-1867 banknotes, in southern Germany, the word Gulden was the standard word for a major currency unit. The name Florin was used on Austrian coins and forint was used on the Hungarian language side of the post-1867 banknotes and it comes from the city of Florence, Italy where the first florins were minted. Until 1806, Austria was the state of the Holy Roman Empire. Following the winding up of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, in 1857, the Vereinsthaler was introduced across the German Confederation and Austria-Hungary, with a silver content of 16 2⁄3 grams. This was slightly less than 1 1⁄2 times the content of the Gulden. Consequently, Austria-Hungary adopted a new standard for the Gulden, containing two-thirds as much silver as the Vereinsthaler and this involved a debasement of the currency of 4. 97%. Austria-Hungary also decimalized at the time, resulting in a new currency system of 100 Kreuzer =1 Gulden. In 1892 the Austro-Hungarian Gulden was replaced by the Krone, at a rate of 2 Krone =1 Gulden, copper coins were initially issued in denominations of 1 Heller up to 1 Kreuzer, with silver coins in denominations from 3 Kreuzer up to 1 Conventionsthaler. The Turkish and Napoleonic Wars led to issues in various denominations. These included a 12 Kreuzer coin which only contained 6 Kreuzer worth of silver and was later overstruck to produce a 7 Kreuzer coin, in 1807, copper coins were issued in denominations of 15 and 30 Kreuzer by the Wiener Stadt Banco. These issues were tied in value to the paper money. The coinage returned to its state after 1814. The only copper coin was a poltura worth 1 1⁄2 krajczár, whilst there were silver 3,5,10,20 and 30 krajczár, all issues ceased in 1794 and did not resume until 1830, when silver coins of 20 krajczár and above were issued. Only in 1868, following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, did an issue of coins for Hungary begin. Denominations were fewer than in Austria, with copper 1⁄2,1 and 4 krajczár, silver 10 and 20 krajczár and 1 forint, between 1759 and 1811, the Wiener Stadt Banco issued paper money denominated in Gulden. However, the banknotes were not tied to the coinage and their values floated relative to one another, in 1858, new notes were issued denominated in Austrian Currency rather than Convention Currency
19.
Austro-Hungarian krone
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The Krone or korona was the official currency of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1892 until the dissolution of the empire in 1918. The subunit was one hundredth of the unit, and was called a Heller in the Austrian. The official name of the currency was Krone in Austria and Osztrák–magyar korona in Hungary, the Latin form Corona, abbreviated to Cor. on the smaller coins, was used for the coinage of the mostly German-speaking part of the empire known as Cisleithania. These terms all translate to the English word crown, the symbol of the currency was the abbreviation K. or sometimes Kr. After several earlier attempts the Austro-Hungarian Empire adopted the standard in 1892 according to a plan drawn up by Minister of Finance Sándor Wekerle. This plan included the introduction of the new currency, the Krone and it consisted of 100 Heller or Fillér. The value of the Krone was set at 2 Kronen =1 Gulden of the previous silver-based currency, from 1900 onward, Krone notes were the only legal banknotes of the Empire. The currency depreciated sharply as a result of the First World War, Czechoslovakia followed suit in February 1919, and on 12 March 1919 the new Republic of Austria stamped the notes circulating in its territory with DEUTSCHÖSTERREICH. In August 1922 consumer prices were 14,000 times greater than before the start of the war eight years earlier, the highest-denomination banknote issued was the 500,000 Kronen note, issued in 1922. Faith in the currency had been lost, and people spent money as fast as they received it, in October 1922 Austria secured a loan of 650 million gold Kronen from the League of Nations, with a League of Nations Commissioner supervising the countrys finances. This stabilized the currency at a rate of 14,400 paper Kronen to 1 gold Krone, on 2 January 1923 the Austrian National Bank began operations, taking over control of the currency from the Austro-Hungarian Bank which had gone into liquidation. In December 1923 the Austrian Parliament authorised the government to issue silver 5,000,10,000, and 20, 000-kronen coins which were to be designated half-Schilling, Schilling, and double Schilling. The Schilling became the currency of Austria currency on 20 December 1924. In 1920 this was replaced by the dinar at a rate of 1 dinar =4 Kronen, in Czechoslovakia the currency was superseded by the koruna, at par. The names of the koruna and haléř and the pre-Euro koruna and halier are derived from the Austro-Hungarian Krone. The Fiume Krone - was introduced on 18 April 1919 by over-printing the existing Austro-Hungarian Krone notes, there were two issues, the 1919/21 Issue, and the 1920 Issue. The over-printed notes were in circulation from April 1919 to February 1921, in September 1920 the Italian Lira was introduced as the official currency. The unofficial exchange rate to the lira was 2.5 FiuK to 1 Lira, in Hungary the Austro-Hungarian currency was overstamped and then replaced by the Hungarian korona at par
20.
Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)
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The Kingdom of Croatia was an administrative division that existed between 1527 and 1868 within the Habsburg Monarchy. The Kingdom was a part of the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen, between 1744 and 1868 the Kingdom of Croatia included a subordinate autonomous kingdom, the Kingdom of Slavonia. The territory of the Slavonian Kingdom was recovered from the Ottoman Empire, in 1744 these territories were organized as the Kingdom of Slavonia and included within the Kingdom of Croatia as an autonomous part. In 1868 both were merged again into the newly formed Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, following the Battle of Mohács, in 1527 the Croatian and Hungarian nobles needed to decide on a new king. The bulk of the Croatian nobility convened the Croatian Parliament in Cetin, some of the nobles dissented and supported John Zápolya, but the Habsburg option prevailed by 1540, when John Zápolya died. Territory retaken from the Ottoman Empire was formed in 1745 as the Kingdom of Slavonia, in 1804 the Habsburg Monarchy became the Austrian Empire which annexed the Venetian Republic in 1814 and established the Kingdom of Dalmatia. Stephen in the Hungarian part of the Empire, while the Kingdom of Dalmatia became a Kronland in the Austrian part of the Empire. The new Kingdom claimed the Kingdom of Dalmatia, as the remaining Croatian land in the Empire, and often referred to itself as the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. The change of leadership was far from a solution to the war with the Ottomans, in fact, Croatian territory under Habsburg rule was 25 years later reduced to about 20,000 km². In 1558, the parliaments of Croatia and Slavonia were united after many centuries into one, the centre of the Croatian state moved northward from coastal Dalmatia, as these lands were conquered by the Ottomans. The town of Zagreb gained importance, as did nearby Varaždin, taking advantage of the growing conflict between Maximilian and Sigismund, Suleyman started his sixth raid of Hungary in 1565 with 100,000 troops. They successfully progressed northwards until 1566 when they took a detour to capture the outpost of Siget which they failed to capture ten years previously. The small fort was defended by Count Nikola Šubić Zrinski and 2 and they were able to hold their ground for a month, and decimated the Ottoman army before being wiped out themselves. This siege, now known as the Battle of Szigetvár, bought time to allow Austrian troops to regroup before the Ottomans could reach Vienna. Ambroz Matija Gubec and other leaders of the mutiny raised peasants to arms in over sixty fiefs throughout the country in January 1573, Matija Gubec and thousands of others were publicly executed shortly thereafter, in a rather brutal manner in order to set an example for others. After the Bihać fort finally fell to the army of the Bosnian vizier Hasan Pasha Predojević in 1592, the remaining 16,800 km² where around 400,000 inhabitants lived were referred to as the remnants of remnants of the once great and renowned Kingdom of Croatia. By the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was driven out of Ottoman Hungary and Croatia, subsequently, the empress made significant contributions to Croatian matters, by making several changes in the administrative control of the Military Frontier, the feudal and tax system. The empress also gave the independent port of Rijeka to Croatia in 1776, however, she also ignored the Croatian Parliament
21.
Kingdom of Slavonia
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The Kingdom of Slavonia was a province of the Habsburg Monarchy and the Austrian Empire that existed from 1699 to 1868. The province included parts of present-day regions of Slavonia and Syrmia. The southern parts of regions were part of the Slavonian Military Frontier. The Kingdom of Slavonia was bounded by the Kingdom of Croatia to the west, the Kingdom of Hungary to the north and the east, together with the Slavonian Military Frontier it had about 6600 sq. miles. It was divided into the three counties of Požega, Virovitica and Syrmia, besides a chain of mountains in the middle of the province, the remaining part of Slavonian Kingdom consisted of fertile eminences planted with vines and fruit trees and extensive plains. The Kingdom of Slavonia was formed from territories that Habsburg Monarchy gained from Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of Karlowitz, initially, it was a separate Habsburg land under joint civil-military administration that lasted from 1699 to 1745. The inhabitants were exempted from taxes, but were bound to military service, after the end of the Great Turkish War, Slavonia was left desolated as around 80% of its pre-war population fled. In order to improve its demographics, people fled from Slavonia. Settlers from Bosnia also started migrating to Slavonia, fleeing from the Ottomans, in 1691 around 22,300 Catholics from Bosnian Posavina moved to Slavonia. It is estimated that around 40,000 people lived in Slavonia in 1696, in 1698 its population increased to 80,000. The 1802 Austrian population data for the Kingdom of Slavonia recorded 148,000 Catholics,135,000 Orthodox and 3,500 Protestants, only men were counted in that census. There were,74,671 Roman Catholics,68,390 Orthodox Christians,1,744 Calvinists,97 Lutherans and 160 Jews, number of Orthodox Christians was higher in Syrmia,32,090 Orthodox Christians and 12,633 Roman Catholics. In other two counties of Slavonia, Požega and Virovitica, as in city of Požega, Roman Catholics outnumbered Orthodox population, agriculture and the breeding of cattle were the most profitable occupations of the inhabitants. It produced corn of all kinds, hemp, flax, tobacco, the quantity of wine produced was also large, especially in the county of Srijem. In 1857 industrial employment was highest in the County of Osijek, Kingdom of Croatia Sanjak of Požega Slavonian Military Frontier Kingdom of Dalmatia Timeline of Croatian history
22.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
23.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
24.
Slavonia
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Slavonia is, with Dalmatia, Croatia proper, and Istria, one of the four historical regions of Croatia. The counties cover 12,556 square kilometres or 22. 2% of Croatia, inhabited by 806, the largest city in the region is Osijek, followed by Slavonski Brod and Vinkovci. It is located in the Pannonian Basin, largely bordered by the Danube, in the west, the region consists of the Sava and Drava valleys, and the mountains surrounding the Požega Valley, and plains in the east. Slavonia enjoys a continental climate, with relatively low precipitation. It was later incorporated into the Kingdom of Croatia and, after its decline, the Ottoman conquest of Slavonia took place in 1536 to 1552. In 1699, after the Great Turkish War, Slavonia was transferred to the Habsburgs, reform of the empire through the Compromise of 1867 assigned it to the Hungarian part of the realm, and a year later to the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. In 1918, when Austria-Hungary dissolved, Slavonia was a part of the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats, during the Croatian War of Independence, Slavonia saw fierce fighting, including the Battle of Vukovar. The economy of Slavonia is largely based on processing industry, trade, transport, the gross domestic product of the five counties of Slavonia is worth 6,454 million euro or 8,005 euro per capita,27. 5% below national average. The GDP of the five counties represents 13. 6% of Croatias GDP, Slavonia contributed to the culture of Croatia, through art, writers, poets and art patronage. The cuisine of Slavonia reflects diverse influences—a blend of traditional and foreign elements, Slavonia is one of Croatias winemaking areas, with Ilok and Kutjevo recognized as centres of wine production. The name Slavonia originated in the Early Middle Ages, the area was named after the Slavs who settled there and called themselves *Slověne. The area bounded by those rivers was called *Slověnьje in the Proto-Slavic language, the word subsequently evolved to its various present forms in the Slavic languages, and other languages adopted the term. Remnants of several Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions of Croatia, the most significant cultures whose presence was found include the Starčevo culture whose finds were discovered near Slavonski Brod and dated to 6100–5200 BC, Vučedol and Baden cultures. Most finds attributed to the Baden and Vučedol cultures are discovered in the area around Vukovar, extending to Osijek, the Baden culture sites in Slavonia are dated to 3600–3300 BC, and Vučedol culture finds are dated to 3000–2500 BC. The Iron Age left traces of the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture, much later, the region was settled by Illyrians and other tribes, including the Pannonians, who controlled much of present-day Slavonia. Even though archaeological finds of Illyrian settlements are much sparser than in areas closer to the Adriatic Sea, significant discoveries, the Pannonians first came into contact with the Roman Republic in 35 BC, when the Romans conquered Segestica, or modern-day Sisak. The conquest was completed in 11 BC, when the Roman province of Illyricum was established, the province was renamed Pannonia and divided within two decades. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, which included the occupied by modern-day Slavonia
25.
Illyria
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In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians. The prehistory of Illyria and the Illyrians is known from archaeological evidence, the Romans conquered the region in 168 BC in the aftermath of the Illyrian Wars. The Roman term Illyris was sometimes used to define an area north of the Aous valley, in Greek mythology, the name of Illyria is aetiologically traced to Illyrius, the son of Cadmus and Harmonia, who eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the Illyrians. A later version of the myth identifies Polyphemus and Galatea as parents of Celtus, Galas, ancient Greek writers used the name Illyrian to describe peoples between the Liburnians and Epirus. In the Roman period, Illyricum was used for the area between the Adriatic and Danube, the term was in a way of pars pro toto. The earliest recorded Illyrian kingdom was that of the Enchele in the 8th century BC, the era in which we observe other Illyrian kingdoms begins approximately at 400 BC and ends at 167 BC. The Autariatae under Pleurias were considered to have been a kingdom, the Kingdom of the Ardiaei began at 230 BC and ended at 167 BC. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardyllis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last, Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. As for the Dardanians, they always had separate domains from the rest of the Illyrians, the Illyrian kingdoms were composed of small areas within the region of Illyria. Only the Romans ruled the entire region, polybius gives as an image of society within an Illyrian kingdom as peasant infantry fought under aristocrats which he calls in Greek Polydynastae where each one controlled a town within the kingdom. The monarchy was established on hereditary lines and Illyrian rulers used marriages as a means of alliance with other powers, pliny writes that the people that formed the nucleus of the Illyrian kingdom were Illyrians proper or Illyrii Proprie Dicti. They were the Taulantii, the Pleraei, the Endirudini, Sasaei, Grabaei and these later joined to form the Docleatae. The Romans defeated Gentius, the last king of Illyria, at Scodra in 168 BC and captured him, four client-republics were set up, which were in fact ruled by Rome. Later, the region was governed by Rome and organized as a province. The Roman province of Illyricum replaced the independent kingdom of Illyria. It stretched from the Drilon river in modern Albania to Istria in the west, although this division occurred in 10 AD, the term Illyria remained in use in Late Latin and throughout the medieval period. After the division of the Roman Empire, the bishops of Thessalonica appointed papal vicars for Illyricum, the first of these vicars is said to have been Bishop Acholius or Ascholius, the friend of St. Basil. The patriarchs of Constantinople succeeded in bringing Illyria under their jurisdiction in the 8th century, several armorials of the Early modern period, popularly called the Illyrian Armorials, depicted fictional coats of arms of Illyria
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Pannonia
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Pannonia was an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Julius Pokorny believes the name Pannonia is derived from Illyrian, from the Proto-Indo-European root *pen-, swamp, water, the Ionian Danube fleet reached as far as Boio-Aria, populated until the late 8th century CE by Celts and Slavs under Aryan rulers. Pliny the Elder, in Natural History, places the eastern regions of the Hercynium jugum and he also gives us some dramaticised description of its composition, in which the close proximity of the forest trees causes competitive struggle among them. But even he—if the passage in question is not an interpolated marginal gloss—is subject to the legends of the gloomy forest and he mentions unusual birds, which have feathers that shine like fires at night. Medieval bestiaries named these birds the Ercinee, the first inhabitants of this area known to history were the Pannonii, a group of Indo-European tribes akin to Illyrians. From the 4th century BC, it was invaded by various Celtic tribes, little is heard of Pannonia until 35 BC, when its inhabitants, allies of the Dalmatians, were attacked by Augustus, who conquered and occupied Siscia. The country was not, however, definitively subdued by the Romans until 9 BC, when it was incorporated into Illyricum, the frontier of which was thus extended as far as the Danube. After the rebellion was crushed in AD9, the province of Illyricum was dissolved, the date of the division is unknown, most certainly after AD20 but before AD50. The proximity of dangerous barbarian tribes necessitated the presence of a number of troops. Some time between the years 102 and 107, between the first and second Dacian wars, Trajan divided the province into Pannonia Superior, and Pannonia Inferior. According to Ptolemy, these divisions were separated by a line drawn from Arrabona in the north to Servitium in the south, later, the whole country was sometimes called the Pannonias. Pannonia Superior was under the legate, who had formerly administered the single province. Pannonia Inferior was at first under a praetorian legate with a single legion as the garrison, after Marcus Aurelius, it was under a consular legate, the frontier on the Danube was protected by the establishment of the two colonies Aelia Mursia and Aelia Aquincum by Hadrian. In the 4th-5th century, one of the dioceses of the Roman Empire was known as the Diocese of Pannonia. It had its capital in Sirmium and included all four provinces that were formed from historical Pannonia, as well as the provinces of Dalmatia, following the Migrations Period in the middle of the 5th century, Pannonia was ceded to the Huns by Theodosius II. After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers of Ostrogoths were settled by Emperor Marcian in the province as foederati, afterwards, it was again invaded by the Avars in the 560s, the Slavs, who first settled c. This language and the culture became extinct with the arrival of the Magyars. The native settlements consisted of pagi containing a number of vici, the cities and towns in Pannonia were, The country was fairly productive, especially after the great forests had been cleared by Probus and Galerius
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Municipium Iasorum
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Municipium Iasorum or Res publica Iasorum was an autonomous territory in ancient Roman Pannonia, located in the area around present-day town of Daruvar. Its administrative center was the town of Municipium Iasorum, located in or near present-day Daruvar, the territory of the region extended from the Sava to the Drava. Terms Res Publica Iasorum and Municipium Iasorum referred to both the center of the region, and the area that was under its jurisdiction. Other terms for the region include Jasoru Republic, Respublik Iasoru and Respublica Jassorum, while terms for the town itself included Aquae Balissae, Jasi. The first written sources that could refer to areas of southern Pannonia offer information about the Pannonian -Celtic tribe of the Iasi. Iasi were autochtonic people of Pannonia, but there is possibility of their distant Iranian origin, the first contact of the Iasi with the Romans is attributed to the period of the latters penetration to Segestica in 159 or 156 BC. After the repression of the major rebellion headed by Bato, the Romans founded a camp in the Daruvar basin. Through the process of Romanization, the tribal civitas acquired the status of Res Publica Iasorum, with the partition of Pannonia at the beginning of the 2nd century, it belonged to Pannonia Superior. Inscriptions founded in the ruins of ancient Roman bath near Daruvar are indicating that republic dedicated this bath to Roman emperor Commodus
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Gepids
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The Gepids were an East Germanic tribe. They were closely related to, or a subdivision of, the Goths and they are first recorded in 6th-century historiography as having been allied with the Goths in the invasion of Dacia in c. In the 4th century, they were incorporated into the Hunnic Empire, under their leader Ardaric, the Gepids united with other Germanic tribes and defeated the Huns at the Battle of Nedao in 454. The Gepids then founded a kingdom centered on Sirmium, known as Gepidia, remnants of the Gepids were conquered by the Avars later in the 6th century. Jordanes reports that their name is from gepanta, an insult meaning sluggish, an Old English form of their name is recorded in Widsith, as Gefþ-, alongside the name of the Wends. The Gepids were the most shadowy of all the major Germanic peoples of the migration period, neither Tacitus nor Ptolemy mentioned them in their detailed lists of the barbarians, suggesting that the Gepids emerged only in the 3rd century AD. The first sporadic references to them, which were recorded in the late 3rd century, the 6th-century Byzantine writer, Procopius, listed the Gepids among the Gothic nations, along with the Vandals, Visigoths and Goths proper, in his Wars of Justinian. All information of the Gepids origins came from malicious and convoluted Gothic legends, according to Jordanes narration the northern island of Scandza, which is associated with Sweden by modern scholars, was the original homeland of the ancestors of the Goths and Gepids. They left Scandza in three boats under the leadership of Berig, the legendary Gothic King, Jordanes also writes that the Gepids ancestors traveled in the last of the three ships, for which their fellows mocked them as gepanta, or slow and stolid. They settled along the shore of the Baltic Sea on an island at mouth of the Vistula River, called Gepedoius, or the Gepids fruitful meadows. Jordanes passage in his Getica is the following, Should you ask how the and Gepidae are kinsmen, I can tell you in a few words. One of these three ships proved to be slower than the others, as is usually the case, and thus is said to have given the tribe their name, for in their language gepanta means slow. Hence it came to pass that gradually and by corruption the name Gepidae was coined for them by way of reproach. For undoubtedly they too trace their origin from the stock of the Goths, but because, as I have said, gepanta means something slow and stolid, the word Gepidae arose as a gratuitous name of reproach. Modern historians who write of the Gepids early history tend to apply a mixed argumentation, according to Jordanes, the Gepids decided to leave Gepedoius during the reign of their legendary king, Fastida. They moved to the south and defeated the Burgundians, after the victory, Fastida demanded land from Ostrogotha, King of the Visigoths, because the Gepids territory was hemmed in by rugged mountains and dense forests. Ostrogotha refused Fastidas demand and the Gepids joined battle with the Goths at the town of Galtis, near which the river Auha flowed and they fought until darkness when Fastida and his Gepids withdrew from the battlefield and returned to their land. Archaeologist Kurdt Horedt writes that the battle took place east of the Carpathian Mountains after 248, on the other hand, historian István Bóna says that the two armies clashed in the former province of Dacia around 290
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Avar Khaganate
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The Avar Khaganate was a khanate established in the Pannonian Basin region in 567 by the Avars, a nomadic people of uncertain origins and ethno-linguistic affiliation. As the Göktürk Empire expanded westwards, the Khagan Bayan I led a group of Avars and Bulgars out of their reach, in 557 the Avars sent an embassy to Constantinople, marking their first contact with the Byzantine Empire—presumably from the northern Caucasus. In exchange for gold, they agreed to subjugate the unruly gentes on behalf of the Byzantines and they conquered and incorporated various nomadic tribes—Kutrigurs and Sabirs—and defeated the Antes. By 562 the Avars controlled the lower Danube basin and the north of the Black Sea. By the time they arrived in the Balkans, the Avars formed a group of about 20,000 horsemen. After the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I bought them off, they pushed northwestwards into Germania, however, Frankish opposition halted the Avars expansion in that direction. The Avars turned their attention to the Carpathian Plain and to the natural defenses it afforded, however, the Carpathian basin was then occupied by the Gepids. In 567 the Avars formed an alliance with the Lombards—enemies of the Gepids—and together they destroyed much of the Gepid Kingdom, the Avars then persuaded the Lombards to move into northern Italy, an invasion that marked the last Germanic mass-movement in the Migration Period. After devastating much of the Sclavenes land, the Avars returned to Pannonia after many of the Khagans subjects deserted to the Byzantine Emperor. By 600 the Avars had established a nomadic empire ruling over a multitude of peoples, by about 580, the Avar Khagan Bayan I had established supremacy over most of Slavic, Bulgar, Vlachs and Germanic tribes living in Pannonia and the Carpathian Basin. When the Byzantine Empire was unable to pay subsidies or hire Avar mercenaries, according to Menander, Bayan commanded an army of 10,000 Kutrigur Bulgars and sacked Dalmatia in 568, effectively cutting the Byzantine terrestrial link with North Italy and Western Europe. By 582, the Avars had captured Sirmium, an important fort in Pannonia, when the Byzantines refused to increase the stipend amount as requested by Bayans son and successor Bayan II, the Avars proceeded to capture Singidunum and Viminacium. They suffered setbacks, however, during Maurices Balkan campaigns in the 590s, after being defeated in their homeland, some Avars defected to the Byzantines in 602, but Emperor Maurice decided not to return home as was customary. He maintained his army camp beyond the Danube throughout the winter and this gave the Avars a desperately needed respite. They attempted an invasion of northern Italy in 610, the ongoing Byzantine civil war prompted a Persian invasion and after 615, the Avars enjoyed a free hand in the undefended Balkans. When now the Wendish army went against the Huns, the merchant Samo accompanied the same, and so the Samo’s bravery proved itself in wonderful ways and a huge mass of Huns fell to the sword of the Wends. While negotiating with Emperor Heraclius beneath the walls of Constantinople in 617, while they were unable to capture the city centre they pillaged the suburbs of the city and took 270,000 captives. Payments in gold and goods to the Avars reached the sum of 200,000 solidi shortly before 626
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Lower Pannonia (9th century)
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The Slavic counts were predominantly under Frankish suzerainty, part of Frankish Pannonia, and are known from Frankish primary sources. In the mid-9th century, Lower Pannonia was inhabited by a Slavic majority, during the reign of Justinian I, in the mid-6th century, the Avars that stayed in Dobrudja had demanded Byzantine territory, but refused the offer of Lower Pannonia. After Justin II discontinued the tribute to the Avars, they marched on Eastern Frankish territory, the Royal Frankish Annals makes mention of a Wonomyrus Sclavus active in 795. Eric, Duke of Friuli, sent Vojnomir with his army into Pannonia, the next year the Avars were defeated and Frankish power was extended further east, to the central Danube. Initially, the Slavic counts were under Frankish suzerainty, part of Frankish Pannonia, ljudevit was mentioned in the Frankish Annals as Liudewitus, dux Pannoniae inferioris, having led an uprising against the Franks, joined by the Carantanians and other Slavic tribes. In 827, the Bulgars under Great Khan Omurtag invaded and conquered Lower Pannonia, in 829 the Bulgars imposed a local Slavic prince, Ratimir, as the new ruler of Pannonia. His province is believed to have been the territory of Roman Pannonia Savia, in 838, nine years later, following the Bulgar conquest of Macedonia, the Danubian count Radbod, prefect of the East March, deposed Ratimir and restored Frankish rule in Pannonia. Ratimir fled the land, and the Franks next instated Slavic princes Pribina, in the mid-9th century, Lower Pannonia was inhabited by a Slavic majority. Christian Avars were found in Lower Pannonia in 873, braslav was the Duke of Lower Pannonia between 884 and 896. His territory initially spanned between the Drava and Sava, which he held under the overlordship of Arnulf of Carinthia, Principality of Nitra East Francia Great Moravia Principality of Hungary Duchy of the Croats Luthar, Oto. The Land Between, A History of Slovenia, ponovno o Srbima u Hrvatskoj u 9. Savez povijesnih društava Hrvatske, Faculty of Philosophy, Zagreb, od Hrvata pak koji su stigli u Dalmaciju odvojio se jedan dio i zavladao Ilirikom i Panonijom, Razmatranja uz DAI c
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Croatia in union with Hungary
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With the coronation of King Coloman of Hungary as King of Croatia and Dalmatia in 1102 in Biograd, the realm passed to the Árpád dynasty until 1301, when the line of the dynasty died out. Then, kings from the Capetian House of Anjou, who were also descendants of the Árpád kings. Various powerful nobles emerged in the period, like Paul I Šubić of Bribir and Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić. The Ottoman incursion into Europe in the 16th century significantly reduced Croatian territories and left the country weak, the last common king was Louis II from the Jagiellonian dynasty. After his death in 1526 during the Battle of Mohács and a period of dynastic dispute. Some of the terms of Colomans coronation and the status of the Croatian nobles are detailed in the Pacta Conventa. In addition, the Croatian nobles retained their lands and titles, the diplomatic name of the kingdom was Kingdom of Croatia and Dalmatia until 1359 when a plural form kingdoms came to use. The change was a consequence of the victory of Louis I against the Republic of Venice, however, the kingdom was still mostly referred to as the Kingdom of Croatia and Dalmatia until Venice regained the Dalmatian coast in 1409. The most common Croatian language form of the name was Hrvatska zemlja, Demetrius Zvonimir was the King of Croatia of the Svetoslavić branch of the House of Trpimirović. He began as a Ban of Slavonia and then as Duke of Croatia in the service of Peter Krešimir IV, Peter declared him his heir and, in 1075, Demetrius Zvonimir succeeded to the Croatian throne. Zvonimir married Helen of Hungary from the dynasty in 1063. Helen was a Hungarian princess, daughter of Béla I, and they had a son, Radovan, who died in his late teens or early twenties. After Zvonimirs death in 1089, he was succeeded by Stephen II, stephens rule was relatively ineffectual and lasted less than two years. He spent most of time in the tranquility of the monastery of St. Stephen beneath the Pines near Split. Stephen II died peacefully at the beginning of 1091, without leaving an heir, since there was no living male member of the House of Trpimirović, civil war and unrest broke out in Croatia shortly afterward. The widow of late King Zvonimir, Helen, tried to keep her power in Croatia during the succession crisis, according to some sources, several Dalmatian cities also asked King Ladislaus for assistance, presenting themselves as White Croats on his court. Thus the campaign launched by Ladislaus was not purely a foreign aggression nor did he appear on the Croatian throne as a conqueror, in 1091 Ladislaus crossed the Drava river and conquered the entire province of Slavonia without encountering opposition, but his campaign was halted near the Iron Mountains. Since the Croatian nobles were divided, Ladislaus had success in his campaign, yet he wasnt able to establish his control over entire Croatia, although the exact extent of his conquest is not known
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Sanjak of Pojega
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The Sanjak of Pojega was an administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire formed around 1538. It existed until the Treaty of Karlowitz, when the region was transferred to the Habsburg Monarchy and it was located in present-day eastern Croatia, in Slavonia region. The capital of the sanjak was Pojega, the first defter in the sanjak was held in 1540. The Sanjak of Pojega included territory between Sava and Drava rivers and at first was part of the Rumelia Eyalet, in 1541, it was included into Budin Eyalet, in 1580 into Bosnia Eyalet, in 1596 into Zigetvar Eyalet, and in 1600 into Kanije Eyalet. The Sanjak of Požega was one of six Ottoman sanjaks with most developed shipbuilding, because of the substantial number of Vlachs, parts of the Sanjak of Pakrac and Sanjak of Požega were referred to as Mala Vlaška. However, triggered by the last administrative changes, a mutiny started in Pojega in 1611, mutiners requested that Sanjak of Pojega should be returned to the jurisdiction of the Bosnia Eyalet. Because of the mutiny, the decision from 1600 was changed, after Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Slankamen, the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz transferred territory of the sanjak to the Habsburg Monarchy, thus the Sanjak of Pojega no longer existed. The last sanjak-bey of the Sanjak of Pojega was Ibrahim-pasha, subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire Slavonia
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Sanjak of Pakrac
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The Sanjak of Pakrac or Sanjak of Čazma or Sanjak of Cernica was one of the sanjaks of the Ottoman Empire whose capital was first Zaçasna and then Pakrac and Cernik in Ottoman Slavonia. It was established after the Ottomans captured Slavonia in mid 16th century, the Ottomans captured Pakrac in 1543. Its territory was not immediately established as separate sanjak, until 1544 it first belonged to the Kobašu kadiluk of Bosnian sanjak by 1544. In 1544 the Ottomans established kadiluk in Velika to which this territory was ceded, only in second half of the 16th century they established a kadiluk in Pakrac. Because of the number of Vlachs, parts of the Sanjak of Pakrac. The Sanjak of Pakrac was established in 1552 or 1557, in 1559 Čazma was destroyed and seat of this sanjak was moved to Pakrac. The earliest document which refer to this sanjak as Sanjak of Pakrac is defter from 1565, the first sanjakbey of this sanjak was Ferhad-beg Desisalić-Vuković from Herzegovina. The Sanjak of Pakrac belonged first to Rumelia Eyalet and since 1580 to Bosnia Eyalet, initially, its western frontier was river Česma. In 1591 the frontier moved and stabilized more eastward, according to one defter of second half of the 16th century, this sanjak had 13 nahiyahs. There were 15 defters of the Sanjak of Pakrac, all in the half of the 16th century. In the defter of 1563 it is mentioned that captain of the region around river Sava was Husein, in 1586 forces under command of Ali-beg, sanjakbey of the Sanjak of Pakrac and brother of Ferhad Pasha Sokolović. In 1593 the Ottoman forces from the Sanjak of Pakrac under command of its sanjakbey Džafer-beg participated in the Battle of Sisak, centre of Pakrac Sanjak was moved to Çernik in 1601. Sanjak of Pakrac existed till Austrian capture in 1691, finally Austrian conquest was finalized with Treaty of Karlowitz and existence of it was ended in 1699
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Sanjak of Syrmia
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Sanjak of Syrmia was an administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire formed in 1541. It was located in the Syrmia region and was part of the Budin Province, administrative center of the Sanjak of Syrmia was from 1542 Uyluk and in the second half of the 17th century it was Dimitrofça. Most of the sanjak was ceded to Austria according to Treaty of Karlovitz in 1699, remainder of the territory of sanjak was transferred to Sanjak of Semendire and was later also ceded to Austria according to Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718. Population of villages was entirely Serb, while population of towns, the largest city in sanjak was Dimitrofça, which, according to 1545-48 data was mainly populated by Serbs and according to 1566-69 data mainly by Muslims. Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire Syrmia Dr. Dušan J. Popović, Srbi u Vojvodini, knjiga 1, N. Moačanin, Slavonija i Srijem u razdoblju osmanske vladavine,2001. Željko Holjevac, Nenad Moačanin, Hrvatsko-slavonska Vojna krajina i Hrvati pod vlašću Osmanskoga carstva u ranome novom vijeku,2007, seher Mitrovica - Mitrovica under the Turkish rule
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Great Turkish War
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The war was a defeat for the Ottoman Empire, which lost large amounts of territory in Central Europe. The war was significant in that it marked the first time Russia was involved in a western European alliance. After Bohdan Khmelnytskys rebellion, when the Tsardom of Russia acquired parts of Eastern Ukraine from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and their leader, Petro Doroshenko, wanted to connect the rest of Ukraine with the Ottoman Empire, starting a rebellion against Hetman John Sobieski. Sultan Mehmed IV, who knew that the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was weakened due to conflicts, attacked Kamianets-Podilskyi. The small Polish force resisted the Siege of Kamenets for two weeks but was forced to capitulate. The Polish Army was too small to resist the Ottoman invasion, after three months, the Poles were forced to sign the Treaty of Buchach in which they agreed to surrender Kamyanets-Podilsky, Podolia and to pay tribute to the Ottoman Sultan. When the news about the defeat and treaty terms reached Warsaw, the Sejm refused to pay the tribute and organized an army under Jan Sobieski, subsequently. After King Michaels death in 1673, Jan Sobieski was elected king of Poland, he tried to defeat the Ottomans for four years. The war ended on 17 October 1676 with the Treaty of Żurawno in which the Turks only retained control over Kamianets-Podilskyi and this Turkish attack also led in 1676 to the beginning of the Russo-Turkish Wars. After a few years of peace, the Ottoman Empire attacked the Habsburg Empire, the Turks almost captured Vienna, but John III Sobieski led a Christian alliance that defeated them in the Battle of Vienna, stalling the Ottoman Empires hegemony in south-eastern Europe. A new Holy League was initiated by Pope Innocent XI and encompassed the Holy Roman Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the second Battle of Mohács was a crushing defeat for the Sultan. The Turks were more successful on the Polish front and were able to retain Podolia during their battles with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, russias involvement marked the first time the country formally joined an alliance of European powers. This was the beginning of a series of Russo-Turkish Wars, which continued into the 20th century, as a result of the Crimean campaigns and Azov campaigns, Russia captured the key Ottoman fortress of Azov. Following the decisive Battle of Zenta in 1697 and lesser skirmishes, the Ottomans ceded most of Hungary, Transylvania and Slavonia to the Habsburg Empire while Podolia returned to Poland. Most of Dalmatia passed to Venice, along with the Morea, Serbs, as volunteers, massively joined the Austrian side. In the first half of 1688, the Habsburg army, together with units of Serbian Militia, captured Gyula, Lipova and Ineu from the Ottoman Empire. After Belgrade had been liberated from the Ottomans in 1688, Serbs from the territories in the south of Sava and Danube rivers began to join Serbian Militia units. However, with the rise of the Ottomans, during the 16th and early 17th centuries, they lost most of these, such as Cyprus and Euboea to the Turks
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Slavonian Military Frontier
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The Slavonian Military Frontier was divided between three regiments, Regiment N°VII, based at Vinkovci, Regiment N°VIII, based at Nova Gradiška and Regiment N°IX, based at Petrovaradin. Other important towns in the area included Sremski Karlovci, Stara Pazova, Zemun, during the history, name Slavonian Military Frontier referred to different territories. It was first located in what is now Central Croatia and was known as the Varaždin generalat and it was created from territories that had been part of medieval Banovina of Slavonia. After the Treaty of Karlowitz, Habsburg Monarchy expanded its territory towards east and new sections of the Military Frontier were founded along the Sava, Danube, Tisa and Mureş rivers. New parts of the frontier were divided into two generalats, the first one included territory from Gradiška to river Tisa and the one included territories along the Tisa. Until the middle of the 18th century, the entire Slavonia region was under military administration, in 1745, northern parts of Slavonia were placed under civil administration and were organized into the newly formed Habsburg crownland known as the Kingdom of Slavonia. In 1783 it was placed under the control of the Croatian General Command headquartered in Zagreb. After the creation of the Principality of Serbia in 1815, this was their southeastern neighbor, in 1776, the rural population of the Slavonian military frontier was 177,212. The number of Roman Catholic men was 43,635, while number of Orthodox men was 33,970, the number of inhabitants of cities was 11,353, and that giving a total of 188,565 inhabitants. In Brod and Gradiška regiments Catholics outnumbered the minority Orthodox, in 1820, population of Slavonian Military Frontier included 117,933 Catholics and 117,274 Orthodox Christians. In 1870, Slavonian military frontier had, according to census,246,901 inhabitants. Of that number 143,873 were Roman Catholic and 92,991 were Orthodox, Brod regiment had 82,540 inhabitants out of which 73,892 were Roman Catholic and 6,886 were Orthodox. Gradiška regiment had 61,596 inhabitants out of which 45,601 were Roman Catholic and 15,933 were Orthodox, Petrovaradin regiment had 102,765 inhabitants out of which 70,172 were Orthodox and 24,380 were Roman Catholic. Mladen Lorković, Narod i zemlja Hrvata, reprint, Split,2005, the Brod Fortress Croatian Military Frontier Kingdom of Slavonia Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
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Sava Banovina
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The Sava Banovina or Sava Banate, was a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1939. It was named for the Sava River and consisted of much of the present-day Croatia, until 1931, it also comprised White Carniola, now part of Slovenia. The capital city of the Sava Banovina was Zagreb, according to the 1931 Constitution of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, The Sava Banovina is bounded on the north, as far as the river Mura, by the. It then follows the course of the river Sava to the mouth of the river Una, the boundary then passes along the southern boundary of the districts of Gračac and Gospić, which it includes. In 1939, the Sava Banovina was merged with the Littoral Banovina, in 1941, the World War II Axis Powers occupied the former area of the Sava Banovina. Small areas were annexed by Fascist Italy and Hungary with the remainder becoming a part of the Independent State of Croatia, following World War II, the region was made a part of Croatia within a federal Communist Yugoslavia. The following is the list of people who held the title of Ban of Sava Banovina, = acting Kingdom of Yugoslavia The Constitution of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
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Banovina of Croatia
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The Banovina of Croatia or Banate of Croatia was an autonomous province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1939 and 1943. It was formed by combining the Sava Banovina and Littoral Banovina, but also small parts of the Drina, Zeta. Its capital was Zagreb and it included most of present-day Croatia along with portions of Bosnia and Herzegovina and it included area of 65,456 km2 and had population of 4,024,601. The Ban of the Banovina of Croatia during this period was Ivan Šubašić, following a struggle within the unitary Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Croat leaders won autonomy for a new ethnic-based banovina with the Cvetković-Maček Agreement. On the basis of the agreement between Dragiša Cvetković and Vlatko Maček, and the Decree on the Banate of Croatia dated 24 August 1939. The entire area of the Sava and Littoral Banovinas was combined and parts of the Vrbas, Zeta, Drina, prince Regent Paul appointed a new government with Cvetković as prime minister and Maček as vice prime minister, but it gained little support. In 1941, the World War II Axis Powers occupied Yugoslavia, legally, the Banovina of Croatia remained a part of the occupied Kingdom of Yugoslavia, while the Axis proceeded to dismember Yugoslav territory and the Banovina along with it. Some of the areas from Split to Zadar and near the Gulf of Kotor were annexed by Fascist Italy. As the Kingdom of Yugoslavia became the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia with the success of the Yugoslav Partisans, in 1939, the banovina of Croatia had a population of 4,299,430 of which three quarters was Roman Catholic, one-fifth was Orthodox, and 4 percent was Muslim. The banovina was divided into 116 districts of which 95 had an absolute and 5 had a relative Catholic majority, the Croatian Football Federation was the governing body of football within the Banovina. It organized a league and a national team. The Banovina of Croatia had four matches, two pairs of home-and-away matches against Switzerland and Hungary. The Croatian Rowing Championships were held on 29 June 1940, Croatia mens national ice hockey team played its first friendly game against Slovakia on February 9,1941 in Bratislava and lost 6-1. The Croatian Boxing Federation was reconstituted on 5 October 1939 as the body of boxing within the entire Banovina of Croatia. Kingdom of Yugoslavia Socialist Republic of Croatia Timeline of Croatian history Velikonja, Mitja, religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina. College Station, Texas A&M University Press, map of Yugoslav banovinas with the Banovina of Croatia
39.
Croatian War of Independence
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In Croatia, the war is primarily referred to as the Homeland War and also as the Greater-Serbian Aggression. In Serbian sources, War in Croatia and War in Krajina are used, Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991, but agreed to postpone it with the Brioni Agreement and cut all remaining ties with Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991. The JNA initially tried to keep Croatia within Yugoslavia by occupying all of Croatia, after this failed, Serb forces established the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina within Croatia. During that time, the RSK encompassed 13,913 square kilometers, in 1995, Croatia launched two major offensives known as Operation Flash and Operation Storm, which would effectively end the war in its favor. The remaining United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja, the war ended with Croatian victory, as it achieved the goals it had declared at the beginning of the war, independence and preservation of its borders. 21–25% of Croatias economy was ruined, with an estimated US$37 billion in damaged infrastructure, lost output, a total of 20,000 people were killed in the war, and refugees were displaced on both sides. The Serb and Croatian governments began to cooperate with each other but tension remains, in part due to verdicts by the ICTY. Between 2008 and 2012, the ICTY had prosecuted Croatian generals Ante Gotovina, Mladen Markač, Čermak was acquitted outright, and the convictions of Gotovina and Markač were later overturned by an ICTY Appeals Panel. The International Court of Justice dismissed Croatia and Serbia genocide claims in 2015, the Court reaffirmed that serious crimes against civilians had taken place, but ruled that specific genocidal intent was not present. From 1967 to 1972 in Croatia and 1968 and 1981 protests in Kosovo, nationalist doctrines, the suppression by the state of nationalists is believed to have had the effect of identifying nationalism as the primary alternative to communism itself and made it a strong underground movement. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia with the weakening of the Communist states in Eastern Europe towards the end of the Cold War, in Yugoslavia, the national communist party, officially called the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, had lost its ideological potency. SR Slovenia and SR Croatia wanted to move towards decentralization, the rhetoric was approved by the Serbian political leadership, and accused the Croatian leadership of being blindly nationalistic when it objected. In 1989, political parties were allowed and a number of them had been founded, including the Croatian Democratic Union, led by Franjo Tuđman, who later became the first president of Croatia. In January 1990, the League of Communists broke up on ethnic lines, with the Croatian, at the congress, Serbian delegates accused the Croatian and Slovene delegates of supporting separatism, terrorism and genocide in Kosovo. The Croatian and Slovene delegations, including most of their ethnic Serb members, eventually left in protest, January 1990 also marked the beginning of court cases being brought to Yugoslavias Constitutional Court on the matter of secession. The first was the Slovenian Constitutional Amendments case after Slovenia claimed the right to unilateral secession pursuant to the right of self-determination, the Constitutional Court ruled that secession from the federation was only permitted if there was the unanimous agreement of Yugoslavias republics and autonomous provinces. On 4 March 1990,50,000 Serbs rallied at Petrova Gora, and shouted negative remarks aimed at Tuđman, chanted This is Serbia, the first free elections in Croatia and Slovenia were scheduled for a few months later. The first round of elections in Croatia were held on 22 April, the HDZ based its campaign on greater sovereignty for Croatia, fueling a sentiment among Croats that only the HDZ could protect Croatia from the aspirations of Milošević towards a Greater Serbia
40.
Battle of Vukovar
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The Battle of Vukovar was an 87-day siege of Vukovar in eastern Croatia by the Yugoslav Peoples Army, supported by various paramilitary forces from Serbia, between August and November 1991. Before the Croatian War of Independence the Baroque town was a prosperous, mixed community of Croats, Serbs, as Yugoslavia began to break up, Serbias President Slobodan Milošević and Croatias President Franjo Tuđman began pursuing nationalist politics. In 1990, an insurrection was started by Croatian Serb militias, supported by the Serbian government and paramilitary groups. The JNA began to intervene in favour of the rebellion, in August, the JNA launched a full-scale attack against Croatian-held territory in eastern Slavonia, including Vukovar. During the battle, shells and rockets were fired into the town at a rate of up to 12,000 a day. At the time, it was the fiercest and most protracted battle seen in Europe since 1945, when Vukovar fell on 18 November 1991, several hundred soldiers and civilians were massacred by Serb forces and at least 20,000 inhabitants were expelled. Most of Vukovar was ethnically cleansed of its population and became part of the self-declared Republic of Serbian Krajina. Several Serb military and political officials, including Milošević, were indicted and in some cases jailed for war crimes committed during. The battle exhausted the JNA and proved a point in the Croatian war. A ceasefire was declared a few weeks later, Vukovar remained in Serb hands until 1998, when it was peacefully reintegrated into Croatia. It has since been rebuilt but has less than half of its pre-war population and its two principal ethnic communities remain deeply divided and it has not regained its former prosperity. Vukovar is an important regional centre on Croatias eastern border, situated in eastern Slavonia on the west bank of the Danube river. The area has a population of Croats, Serbs, Hungarians, Slovaks, Ruthenians and many other nationalities. It was one of the wealthiest areas of Yugoslavia before the war, Vukovars long-standing prosperity was reflected in one of Croatias finest ensembles of Baroque architecture. The region underwent major changes following the Second World War. The towns population was 47 percent Croat and 32.3 percent Serb and this left a large Serb minority in Croatian territory. In 1990, Slovenia and Croatia held elections that ended communist rule, in Croatia, the Croatian Democratic Union party of Franjo Tuđman took office, with Tuđman as President. Tuđmans programme was opposed by members of Croatias Serb minority
41.
Battle of Osijek
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The Battle of Osijek was the artillery bombardment of the Croatian city of Osijek by the Yugoslav Peoples Army which took place from August 1991 to June 1992 during the Croatian War of Independence. Shelling peaked in late November and December 1991, then diminished in 1992 after the Vance plan was accepted by the combatants, Croatian sources estimated that 6,000 artillery shells were fired against Osijek over the period. After the JNA captured Vukovar on 18 November 1991, Osijek was the target for its campaign in Croatia. In the aftermath of the Battle of Osijek, Croatian authorities charged thirteen JNA officers with war crimes against civilians, Croatian authorities also charged the wartime commander of Osijeks defence, Branimir Glavaš, and five others with war crimes committed in the city in 1991. The five were convicted and received sentences ranging between eight and ten years, and as of March 2015, judicial proceedings against Glavaš are in progress, in 1990, following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, ethnic tensions worsened. The Yugoslav Peoples Army confiscated the weapons of Croatias Territorial Defence to minimize potential resistance, on 17 August 1990, the escalating tensions turned into open revolt by the Croatian Serbs. The revolt took place in the predominantly Serb-populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin and in parts of the Lika, Kordun, Banovina regions and eastern Croatia. The request was denied on 15 March 1991, and the JNA came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević in the summer of 1991 as the Yugoslav federation started to fall apart. By the end of the month, the conflict had escalated, the JNA then stepped in to support the insurgents and prevent Croatian police from intervening. In early April, leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia announced their intention to integrate the areas under their control with Serbia, the Government of Croatia considered this an act of secession. The JNA intervened directly against Croatia for the first time on 3 July 1991, driving Croatian forces out of Baranja, north of the city of Osijek, the advance was followed by intermittent fighting around Osijek, Vukovar and Vinkovci. At several points, JNA positions approached to within several hundred yards of Osijek city limits, the JNA units near Osijek were subordinated to the 12th Corps, commanded by Major General Andrija Biorčević. In the city itself, the JNA had several barracks which housed the 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade, the 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade contained one of a handful battalions maintained by the JNA at full combat readiness. Osijek was established as their starting point in a westward offensive toward Našice. Croatian forces in the area were subordinated to the Operational Zone Command in Osijek headed by Colonel Karl Gorinšek. In practice, the defense was overseen by Branimir Glavaš, then head of the National Defence Office in Osijek. Glavaš formally became commander of city defenses on 7 December 1991, the JNA first attacked Osijek by mortar fire on 31 July 1991, and heavily bombarded the citys center on 19 August 1991. The attacks came from north, east and south of Osijek
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"Croatia-Slavonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 471–477.
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