1.
Flag of Laos
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The flag of Laos was adopted on December 2,1975. The flag had previously used by the short-lived Lao Issara government of 1945–46. The flag of Laos consists of three strips, middle blue strip is twice the height of the top and bottom red stripes. In the middle is a disc, the diameter of the disc is 4⁄5 the height of the blue stripe. The national flag of Laos was first adopted in 1945 under the Lao Issara government and then re-adopted again in 1975 and this flag replaced the 1952-1975 flag of Laos that represented the royal monarchy, which was red, with a triple-headed white elephant on a pedestal beneath a parasol. This expressed the ancient name of the country, Land of a Million Elephants, from 1953 onward the royal government waged war with the Pathet Lao, whose flag was blue with a white disk and red borders at the top and bottom. From 1973 to 1975, the Pathet Lao formed part of the government coalition, before assuming power directly and their flag was adopted as the national flag. According to the creator of the current Lao flag, Maha Sila Viravong. It is also said to represent a full moon against the Mekong River, the current Lao flag was designed in 1945 by Maha Sila Viravong, a famous Lao nationalist, intellectual, and scholar of traditional Lao literature, history, and culture. The Lao Issara, as a movement, continued to use the flag in exile until its dissolution in 1949. Its communist-led successor, the Pathet Lao, re-used Viravongs flag to represent the movement until the fall of the government in 1975 when the Pathet Lao re-adopted it as the national flag. From 1952 until the fall of the government in 1975 the country had a red flag. On top of the elephant is an umbrella, while the elephant itself stands on a five-level pedestal. The white elephant is a royal symbol in Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand. This flag was adopted by the monarchy of Luang Prabang since the beginning of the 20th century under French rule. The nine-folded umbrella is also a symbol, originating from Mount Meru in the Buddhist cosmology. The pedestal represented the law on which the country rested, Laos at Flags of the World
2.
Emblem of Laos
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The National Emblem of the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic shows the national shrine Pha That Luang. A dam is pictured which as a symbol of generation at the reservoir Nam Ngun. In the lower part is a section of a gear wheel, the inscription on the left reads Peace, Independence, Democracy and on the right, Unity and Prosperity The coat of arms was modified in August 1991 in relation to the fall of the Soviet Union. The Communist red star and hammer and sickle were replaced with the shrine at Pha That Luang. A picture of Pha That Luang Pagoda is located between the tips of the stalks of rice, a road, a paddy field, a forest and a hydroelectric dam are depicted in the middle of the circle
3.
La Marseillaise
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La Marseillaise is the national anthem of France. The song was written in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle in Strasbourg after the declaration of war by France against Austria, and was originally titled Chant de guerre pour lArmée du Rhin. The Marseillaise was a song, an anthem to freedom, a patriotic call to mobilize all the citizens. The French National Convention adopted it as the Republics anthem in 1795 and it acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching to the capital. The song is the first example of the European march anthemic style, the anthems evocative melody and lyrics have led to its widespread use as a song of revolution and its incorporation into many pieces of classical and popular music. As the French Revolution continued, the monarchies of Europe became concerned that revolutionary fervor would spread to their countries, the War of the First Coalition was an effort to stop the revolution, or at least contain it to France. Initially, the French army did not distinguish itself, and Coalition armies invaded France and that evening, Rouget de Lisle wrote Chant de guerre pour lArmée du Rhin, and dedicated the song to Marshal Nicolas Luckner, a Bavarian in French service from Cham. A plaque on the building on Place Broglie where De Dietrichs house once stood commemorates the event. The melody soon became the call to the French Revolution and was adopted as La Marseillaise after the melody was first sung on the streets by volunteers from Marseille by the end of May. A newly graduated medical doctor, Mireur later became a general under Napoléon Bonaparte, the songs lyric reflects the invasion of France by foreign armies that were under way when it was written. Strasbourg itself was attacked just a few days later, the invading forces were repulsed from France following their defeat in the Battle of Valmy. As the vast majority of Alsatians did not speak French, a German version was published in October 1792 in Colmar, the Convention accepted it as the French national anthem in a decree passed on 14 July 1795, making it Frances first anthem. It later lost this status under Napoleon I, and the song was banned outright by Louis XVIII and Charles X, only being re-instated briefly after the July Revolution of 1830. During Napoleon Is reign, Veillons au Salut de lEmpire was the anthem of the regime. Eight years later, in 1879, it was restored as Frances national anthem, several musical antecedents have been cited for the melody, Mozarts Allegro maestoso of Piano Concerto No. Only the first verse and the first chorus are sung today in France, there are some slight historical variations in the lyrics of the song, the following is the version listed at the official website of the French Presidency. Verses sung in the version of the anthem are in bold. The United States Library of Congress holds the following English translation and these verses were omitted from the national anthem
4.
Pheng Xat Lao
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Pheng Xat Lao is the national anthem of the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic. Dr. Thongdy Sounthonevichit composed the music and wrote the lyrics in 1941 and this was adopted as the national anthem of the Kingdom of Laos in 1945. The original lyrics were revised after the Pathet Lao won the Laotian Civil War, in 1893, Laos became a protectorate of France within its colonial empire. The French claimed their takeover was intended to protect Laos from its neighbours like Siam. Consequently, nationalistic sentiment did not develop as quickly as it did in Vietnam, however, the outbreak of the Second World War saw the fall of France to Nazi Germany. The new right-wing government in Siam saw this as an opportunity to reconquer Laos, to counteract this, the French actively promoted nationalism among the Lao people. As a direct result of this new liberalization, many songs were composed during this time. Pheng Xat Lao was one of them, having been composed by Dr. Thongdy Sounthonevichit in 1941, the song was chosen as the national anthem of Laos in 1945, when the king was forced by the Japanese to declare Laos independence from France. This newfound freedom was short-lived as France soon regained control of French Indochina, two years later, the French granted Laos limited autonomy within the French Union and Pheng Xat Lao once again became the national anthem. When the Pathet Lao emerged victorious in the Laotian Civil War in 1975, as a result, the anthem became all-encompassing in mentioning all ethnic groups in Laos, instead of focussing solely on the Lao race and Buddhism. However, the music from the anthem was retained. com Dookola Swiata - This travel website has an instrumental version of the Anthem
5.
Vientiane
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Vientiane is the capital and largest city of Laos, on the banks of the Mekong River near the border with Thailand. Vientiane became the capital in 1563 due to fears of a Burmese invasion, Vientiane was the administrative capital during French rule and, due to economic growth in recent times, is now the economic centre of Laos. The estimated population of the city is 760,000, the city hosted the 25th Southeast Asian Games in December 2009 celebrating the 50 years of Southeast Asian Games. The name of the city is derived from Pali, the language of Theravada Buddhism. The romanised spelling Vientiane is of French origin, and reflects the difficulty the French had in pronouncing the sound in the Lao language. A common English-based spelling is Viangchan, or occasionally Wiangchan, Thattaradtha founded a city called Maha Thani Si Phan Phao on the western banks of the Mekong River, this city was said to have later become todays Udon Thani, Thailand. One day, a seven-headed Naga told Thattaradtha to start a new city on the east bank of the river opposite Maha Thani Si Phan Phao, the prince called this city Chanthabuly Si Sattanakhanahud, which was said to be the predecessor of modern Vientiane. Contrary to the Phra Lak Phra Lam, most historians believe Vientiane was an early Khmer settlement centered around a Hindu temple, in 1354, when Fa Ngum founded the kingdom of Lan Xang. Viangchan became an important administrative city, even though it was not made the capital, King Setthathirath officially established it as the capital of Lan Xang in 1563, to avoid Burmese invasion. When Lan Xang fell apart in 1707, it became an independent Kingdom of Vientiane, in 1779, it was conquered by the Siamese general Phraya Chakri and made a vassal of Siam. When King Anouvong raised a rebellion, it was obliterated by Siamese armies in 1827. The city was burned to the ground and was looted of nearly all Laotian artifacts, including Buddha statues, Viangchan was in great disrepair, depopulated and disappearing into the forest, when the French arrived. It eventually passed to French rule in 1893 and it became the capital of the French protectorate of Laos in 1899. The French rebuilt the city and rebuilt or repaired Buddhist temples such as Pha That Luang, Haw Phra Kaew, during World War II, Viangchan fell with little resistance and was occupied by Japanese forces, under the command of Sako Masanori. On 9 March 1945 French paratroopers arrived, and reoccupied the city on 24 April 1945, as the Laotian Civil War broke out between the Royal Lao Government and the Pathet Lao, Vientiane became unstable. In August 1960, Kong Le seized the capital and insisted that Souvanna Phouma become prime minister, in mid-December, Phoumi Nosavan then seized the capital, overthrew the Phouma Government, and installed Boun Oum as prime minister. In mid-1975, Pathet Lao troops moved towards the city and Americans began evacuating the capital, on 23 August 1975, a contingent of 50 Pathet Lao women symbolically liberated the city. The next day, an Insurgency in Laos began in the jungle, with the Pathet Lao fighting factions of Hmong, Vientiane was the host of the incident-free 2009 Southeast Asian Games
6.
Luang Phabang
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The centre of the city consists of four main roads and is located on a peninsula at the confluence of the Nam Khan and Mekong River. Luang Prabang is well known for its numerous Buddhist temples and monasteries, every morning, hundreds of monks from the various monasteries walk through the streets collecting alms. The city was formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name and it had also been known by the ancient name of Chiang Thong. It was the capital and seat of government of the Kingdom of Laos. The city is part of Luang Prabang District of Luang Prabang Province and is the capital and it lies approximately 300 km north of the capital Vientiane. Currently, the population of the city as a whole is roughly 56,000 inhabitants with the UNESCO protected site being inhabited by around 24,000, Muang Sua was the old name of Luang Prabang following its conquest in 698 CE by a Tai prince, Khun Lo. Khun Lo had been awarded the town by his father, Khun Borom, who is associated with the Lao legend of the creation of the world, Khun Lo established a dynasty whose fifteen rulers reigned over an independent Muang Sua for nearly a century. In the second half of the 8th century, Nan-chao intervened frequently in the affairs of the principalities of the middle Mekong Valley, Nan-chao princes or administrators replaced the aristocracy of Tai overlords. In the meantime, the Khmers founded an outpost at Xay Fong near Vientiane, chanthaphanit, the local ruler of Xay Fong, moved north to Muang Sua and was accepted peacefully as ruler after the departure of the Nan-chao administrators. Chanthaphanit and his son had long reigns, during which the became known by the Tai name Xieng Dong Xieng Thong. The dynasty eventually became involved in the squabbles of a number of principalities, Khun Chuang, a warlike ruler who may have been a Kammu tribesman, extended his territory as a result of the warring of these principalities and ruled from 1128 to 1170. Khun Chuang, a single family ruled over a far-flung territory, at some point, Theravada Buddhism was subsumed by Mahayana Buddhism. Xieng Dong Xieng Thong experienced a period of Khmer suzerainty under Jayavarman VII from 1185 to 1191. By 1180 the Sipsong Panna had regained their independence from the Khmers, however, Xieng Dong Xieng Thong in 1353 became the capital of the Lan Xang kingdom. The capital name was changed to Luangphabang, where it was kept, the capital was moved in 1560 by King Setthathirath I to Vientiane, which remains the capital today. In 1707, Lan Xang fell apart because of a dynastic struggle, when France annexed Laos, the French recognised Luang Prabang as the royal residence of Laos. Eventually, the ruler of Luang Prabang became synonymous with the figurehead of Laos, when Laos achieved independence, the king of Luang Prabang, Sisavang Vong, became the head of state of the Kingdom of Laos. The town was the scene of events during and in the aftermath of World War II
7.
Lao language
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Lao, also referred to as Laotian, Thai Noi, is a tonal language of the Tai–Kadai language family. It is the language of Laos, and also spoken in the northeast of Thailand. The Lao language serves as an important lingua franca as the country of Laos consists of ethnic groups. Spoken Lao is mutually intelligible with the Thai language, Lao, like many languages in Laos, is written in the Lao script, an abugida. Although there is no standard, the Vientiane dialect has become the de facto standard. Oral history of the migrations is preserved in the legends of Khun Borom, Tai speakers in what is now Laos pushed out or absorbed earlier groups of Mon–Khmer and Austronesian languages. These Tai peoples are classified by the Lao government as Lao Loum or lowland Lao, Lao and Thai are also very similar and share most of their basic vocabulary, but differences in many basic words limit inter-comprehension. The Lao language consists primarily of native Lao words, because of Buddhism, however, Pali has contributed numerous terms, especially relating to religion and in conversation with members of the Sangha. Due to their proximity, Lao has influenced the Khmer and Thai languages. Formal writing has an amount of foreign loanwords, especially Pali and Sanskrit terms, much as Latin. For politeness, pronouns are used, plus ending statements with ແດ່ or ເດີ້, negative statements are made more polite by ending with ດອກ. The following are formal register examples, many consonants in Lao make a phonemic contrast between labialized and plain versions. The complete inventory of Lao consonants is as shown in the table below, hence, final /p/, /t/, and /k/ sounds are pronounced as, and respectively. * The glottal stop appears at the end when no final follows a short vowel, All vowels make a phonemic length distinction. The vowels are as shown in the table, Diphthongs are all centering diphthongs with falling sonority. There are six tones in unchecked syllables, that is. The number of tones is reduced to four in checked syllables. The only consonant clusters allowed are syllable initial clusters /kw/ or /kʰw/, any consonant may appear in the onset, but the labialized consonants do not occur before rounded vowels
8.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
9.
Constitutional monarchy
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A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as a sovereign who reigns, in addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, the oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape, the most recent country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008. At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801, Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbournes administration, today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial. No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen, with few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the years of the French Revolution. As originally conceived, a monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of servants of the people to reflect the new. In the course of Frances July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled King of the French rather than King of France, following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germanys defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy and this eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain, nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament, other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial
10.
Sisavang Vong
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Sisavang Phoulivong was king of the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang and later the Kingdom of Laos from 28 April 1904 until his death on 29 October 1959. He was born at Luang Phrabang on 14 July 1885 and his father was Zakarine, King of Luang Phrabang and his mother was Queen Thongsy. He was educated at Lycée Chasseloup-Laubat, Saigon and lÉcole Coloniale and he was known as a playboy king. He had up to 50 children by as many as 15 wives, fourteen of the children died in the Mekong after a boating accident. Luang Phrabang was then a French protectorate within French Indochina and he ascended the throne, at the old Royal Palace, Luang Prabang,15 April 1904, and was crowned there,4 March 1905. During the early years of his reign, the French built a palace for him. Under his kingdom he had united provinces Houaphan,1931, Houakhong, Xiengkhouang and Vientiane,1942, Champassak and Sayboury,1946. He was a supporter of French rule in Laos, and in 1945 he refused to cooperate with Lao nationalists. In April 1946, the French took over again and he was reinstated as king. In 1954 he celebrated his Golden Jubilee, becoming the king in Asia until King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. When he became ill, he made his son Crown Prince Savang Vatthana regent and his son succeeded him on his death in 1959. He was cremated and buried in That Luang in 1961, and during his procession was transported by the royal funeral carriage. Many representatives were at the funeral including Prince Bhanubandhu Yugala. Sisavangvong University was named in his honour, but was abolished in 1975 when the communists took power in Laos, because he presided over independence from the French Union, statues of him survived the communist revolution and remain in Luang Prabang and Vientiane. Both statues depict him in the act of bestowing a constitution upon the people
11.
Sisavang Vatthana
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Sisavang Vatthana or sometimes Savang Vatthana was the last king of the Kingdom of Laos and the 6th Prime Minister of Laos serving from 15 October to 21 November 1951. He ruled from 1959 after his fathers death until his abdication in 1975. Savang Vatthana proved unable to manage a country in political turmoil and his rule ended with the takeover by the Pathet Lao in 1975, after which he and his family were sent to a re-education camp by the new government. Prince Savang Vatthana was born on 13 November 1907 at the Royal Palace of Luang Prabang and he was the second of five children along with Princess Khampheng, Princess Sammathi, Prince Sayasack, and Prince Souphantharangsri. He was also a distant cousin of Prince Souvanna Phouma and Prince Souphanouvong, at the age of 10, Prince Savang was sent to study in France. He attended a lycée in Montpellier and obtained a degree from École Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris, the young heir continued his studies in France, and after a decade overseas, he could no longer speak Lao. Upon his return, he had to be instructed by a functionary for years. The family played together, and liked to attend major tournaments on their travels abroad. The prince was also a devout Buddhist and became an authority on the sangkha, during World War II, he represented his father with the Japanese forces. His father sent him to the Japanese headquarters in Saigon, where he vigorously protested about the Japanese actions, in 1951, he served as Prime Minister, and when his father became ill on 20 August 1959, he was named Regent. On 29 October 1959, he informally acceded upon the death of his father and he was, however, never officially crowned and anointed king, deferring his coronation until the cessation of civil war. During his reign, Savang Vatthana visited many countries on diplomatic missions, in March 1963, he toured 13 countries, including the United States, where he stopped at Washington, D. C. to meet with President Kennedy. It was the stop on a tour of 13 of the nations signatory to the Geneva Pact that guaranteed the neutrality of the Kingdom of Laos. The first stop had been Moscow, and the Russians showered gifts and he was also accompanied by his Prime Minister, Souvanna Phouma. To avoid argument over whether Souvanna or Boun Oum was the legitimate Prime Minister, in 1961, a majority of the National Assembly had already voted Boun Oum into power and King Savang Vatthana left Luang Prabang, visiting the capital to give the new government his blessing. But he wanted the Three Princes to form a coalition government, in 1964 series of coups and counter coups resulted in the final alignment of the Pathet Lao on one side with the neutralist and right wing factions on the other. From this point the Pathet Lao refused to join any offers of coalition or national elections, on 23 August 1975, Pathet Lao forces entered Vientiane, the last city to be captured. The Phouma Government became effectively powerless for the few months
12.
Prime Minister of Laos
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The Prime Minister of the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic is the head of government of Laos. It is the highest office within the Central Government, throughout its history the office of Prime Minister has been responsible, at least in theory but not always in practice, for handling Laoss internal policies. The current prime minister is Thongloun Sisoulith, since 20 April 2016 and he is second-ranked in the Political Bureau. The Prime Minister is elected by the proposal of the President of Laos to the National Assembly and is responsible to the National Assembly, finally, the deputies of the National Assembly have the right to question the Prime Minister and other members of government. The Office of the Prime Minister of the Peoples Democratic Republic traces its lineage back to Kaysone Phomvihane, the predecessor office to the Prime Minister of the Peoples Democratic Republic was the Prime Minister of the former Kingdom of Laos. There have been 7 prime ministers of the Peoples Democratic Republic, Political parties Other factions Trivia Between December 1959 to December 1960, Laos had six different Prime Ministers, who were ousted by six successive political coups. List of monarchs of Laos President of Laos
13.
Souvanna Phouma
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Prince Souvanna Phouma was the leader of the neutralist faction and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos several times from 1951–1954, 1956–1958,1960 and 1962–1975. When the French reoccupied Laos, Souvanna fled to exile in Bangkok, Souvanna Phouma and his wife had four children including Mangkra Souvanna Phouma and Princess Moune, who married Perry J. Stieglitz, cultural-affairs attaché of the U. S. embassy. In 1951, Souvanna became Prime Minister of Laos under the National Progressive Party banner with a landslide victory and he was prime minister until 1954. After elections in December 1955, Souvanna Phouma returned to the prime ministership on a platform of national reconciliation, in August 1956 Souvanna and the Communist Pathet Lao, which his half-brother Souphanouvong headed agreed on broad proposals for a ‘government of national union’. Elections for 21 extra assembly seats were held in May 1958. Souphanouvong entered the government as Economic Minister, another Pathet Lao leader, Phoumi Vongvichit, also acquired a Ministry. The United States considered Souvanna Phoumas return to office bad news, in June 1958 Souvanna was again forced to resign by the rightists. The king accepted the vote as legal the next day when he signed Royal Ordinance No,282, dismissing Souvanna Phoumas government and giving powers provisionally to the Revolutionary Committee. 283, approved a government formed by Prince Boun Oum. He was one of the Three Princes, whom Sisavang Vatthana appointed to form a government between the rightists and Pathet Lao but it collapsed, and the Laotian Civil War began. Malaysia, Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm Stieglitz, Perry
14.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
15.
Pathet Lao
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The Pathet Lao was a communist political movement and organization in Laos, formed in the mid-20th century. The group was successful in assuming political power in 1975. The Pathet Lao were always associated with Vietnamese communists. During the civil war, it was organized, equipped. They fought against the anti-communist forces in the Vietnam War, eventually, the term became the generic name for Laotian communists. The political movement of the Pathet Lao was called first the Lao Peoples Party, key Pathet Lao leaders include Prince Souphanouvong, Kaysone Phomvihane, Phoumi Vongvichit, Nouhak Phoumsavanh and Khamtay Siphandone. The political wing of the Pathet Lao, called the Lao Patriotic Front served in multiple coalition governments, through the 1960s and 1970s the Pathet Lao battled the Royal Lao government during the Laotian Civil War, gaining control of the north and east of Laos. The Pathet Lao gained power throughout the country by the spring of 1975, in December, the US-backed Vientiane government fell and the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party formed a new government. The organization can trace its roots from the Second World War just as the Khmer Issarak in Cambodia and the Viet Minh and Vietnam Peoples Army in Vietnam did in the war as well. In August 1950, Souphanouvong joined the Viet Minh in their headquarters north of Hanoi, Vietnam, the Pathet Lao founded resistance government with members, Souphanouvong, Kaysone Phomvihane, Nouhak Phoumsavanh, Phoumi Vongvichit, Souk Vongsak, Sithon Kommadam, and Faydang Lobliayao. This was an attempt to give a front of authority to the Lao communist movement by claiming to represent a united non-partisan effort. Two of its most important founders were members of the Indochinese Communist Party, in 1953, Pathet Lao fighters accompanied an invasion of Laos from Vietnam led by Viet Minh forces, they established a government at Viengxay in Houaphan province in northeast Laos. The communists began to make incursions into central Laos with the support of the Viet Minh, and a war erupted. The 1954 Geneva Conference agreements required the withdrawal of foreign forces, two months after the conference, the Viet Minh-North Vietnamese formed the unit Group 100 with headquarters at Ban Nameo. The unit effectively controlled and directed the Pathet Lao movement and it was formed into an official party, the Lao Patriotic Front, in 1956. Its stated goal was to wage the communist struggle against capitalism, unstated was its subordination to the Communist Party of Vietnam. A coalition government was established in 1957 between the monarchists and communists, but it collapsed in 1959, bringing about a resumption of fighting, by the late 1950s, North Vietnam had occupied areas of eastern Laos. The area was used as a route for men and supplies destined for the insurgency in South Vietnam
16.
Lao kip
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The kip is the currency of Laos since 1952. Historically, one kip was divided into 100 att, in 1945–1946, the Free Lao government in Vientiane issued a series of paper money in denominations of 10,20 and 50 att and 10 kip before the French authorities took control of the region. The kip was reintroduced in 1952, replacing the French Indochinese piastre at par, the kip was sub-divided into 100 att or cents. Coins were issued in denominations of 10,20 and 50 att or cents with French, all were struck in aluminium and had a hole in the centre, like the Chinese cash coins. The only year of issue was 1952, in 1953, the Laos branch of the Institut dEmission des Etats du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam issued notes dual denominated in piastre and kip. At the same time, the two other branches had similar arrangement with the riel in Cambodia and the đồng in South Vietnam, there were notes for 1,5,100 and 100 kip/piastres. In 1957, the government issued notes denominated solely in kip. The notes were for 1,5,10,20 and 50 kip printed by the Security Banknote Company,100 kip printed by the Banque de France and a commemorative 500 kip printed by Thomas De la Rue. 1 and 5 kip notes printed by Bradbury & Wilkinson, in 1963,20,50,200 and 1000 kip notes were added, all printed by De la Rue. These were followed by 100,500 and 5000 kip notes in 1974–75, a 197510 kip by Bradbury & Wilkinson and a 1000 kip by De la Rue were printed but not circulated. The Pathet Lao kip was introduced some time before 1976 in the areas which were under the control of the Pathet Lao. Banknote denominations of 1,10,20,50,100,200 and 500 kip were issued, the notes were printed in China. In 1976, the Pathet Lao kip replaced the Royal kip throughout Laos following the Pathet Laos take over of the country, the exchange rate between the two kip was 1 Pathet Lao kip =20 royal kip. On 16 December 1979, the old Pathet Lao “Liberation” kip was replaced by the new Lao kip at a rate of 100 to 1. These were followed by commemorative 1,5,10,20 and 50 kip in 1985 for the 10 year anniversary of the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic. However, due to the toll of the Soviet collapse in 1991. Kaysone Phomvihane is pictured on the obverse of the 2,000,5,000,10,000,20,000,50,000, and 100,000 kip banknotes. S
17.
French Indochina
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French Indochina, officially known as the Indochinese Union after 1887 and the Indochinese Federation after 1947, was a grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia. A grouping of the three Vietnamese regions of Tonkin, Annam, and Cochinchina with Cambodia was formed in 1887, Laos was added in 1893 and the leased Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan in 1898. The capital was moved from Saigon to Hanoi in 1902 and again to Da Lat in 1939, in 1945 it was moved back to Hanoi. After the Fall of France during World War II, the colony was administered by the Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, beginning in May 1941, the Viet Minh, a communist army led by Hồ Chí Minh, began a revolt against the Japanese. In August 1945 they declared Vietnamese independence and extended the war, known as the First Indochina War, in Saigon, the anti-Communist State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, was granted independence in 1949. On 9 November 1953, the Kingdom of Laos and the Kingdom of Cambodia became independent, following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the French evacuated Vietnam and French Indochina came to an end. France–Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes, at this time, Vietnam was only just beginning to occupy the Mekong Delta, former territory of the Indianised kingdom of Champa which they had defeated in 1471. European involvement in Vietnam was confined to trade during the 18th century, pigneau died in Vietnam but his troops fought on until 1802 in the French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh. France was heavily involved in Vietnam in the 19th century, protecting the work of the Paris Foreign Missions Society in the country was presented as a justification. In 1858, the period of unification under the Nguyễn dynasty ended with a successful attack on Da Nang by French Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly under the orders of Napoleon III. Diplomat Charles de Montignys mission having failed, Genouillys mission was to stop attempts to expel Catholic missionaries and his orders were to stop the persecution of missionaries and assure the unimpeded propagation of the faith. In September 1858, fourteen French gunships,3,000 men and 300 Filipino troops provided by the Spanish attacked the port of Tourane, causing significant damage, after a few months, Rigault had to leave the city due to supply issues and illnesses. Sailing south, de Genouilly then captured the poorly defended city of Saigon on 18 February 1859, on 13 April 1862, the Vietnamese government was forced to cede the three provinces of Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Định Tường to France. French policy four years saw a reversal, with the French continuing to accumulate territory. In 1862, France obtained concessions from Emperor Tự Đức, ceding three treaty ports in Annam and Tonkin, and all of Cochinchina, the latter being formally declared a French territory in 1864. In 1867 the provinces of Châu Đốc, Hà Tiên and Vĩnh Long were added to French-controlled territory, in 1863, the Cambodian king Norodom had requested the establishment of a French protectorate over his country. France obtained control over northern Vietnam following its victory over China in the Sino-French War, French Indochina was formed on 17 October 1887 from Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina and the Kingdom of Cambodia, Laos was added after the Franco-Siamese War in 1893. The federation lasted until 21 July 1954, French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-1880s they had established a firm grip over the northern region
18.
Laos
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Present day Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to the kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Khao, which existed for four centuries as one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Due to Lan Xangs central geographical location in Southeast Asia, the kingdom was able to become a hub for overland trade. After a period of conflict, Lan Xang broke off into three separate kingdoms— Luang Phabang, Vientiane and Champasak. In 1893, it became a French protectorate, with the three territories uniting to form what is now known as the country of Laos and it briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese occupation, but returned to French rule until it was granted autonomy in 1949. Laos became independent in 1953, with a monarchy under Sisavang Vong. Shortly after independence, a civil war ended the monarchy. Laos is a one-party socialist republic and it espouses Marxism and is governed by the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party, in which the party leadership is dominated by military figures. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Vietnam Peoples Army continue to have significant influence in Laos, other large cities include Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, and Pakse. Laos is a country with the politically and culturally dominant Lao people making up approximately 60 percent of the population. Mon-Khmer groups, the Hmong, and other hill tribes, accounting for 40 percent of the population, live in the foothills. It is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, Laos applied for membership of the World Trade Organization in 1997, on 2 February 2013, it was granted full membership. According to the anti-corruption non-governmental organisation Transparency International, Laos remains one of the most corrupt countries in the world and this has deterred foreign investment and created major problems with the rule of law, including the nations ability to enforce contract and business regulation. This has contributed to a third of the population of Laos currently living below the poverty line. Laos has an economy, with one of the lowest annual incomes in the world. In 2014, the country ranked 141st on the Human Development Index, according to the Global Hunger Index, Laos ranks as the 29th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation. Laos has also had a human rights record. In the Lao language, the name is Muang Lao or Pathet Lao. Stone artefacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Late Pleistocene in northern Laos, archaeological evidence suggests agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC
19.
Royal Lao Government in Exile
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The Royal Lao Government in Exile claims to be a Lao government in exile opposed to the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic. Its purports to seek to institute a constitutional monarchy in Laos that ensures freedom, justice, peace, in 1972, he traveled to the United States with a Lao delegation to speak to Secretary of State Henry Kissinger concerning a series of proposed Geneva Convention treaties. The Supreme National Political Council in Exile is reportedly chaired by H. E, phraya Sithidej, former Lao Governor, former Lao Congressman and former President of Political and Law Commission of the Lao National Parliament. H. He was the Vice-President of the Supreme National Political Council in Exile until his death in 2004, Prince Monivong Kindavong was born in 1928, received education in École des Officiers d’Applications, in 1973 he was promoted as a Brigadier-General of the Royal Lao Army. Prince Monivong Kindavongs father is H. H, Prince Kindama Varman, who was a Delegate for Upper Laos and representative of H. M. The King to the Provisional Government of France in 1946, Prince Kindavong served as a Prime Minister from 23 April 1946 until 15 March 1947 and as a Minister of State from 1947 to 1948. Prince Kindavong is the son of H. H Prince Chao Maha Oupahat Bounkhong, the last Vice-King of Luang Prabang, Prince Kindavong is also a younger half-brother of H. H. Prince Phetsarath Ratanavongsa, who was minister of Laos from 1942 to 1945, and the first and last Vice-King of the Kingdom of Laos. Prince Souvanna Phouma, a Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos several times from 1951–1954, 1956–1958,1960, the Royal Lao Government in Exile reportedly was proclaimed on May 6,2003, according to itself. On June 16,2003 by permission of the Secretary of the State of Oregon, on June 25,2003, the RLGE was granted audience with the United Nations Secretarial Office in New York City followed by audience with the U. S. States Department in Washington, D. C. on June 26,2003. The second reformation was passed in on 23 March 2004 in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA for official announcement of restoration, the third reformation was passed in on September 2,2004 in the city of San Diego, California, USA. The fourth reformation was passed in on 25 March 2005 in the city of Sacramento, California, in this meeting members of RLGE voted H. E. Khamphoui Sisavatdy to continue his term as the Prime Minister of the Royal Lao Government in Exile, the fifth reformation was passed in in October 2005 in the city of Fresno, California, USA. In this meeting RLGE decided to accept to let Hmong Ethnic People into RLGE, the sixth reformation was passed in on 25 September 2010 in the city of New Iberia in the state of Louisiana, USA. In this meeting members of RLGE voted H. E, khamphoui Sisavatdy to continue his term as the Prime Minister of the Royal Lao Government in Exile until Lao Democracy is restored. In this meeting RLGE issued a public statement no, Kerry and Kay Danes are an Australian husband and wife who were controversially arrested and subjected to physical violence on 23 December 2000 by authorities in Laos. The Danes were detained without charge in a centre in Vientiane
20.
History of Laos
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Laos emerged from the French Colonial Empire as an independent country in 1953. Laos exists in truncated form from the thirteenth century Lao kingdom of Lan Xang, the borders of the modern state of Laos were established by the French colonial government in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Mekong River valley region is one of the cradles of human civilization, anatomically modern humans have inhabited the regions around modern Laos since the late Pleistocene to early Holocene eras. The first archaeological explorations of Laos began with French explorers acting under the auspices of the École française dExtrême-Orient, however, due to the Lao Civil War it is only since the 1990s that serious archaeological efforts have begun in Laos. Archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture and later developed in Laos during the Middle Holocene. During this period the first evidence of ceramics, and farming practices emerged, hunting and gathering Hoabinhian societies began to settle and rice cultivation was introduced from southern China. The earliest inhabitants of Laos belonged to the Austro-Asiatic Language Family, the Plain of Jars was nominated to the tentative list as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992, and unexploded ordnance has continued to be removed from the site since 1998. The jars are stone sarcophagi dating from the early Iron Age and contained evidence of remains, burial goods. Some sites contain more than 250 individual jars, the tallest jars are more than 3 meters in height. Funan was part of Greater India, and was influenced by early Hindu civilization. By the 2nd century CE, Malayo-Polynesian settlers in what is today south Vietnam had established a rival indic kingdom known as Champa, the Cham people established the first settlements near modern Champasak, Laos. Funan forced the Cham people out of the Champasak region by the sixth century CE, the capital of early Chenla was Shrestapura which was located in the vicinity of Champasak and the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Wat Phu. By the 8th century CE Chenla had divided into “Land Chenla” located in Laos, Land Chenla was known to the Chinese as “Po Lou” or “Wen Dan” and dispatched a trade mission to the Tang Dynasty court in 717 CE. Water Chenla, would come under repeated attack from Champa, the Medang sea kingdoms in Indonesia based in Java, from the instability the Khmer emerged, and under the king Jayavarman II the Khmer Empire began to take shape in the 9th century CE. In what is modern northern and central Laos, and northeast Thailand the Mon people established their own kingdoms during the 8th century CE, by the 6th century in the Chao Phraya River Valley, Mon peoples had coalesced to create the Dvaravati kingdoms. In the north, Haripunjaya emerged as a power to the Dvaravati. By the 8th century the Mon had pushed north to city states, known as “muang, ” in Fa Daet, Sri Gotapura near modern Tha Khek, Laos, Muang Sua. In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura was the strongest of these city states
21.
Lan Xang
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The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Khao existed as a unified kingdom from 1354 to 1707. For three and a half centuries, Lan Xang was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia, the meaning of the kingdoms name alludes to the power of the kingship and formidable war machine of the early kingdom. The kingdom is the precursor for the country of Laos and the basis for the national historic, with the rise of the Sukhothai Kingdom the principal city-states of Muang Sua and south to the twin cities of Vieng Chan Vieng Kham, came increasingly under Tai influence. The cultural memory of the migrations and the mixing of Tai influence with the indigenous, Mon. The cultural, linguistic, and political roots which highlight the commonality of these legends can help to understand Lan Xang. Throughout the history of Lan Xang the legitimacy of the monarchy was tied to the dynasty of Khun Lo. The traditional court histories of Lan Xang begin in the Year of the Nāga 1319 with the birth of Fa Ngum, Fa Ngums Grandfather Souvanna Khampong was king of Muang Sua and his father Chao Fa Ngiao was the crown prince. As a youth Fa Ngum was sent to the Khmer Empire to live as a son of King Jayavarman IX, in 1343 King Souvanna Khampong died, and a succession dispute for Muang Sua took place. In 1349 Fa Ngum was granted an army known as the Ten Thousand to take the crown, the opportunity for the Khmer was to create a friendly buffer state in an area they could no longer effectively control with only a moderately sized military force. Fa Ngums campaign started in southern Laos, taking the towns and cities in the region around Champasak and moving northward through Thakek, from his position on the middle Mekong, Fa Ngum sought assistance and supply from Vientiane in attacking Muang Sua, which they refused. However, Prince Nho of Muang Phuan offered assistance and vassalage to Fa Ngum for assistance in a dispute of his own. Fa Ngum agreed and quickly moved his army to take Muang Phuan and then on to take Xam Neua, the Đại Việt, concerned with their rival Champa to the south sought a clearly defined border with the growing power of Fa Ngum. The result was to use the Annamite Range as both a cultural and territorial barrier between the two kingdoms, continuing his conquests Fa Ngum turned toward the Sip Song Chau Taialong the Red and Black River valleys, which were heavily populated with Lao. Having secured a sizable force of Lao from each territory under his domain Fa Ngum moved down the Nam Ou to take Muang Sua. Despite three attacks the King of Muang Sua, who was Fa Ngums uncle, was unable to deter the size of Fa Ngums army and committed suicide rather than be taken alive. King Phayu of Lanna raised an army which Fa Ngum overwhelmed at Chiang Saen, forcing Lanna to cede some its territory, having secured his immediate borders Fa Ngum returned to Muang Sua. In 1351 Uthong, who was married to a daughter of the Khmer King Suphanburi, however, the remains of the Khmer Empire were in direct conflict with the growing power of Ayutthaya and the two became rivals rather than allies. Throughout the 1350s Ayutthaya expanded over western Khmer territories and the Khorat Plateau, in 1352 Angkor was attacked by Ayutthaya in a failed attempt to take the capital
22.
Muang Phuan
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Muang Phuan was a historical principality on the Xiangkhoang Plateau, which constitutes the modern territory of Xiangkhouang Province, Laos. Among the Lao, Phuan, and Thai muang has a meaning of “city” or more broadly “country of” and xieng means “walled. ”The two terms were often used together for major city states under the Southeast Asian mandala model. The Xiangkhouang Plateau is semi-arid but has important iron ore resources and has been inhabited since the Bronze Age, the region is an important area for trade as it occupies the major passes along the Annamite Cordillera to access Vietnam and the coast. The Tai Phuan or Phuan people are a Buddhist Tai-Lao ethnic group that migrated to the area which is now Laos during the 13th century, according to legend the Phuan people were led by Chet Chuong, the second son of Khun Borom who founded the city-state of Muang Phuan. In the mid-14th century Muang Phuan was incorporated into the Lan Xang Kingdom under King Fa Ngum, under the Mandala model, cities or even kingdoms would enter into tributary relationships with their neighbors depending on regional power, in exchange the tribute would maintain local autonomy. It was not uncommon to pay tribute to more than one power even concurrently, in 1434, Muang Phuan entered into a tributary relationship with the Dai Viet. However, by 1478 the Dai Viet attempted to annex Muang Phuan as a prefecture, the Dai Viet army ultimately withdrew during that conflict, and Muang Phuan returned as a tributary to Lan Xang. However, the peace was short-lived and by 1531 Muang Phuan rebelled against King Photisarath who put down the rebellion after two years, throughout the 16th and 17th century Muang Phuan remained part of Lan Xang. During the 16th century, expressive Buddhist art and architecture flourished. The capital was dotted with temples in a distinct Xieng Khouang style, by the 1720s Muang Phuan was supporting the Kingdom of Luang Prabang in wars against the Burmese, and Siamese. Under Chao Kham Sattha again Muang Phuan went to war against the Governor of Thakhek, in 1751 Chao Ong Lo went so far as to directly attack the Kingdom of Vientiane and was totally defeated, retreating to Houa Phan where he began to raise another army. The Kingdom of Vientiane named Chao Ong Lo’s brother Ong Bun as regional governor of Muang Phuan, the armies of Muang Phuan split between the brothers in civil war, and ultimately Chao Ong Lo prevailed. However the conflict drained the region so much so that for the next 37 years Muang Phuan remained a tributary to Vientiane, Siam was severely depopulated from the history of warfare with the Burmese in the 18th century, and the destruction of Ayutthaya in 1767. Chao Somphou, the son of Chao Ong Lo, set about restoring and rebuilding the temples and defenses of Muang Phuan, according to some accounts his palace grew to rival that of the King of Vientiane. In 1789 or 1790 King Nanthasen of Vientiane believed rebellion was possible, Chao Somphou fled to Hua Phan, King Nanthasen continued north to capture Luang Prabang in 1792. In 1793 Chao Somphou was captured by King Nanthasen and imprisoned in Vientiane, Muang Phuan appealed to the Dai Viet, and a combined force of 6,000 Phuan and Vietnamese crossed into Xiengkhouang and began to march toward Vientiane. Chao Somphou returned to Muang Phuan where he began another building campaign, by 1800 King Inthavong of Vientiane feared a resurgence of power in Muang Phuan, and sent his brother Chao Anouvong to capture Chao Somphou. Chao Somphou died as a prisoner in Vientiane around 1803, Chao Somphou’s nephew Chao Noy took control of Muang Phuan in 1803
23.
Haw wars
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The Haw Wars were fought against Chinese quasi-military forces invading parts of Tonkin and the Siam from 1865–1890. Forces invading Lao domains were ill-disciplined and freely plundered Buddhist temples, not knowing these were remnants of the aftermath of the Taiping Rebellion led by Hong Xiuquan, a heterodox Christian convert, the invaders were confused with Chinese Muslims from Yunnan called Haw. Forces sent by King Rama V failed to suppress the various groups, during the latter half of the 19th century, bands of Chinese warriors known as flag gangs ravaged large areas of northern Laos. Outlaws and freebooters, the gangs were fleeing the suppression of the Taiping rebellion in China. Tonkin was invaded first, when units of the Black Flags and these new bands, distinguished by Red Flag and Striped Flag banners, moved south to occupy nearly all of northern Laos. The Red Flags sacked Dien Bien Phu in 1873, and the Striped Flags seized control of Muang Phuan and the Plain of Jars that same year. Responding to this challenge, in 1874 Chao Oun Kham, ruling prince of Luang Prabang. The force was routed, and Chao Ung, prince of Phuan, was killed, the victorious Haw moved south to sack Vientiane, while Chao Unkham sent urgent appeals for assistance to the Thai monarch, King Chulalongkorn. In the spring of 1875, Siamese forces crossed the River Mekong at Nong Khai, in the first Thai military expedition of the Haw Wars, they advanced to capture the main Haw base at Chiangkham. The expedition failed to achieve its objective, since the Haw refused to give battle. When the Siamese left later that year, armed Haw bands emerged to loot, eight years later, in 1883, faced with a renewed Haw threat to his capital at Luang Prabang, Chao Unkham again appealed to Bangkok for assistance. King Chulalongkorn dispatched a Siamese army composed largely of Isan and northern Thai levies, the resulting expedition, in which the British surveyor James McCarthy participated, was ill-conceived, inadequately planned, and ultimately unsuccessful. Thanks to McCarthys presence, the 1884-1885 expedition is unusually well-documented, McCarthys personal accounts provide descriptions of the effort, suffering and incompetence of the Haw Wars which are more evocative than those in official Siamese accounts. During this journey he travelled widely through territories subject to attack by the flag gangs. He noted that as we went on, tales of the Haw were brought in, agonizing accounts of their raiding on villages, whose inhabitants they had slaughtered, mutilated or carried into captivity. McCarthy was greatly impressed by the beauty and natural wealth of the regions, as in Vientiane ten years before, the Buddhist temples had been plundered and desecrated in a search for loot. McCarthy wrote that the wats had been destroyed, and piles of palm-leaf records lay heaped together. Subsequently, McCarthy travelled to Luang Prabang to consult with the Siamese military commanders, there he learned the Haw had advanced to Muang You, which should have been defended by troops under Phraya Sukhothai
24.
Franco-Siamese War
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The Franco-Siamese War of 1893 was a conflict between the French Third Republic and the Kingdom of Siam. Auguste Pavie, French vice consul in Luang Prabang in 1886, was the agent in furthering French interests in Laos. His intrigues, which took advantage of Siamese weakness in the region and periodic invasions by Vietnamese rebels from Tonkin, following the conflict, the Siamese agreed to cede Laos to France, an act that led to the significant expansion of French Indochina. The conflict started when French Indochinas Governor-General Jean de Lanessan sent Auguste Pavie as consul to Bangkok to bring Laos under French rule, shortly afterwards, the French consul in Luang Prabang, M. Massie, feverish and discouraged, committed suicide on his way back to Saigon. Back in France, these incidents were used by the lobby to stir up nationalistic anti-Siamese sentiment. The death of Massie left Auguste Pavie as the new French Consul, in March 1893 Pavie demanded that the Siamese evacuate all military posts on the east side of the Mekong River south of Khammuan, claiming that the land belonged to Vietnam. To back up these demands, the French sent the gunboat Lutin to Bangkok, when Siam rejected the French demands, de Lanessan sent three military columns into the disputed region to assert French control in April 1893. Eight small Siamese garrisons west of the Mekong withdrew upon the arrival of the central column, in the north, the French came under siege on the island of Khoung, with the capture of an officer, Thoreaux. In the south the occupation proceeded smoothly until an ambush by the Siamese on the village of Keng Kert resulted in the killing of French police inspector Grosgurin, inspector Grosgurin was a French inspector and commander of a Vietnamese militia in Laos. Like Auguste Pavie, he had engaged in several exploratory expeditions in the region. He was a member of one of the French armed columns dispatched in April 1893 by de Lassenan to cross the Annamite Range into the Lao area of Khammuan, the column was at first successful in evicting the Siamese commissioner at Khammuan by 25 May. Shortly afterwards on 5 June, the Siamese commissioner organized an ambush on the village of Kien Ket. The commissioner had apparently been instructed by Siamese government representatives to compel their retirement, by fighting, if necessary, the ambush resulted in the razing of the village and the killing of Grosgurin and 17 Vietnamese. The incident and the death of Grosgurin became known as the Affair of Kham Muon and was used as a pretext for strong French intervention. As a result, relations between Bangkok and the West soured, with France demanding reparations, the British sent three navy ships to the mouth of the Chao Phraya, in case evacuation of British citizens became necessary. They came under fire from the fort at Paknam on 13 July 1893, the French returned fire and forced their way to Bangkok. When Siam did not immediately comply unconditionally to the ultimatum, the French blockaded the Siamese coast, in the end the Siamese submitted fully to the French conditions, finding no support from the British. In addition, the French demanded as guarantees the temporary occupation of Chantaburi and the demilitarisation of Battambang, Siem Reap, the conflict led to the signature of the Franco-Siamese Treaty, on 3 October 1893
25.
French Protectorate of Laos
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The French protectorate of Laos was a French protectorate forming part of the French Colonial Empire in Southeast Asia. It consisted of much of the territory of the kingdom of Lan Xang and was part of French Indochina from 1893 until it was granted self-rule within the French Union in 1946. The Franco-Lao Treaty of 1953 establishing Laos as an independent member of the French Union, under the Geneva Conference following Frances withdrawal from Indochina after the First Indochina War, Laos was granted independence in 1954. In 1885, a French consulate was established in Luang Prabang, by the end of 1886, Auguste Pavie was named vice-consul to Luang Prabang and was in charge of expeditions occurring in Laotian territory, with the possibility of turning Laos into a French territory. In 1888, Chinese forces known as the Black Flags declared war on Siam, Pavie and French forces later intervened and evacuated the Lao royal family to safety. Additional French troops from Hanoi later arrived to expel the Black Flags from Luang Prabang, following his return to the city, King Oun Kham requested a French protectorate over his kingdom. Pavie later sent Oun Khams request to the French government in Paris, the bill designating Luang Prabang a protectorate of France was signed on 27 March 1889 between both sides despite a Siamese protest. The kingdom was forced to recognise French control over the side of the Mekong River. Pavie continued to support French expeditions in Laotian territory and gave the territory its name of Laos. In January 1896, France and the United Kingdom signed an accord recognising the border between French Laos and British Burma, in 1898, Laos was fully integrated into the French Indochina union that was created in 1887 by unifying French possessions in Vietnam and Cambodia. A colonial governor was installed in Vientiane and Laos was reorganised from two provinces to ten provinces. The royal seat at Luang Prabang was still seen as the ruler of the province and a royal court still remained. The remaining nine provinces were ruled under the French government in Vientiane, with each province having a resident governor. To financially support the government, taxes were introduced and imposed on the population. In 1904, a treaty with Siam forced the kingdom to also surrender lands on the side of the Mekong River. These lands now form the province of Sainyabuli and the half of Champasak Province. In 1905, the present border between Laos and Cambodia was established after Siam ceded Preah Vihear Province to the French. Officially, the Kingdom of Luang Phrabāng remained a protectorate with internal autonomy, King Sisavang Vong, who became King of Luang Phrabāng in 1904, remained conspicuously loyal to the French through his 55-year reign
26.
Franco-Thai War
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The Franco-Thai War was fought between Thailand and France over certain areas of French Indochina. The German military occupation of a part of France made Frances hold on its overseas possessions, including Indochina. The colonial administration was now cut off from help and outside supplies. After the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in September 1940, the French were forced to allow Japan to set up military bases and this seemingly subservient behaviour convinced the Phibun regime that France would not seriously resist a confrontation with Thailand. The most obvious deficiency of the French army was its shortage of armour and it could field only 20 Renault FT tanks against the nearly one hundred armoured vehicles of the Royal Thai Army. The French navy in Indochina had one light cruiser and four Avisos, the Armée de lAir had approximately 100 aircraft, of which about 60 could be considered front line. The slightly larger Thai Army was a relatively well-equipped force, consisting of 60,000 men, it was made up of four armies. The largest was the Burapha Army with five divisions and the Isan Army with three divisions, the artillery was a mixture of Krupp guns and modern Bofors guns and Howitzers, while 60 Carden Loyd tankettes and 30 Vickers 6-ton tanks made up the bulk of the armys tank force. The Royal Thai Navy included two coastal ships,12 torpedo boats, and four Japanese-made submarines. The Thai navy was inferior to the French naval forces, while nationalist demonstrations and anti-French rallies were being held in Bangkok, several border skirmishes erupted along the Mekong frontier. The superior Royal Thai Air Force then conducted daytime bombing runs over targets in Vientiane, Phnom Penh, Sisophon. The French retaliated with their own air attacks, but the damage caused was less than equal. On 5 January 1941, following the report of a French attack on the Thai border town of Aranyaprathet, French response was instantaneous, but many units were simply swept along by the better-equipped Thai forces. The Thai army swiftly overran Laos, but the French forces in Cambodia managed to rally, at dawn on 16 January 1941 the French launched a large counterattack on the Thai-held villages of Yang Dang Khum and Phum Preav, initiating the fiercest battle of the war. Due to poor co-ordination and non-existent intelligence against the entrenched and prepared Thai forces, however, the Thais were unable to pursue the retreating French, as their forward tanks were kept in check by the gunnery of French Foreign Legion artillery. With the situation on land rapidly deteriorating for the French, Admiral Decoux ordered all available French naval forces into action in the Gulf of Thailand. In the early morning of 17 January, a French naval squadron caught a Thai naval detachment by surprise at anchor off Ko Chang island, fearing the war would turn in Frances favour, the Japanese intervened, proposing an armistice be signed. On 24 January, the air battle took place when Thai bombers raided the French airfield at Angkor
27.
Laotian Civil War
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The Laotian Civil War was fought between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government, with both sides receiving heavy external support in a proxy war between the global Cold War superpowers. It is called the Secret War among the CIA Special Activities Division, the Kingdom of Laos was a covert theatre for other belligerents during the Vietnam War. The Franco–Lao Treaty of Amity and Association transferred remaining French powers to the Royal Lao Government, However, this government did not include representatives from the Lao Issara anti-colonial armed nationalist movement. Several attempts were made to establish coalition governments, and a government was finally seated in Vientiane. The actual fighting in Laos involved the North Vietnamese Army, U. S. Thai, the North Vietnamese Army occupied the area to use for its Ho Chi Minh Trail supply corridor and as staging area for offensives into South Vietnam. There was a major theater of action on and near the northern Plain of Jars. The North Vietnamese and Pathet Lao eventually emerged victorious in 1975, the Geneva Conference established Laotian neutrality. The Peoples Army of Vietnam, however, continued to operate in northern and southeastern Laos. North Vietnam established the Ho Chi Minh Trail as a highway in the southeast of Laos. The Trail was designed to allow North Vietnamese troops and supplies to infiltrate the Republic of Vietnam, North Vietnam also had a sizable military effort in northern Laos, while sponsoring and maintaining an indigenous communist rebellion, the Pathet Lao, to put pressure on the Royal Lao Government. The U. S. S. interests in the war in Vietnam, the status of the war in the north throughout the year generally depended on the weather. When the rainy season six months later rendered North Vietnamese supply lines inoperable, other air strikes were planned ahead. Overall coordination of the air campaign was directed by an Airborne Command and Control Center, the denials were seen as necessary considering that the North Vietnamese government and the U. S. had both signed agreements specifying the neutrality of Laos. U. S. involvement was considered necessary because the DRV had effectively conquered a large part of the country and was equally obfuscating its role in Laos, despite these denials, however, the Civil War was actually the largest U. S. The end of World War II left Laos in political chaos, the French, who had been displaced from their protectorate by the Japanese, wanted to resume control of Laos, and sponsored guerrilla forces to regain control. The Japanese had proclaimed Laos independent even as they lost the war, though King Sisavang Vong thought Laos was too small for independence he had proclaimed the end of the French protectorate status though he favored the French return. He let it be known he would accept independence if it should occur, thus there was a nascent movement for independence amid the turmoil. Underlying all this was an undercurrent of Vietnamese involvement
28.
North Vietnamese invasion of Laos
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North Vietnam supported the Pathet Lao to fight against the Kingdom of Laos between 1958–1959. Control over Laos allowed for the construction of the Ho Chi Minh Trail that would serve as the main supply route for enhanced NLF. It also helped the Pathet Lao win the Kingdom of Laos, phoui, less scrupulous about preserving Laoss neutrality than his predecessor, angered Moscow and Hanoi by admitting diplomats from Taipei and Saigon. The Soviet Union and North Vietnam, already upset by the departure of the ICC, the Laos government immediately protested the flying of the North Vietnamese flag on Laotian territory. Hanoi claimed the villages had historically been part of Vietnam, phoui received extraordinary powers from the National Assembly to deal with the crisis. But the failure to regain their lost territory rankled the Laotian nationalists, one of Washingtons major preoccupations was the danger that the Royal Lao Army would integrate the Pathet Lao troops without the safeguard of screening and reindoctrinating them. The embassy was instructed to tell the government that it would be difficult to obtain approval of aid to Laos with communists in the Royal Lao Army. Before the final integration of 1,500 Pathet Lao troops into the Royal Lao Army could take place as planned in May 1959, the Pathet Lao used a quibble about officer ranks to delay the final ceremony. As monsoon rains swept over the Plain of Jars one night, the event signaled a resumption of hostilities. Fighting broke out all along the border with North Vietnam, North Vietnamese Army regular units participated in attacks on July 28–31,1959. The tactic had the advantage of concealing the North Vietnamese presence from view, rumors of North Vietnamese in the vicinity often had a terrifying effect. Among the men who heard rumors in the mountains of Houaphan Province that summer was a young Royal Lao Army captain named Kong Le. Kong Le had two companies of the Second Paratroop Battalion out on patrol almost on the North Vietnamese border, when they returned to Xam Nua without encountering the enemy, they found that the garrison had decamped, leaving the town undefended. Direct North Vietnamese involvement in Laos began taking another form wherein aggression was difficult to prove, two months after the 1954 Geneva Conference on Indochina, the North Vietnamese established a small support group known as Group 100, on the Thanh Hoa-Houaphan border at Ban Namèo. This unit provided logistical and other support to Pathet Lao forces, in view of the reversion to a fighting strategy, the North Vietnamese and Lao parties decided to establish an upgraded unit. The new unit, known as Group 959, headquartered at Na Kai, just inside the Houaphan border and its establishment coincided with a major effort to expand the hitherto small Pathet Lao forces. These actions were in violation of the obligation Ho Chi Minhs government had assumed as a participant in the 1954 Geneva Conference to refrain from any interference in the affairs of Laos. The Vietnamese partys strategy was by now decided with regard to South Vietnam, at the same time, the party outlined a role for the LPP that was supportive of North Vietnam, in addition to the LPPs role as leader of the revolution in Laos
29.
Insurgency in Laos
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The North Vietnamese invaded Laos in 1958-59 and supported the communist Pathet Lao. The running time for the Insurgency in Laos has outlasted the previous Second World War, First Indochina War, Laotian Civil War, the Hmong people had, for over half a century been closely allied with the French, who treated them as equals of the Lao people. This action was part of larger First Indochina War and they saw Laos as one of dominoes in their Domino Theory. Under the leadership of the General Vang Pao, Hmong forces with US support prevented the Pathet Lao and they also rescued downed American pilots, and helped the US, from their base in the Secret City of Long Tieng to coordinate bombing missions over Vietnam and Laos. By 1975, with the collapse of the South in the Vietnam War and loss of American support, Hmong people, especially those who had participated in the military conflict were singled out for retribution. Of those Hmong people who remained in Laos, over 30,000 were sent to re-education camps as political prisoners where they served indeterminate, enduring hard physical labor and difficult conditions, many people died. Thousands more Hmong people, mainly soldiers and their families, escaped to remote mountain regions - particularly Phou Bia. At first, these loosely organized groups staged attacks against Pathet Lao, others remained in hiding to avoid conflict. Most casualties occur while people are gathering food from the jungle, in December 2009 a group of 4,500 refugees were forcibly repatriated to Laos from camps in Thailand despite the objections of, amongst others, the United Nations and the USA. Some Hmong fled to California in the United States after the U. S. military withdrew from Vietnam and Laos, in June 2005 as part of Operation Tarnished Eagle U. S. FBI and anti-terrorism officials allegedly uncovered a conspiracy to murder thousands and thousands of people at one time, army Rangers, former Green Berets and other guns for hire. Vang Pao had reportedly built up a network of contacts within the U. S. government. Some speculated that the new government would be much more accepting of large foreign business. The defendants lawyers argued that the case against all of their clients was spurious at best, during this time, Laos was allied with the Soviet-backed communist Vietnamese government. During the early 1980s, the Khmer Rouge had largely abandoned communist ideals and were focused primarily on exuding Cambodian nationalist fervor. The Royalist insurgency gradually fell into disrepair and in terms of its 1970s and 1980s-era form, while the movement managed to proclaimed their own provisional or liberation government, this insurgency proved to be as by chance less effective than the lesser-trained Royalist-focused insurgency. This insurgency has no reported standing in terms of force within Laos today, the LNLF proved successful in recruiting fair numbers of rural militiamen from Champassak and Savannaket provinces. Clips from Hunted like animals - a documentary by Rebecca Sommer on the plight of the Hmong in Laos and problems faced by those facing repatriation from Thai refugee camps
30.
History of Laos since 1945
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This article details the history of Laos since 1945. Note, this follows the system for transliterating Lao names used in Martin Stuart-Foxs History of Laos. It may differ from systems used in other articles, on 27 August 1945 Prince Phetxarāt took charge of Viang Chan from the Japanese, although as Prime Minister of Luang Phrabāng he had no authority outside the Kingdoms borders. The French were already in control of Luang Phrabāng, and with the support of the Prince of Champāsak they were regaining control in the south. In September the Chinese Army arrived to find that a Lao government of sorts was in command of Viang Chan, uncertain what to do, the Chinese commander recognised Phetxarāt, and in Luang Phrabāng the Chinese disarmed the French forces. But the Allied governments refused to recognise Phetxarāts government, and in October de Gaulle advised the King by telegram to him as Prime Minister of Luang Phrabāng. In retaliation, Phetxarāt declared the King deposed, Phetxarāt put his younger half-brother Suphānuvong in charge of organising the defence of the new independent Laos with the titles Minister of Defence and Interior. Suphānuvong was married to a Vietnamese and had spent most of the war in Vietnam, on his advice Hos forces supported Phetxarāts government, but they could spare few forces from the struggle against the French in Vietnam, which was always their first priority. Phetxarāts brother Suvannaphūmā became Minister for Public Works, thus by the end of 1945 all the leaders of the next 30 years of political conflict were in place. But the pretensions of the Lao Issara government were largely illusory, only the presence of the Chinese army in occupation of the northern half of the country was preventing the French from attacking Viang Chan from their base in the south of the country. Thailand and the Allies were suspicious of the apparent role of communists in the government, in March 1946 the Chinese were finally persuaded to stop plundering the country and go home, and this was the signal for the French to advance to Savannakhēt. Suphānuvong led his forces to meet the French before they got to Viang Chan, but at Thākhaek they were routed. The Lao Issara government fled to Thailand and set up a government in exile in Bangkok, on 24 April the French occupied Viang Chan, and in mid May they arrived in Luang Phrabāng to rescue the grateful King. As a reward for his loyalty, in August the French proclaimed him King of Laos, the Principality of Champāsak was abolished, and Prince Bunūm na Champāsak compensated with the title Inspector-General of the Kingdom. The French now made an effort to give Laos the institutions of a modern state. The Garde Indigène was replaced by a Lao National Guard, a senior high school was opened in Viang Chan, and new schools opened in Pākxē, Savannakhēt and Luang Phrabāng. New hospitals and clinics were established, although there was an acute shortage of qualified staff for them. A crash program to train more Lao civil servants was also instituted, in August 1947 elections were held for the National Assembly, and 35 deputies were elected
31.
History of Isan
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The history of Isan has been determined by its geography, situated as it is on the Korat Plateau between Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand. The national government claimed that the name Isan was derived from Sanskrit Īśāna and this interpretation was intended to reinforce Isans identity as the northeast of Thailand, rather than as part of the Lao kingdom because of the fear of the Lao people seceding. The Thai king Vajiravudh reinvoked the ancient name, designating the northeast sector of the Rattanakosin Kingdom Isan. Later, the term Isan came into wide, if unofficial, use as a term for the northeastern region, Isan has been dominated by each of its neighbors in turn, although its relative infertility meant it was more often a battleground than a prize. Rather than being incorporated into the empires of each power. The majority of people in present-day Isan speak the Lao language known as Isan, many Khmer speakers live in the southern half and substantial minorities of Katuic speakers also exist. Most Isan people are both conversant and to some degree literate in Central Thai, before the central government introduced the Thai alphabet and language in regional schools, the people of Isan wrote in the Lao alphabet, a very similar script that Thai adopted. Most people still speak the Isan language, a dialect of the Lao language, a significant minority in the south also speak Northern Khmer. The Kuy people, an Austrosiatic people concentrated around the core of what was once the Chenla Kingdom, professor Phillip V. Pha Taem cliff paintings alongside the Mekong in Udon Thani Province date to around 1500 BC. In Fine Arts, the site is remarkable for its pottery, further investigation into ancient skeletal remains raised serious questions about transitions to sedentism, the question as to why the site was abandoned until resettled by 19th–century Lao émigrés remains to be settled. The Bronze Age site of Ban Non Wat in the southeast of the plateau is also under investigation The first major civilisation to occupy Isan was considered, by the study of artifacts, to be Dvaravati. The remains of walled and moated towns scattered the region, in the valleys of Chi, the remains often show the Buddhist and Hinduist influence, perhaps expanding from the western part or the coastal and the Chao Phraya River basin. And, I would add, we can increase our understanding of these societies through systematic research on a number of the indigenous legends of the Thai-Lao people of northeastern Thailand. From the 11th century, the Dvaravati or Mon culture from the Chao Phraya River basin was gradually displaced by the Khmer Empire of Angkor, many principal centers became Angkors tributary states. Inscriptions found also told the connections between vassal towns and the court of Angkor, the Sukhothai Kingdom broke free from the Angkor Empire around the 13th century. The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang was established in Luang Prabang in the 14th century by Fa Ngum, the kingdoms name means Million Elephants, echoing the name of the neighboring northern kingdom of Lan Na Million Rice Paddies. As the Khmer Empire continued to retreat under pressure from the neighboring Tai kingdoms of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Ayutthaya established a presence at Nakhon Ratchasima and Phimai. However, the bulk of the Khorat Plateau fell into the mandala of Lan Xang, Lao settlers began gradually moving across the Mekong into Isan between the 14th and 16th centuries
32.
Marxism
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
33.
Three Princes
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The trio were named by King Savang Vatthana to form a coalition government following the independence of Laos. The Three Princes represented three different political views held during the Laotian Civil War, right-wing Prince Boun Oum, cousin to the other two princes, overthrew the Phouma Government in 1960. Supported by Phoui Sananikone, General Phoumi Nosavan and the Hmong Leader, pro-western Prince Souvanna Phouma was supported by Kong Le and the Royal Lao Government. Half brother of Souvanna Phouma, Prince Souphanouvong, a staunch communist and the leader of the Pathet Lao, was supported by Kaysone Phomvihane and the North Vietnamese. By 1972, the Pathet Lao found it unacceptable to form a coalition with rightist members, mostly military generals and the rich and powerful Na Champassak and Sananikone families
34.
Boun Oum
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Prince Boun Oum was the son of King Ratsadanay, and was the hereditary prince of Champassak and also Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos from 1948–1950 and again in 1960–1962. He was born in Don Talad in 1911, the eldest son of Prince Ratsadanay, Prince of Champassak by his fourth wife and he was educated at Wat Liep Monastery Sch. and lÉcole de Droit, Vientiane. He met Mom Bouaphanh Soumpholpakdy of Kengkok and married in 1943 and he then later became President of the Royal Council in 1948. In 1949, he was appointed as Inspector-General of the Kingdom, sympathetic to the French in Laos, he commanded a force of 15,000 that fought Japanese troops and the Lao Issara in the south of Laos. Titular leader of the royalist faction, he served as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Laos in 1948 –1950, in 1975 he went to France for medical treatment and never returned to Laos. He died in Boulogne-Billancourt, France in 1980 and his ashes are buried at the Cimetiere de Trivaux in Meudon France, knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol. Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Laos, commander of the Order of Civic Merit of Laos. Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant, Grand Officer of the Royal Order of Cambodia. Commander of the Order of the Legion of Honour
35.
Souphanouvong
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He was the figurehead President of Laos from December 1975 to August 1991. Souphanouvong was one of the sons of Prince Bounkhong, the last vice-king of Luang Prabang, unlike his half-brothers, Souvanna Phouma and Phetsarath, whose mothers were of royal birth, his mother was a commoner, Mom Kham Ouane. Educated in France and Vietnam, he became a supporter of Ho Chi Minh. In August 1950, Souphanouvong convened the first congress of the Lao Freedom Front — more generally known as the Pathet Lao – which served as the vehicle for the communist challenge to French rule and he was the chairman of the Neo Lao Issara and Resistance Government. After 1986, Phoumi Vongvichit acted in his stead as president, kaysone Phomvihane succeeded as president in 1991. In 1991, he became an Adviser of Partys Central Committee, Souphanouvong died on 9 January 1995 at the age of 86. Souphanouvong spoke eight languages, including Greek and Latin and he worked on the ports of Le Havre before taking his engineering degree from the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées. Souphanouvong, Red Prince of Laos, dies aged 86 New York Times obituary Independents obituary
36.
Kaysone Phomvihane
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Kaysone Phomvihane was the leader of the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party from 1955 until his death in 1992. He also served as the first Prime Minister of the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic from 1975 to 1991, Phomvihane was born Nguyen Cai Song to a Vietnamese father named Nguyen Tri Loan, and a Vietnamese mother named Nang Dok. He had two sisters, Nang Souvanthong, living in Thailand and Nang Kongmany in the USA and he was born in Na Seng village, Khanthabouli district, Laos. Phomvihane attended law school at Hanoi University in Hanoi, Vietnam and he dropped out of law school to fight the French colonialists who were in Vietnam. Later, he joined the Pathet Lao movement, which was fighting the French colonialists. He became an active revolutionary while studying in the Indochinese capital of Hanoi during the 1940s, the Lao Peoples Liberation Army was established by Kaysone Phomvihane on January 20,1949. He was minister of defence of Resistance Government from 1950, in 1955 he was instrumental in setting up the LPRP at Sam Neua in northern Laos, and subsequently served as the Pathet Lao leader, with Souphanouvong as its figurehead. In the years followed, he led communist forces against the Kingdom of Laos. After their victory he served as Prime Minister from the founding of the Lao PDR in 1975 until 1991, Phomvihane displayed expert skills in handling relations with Vietnam. The demarcation process started in 1977 and just finished in 2007, according to western journalist the Lao/Viet borderline is very close to the 1945 border between Laos and Tonkin and Annam, respectively. He created Sekong province to honour the southern minority for their support in the war effort, Kaysone died in Laoss capital, Vientiane. After Kaysones death, the government of Laos built a museum in Kaysones honour, in Vientiane and his son, Sanyahak Phomvihane, was elected to the LPRP Central Committee at the 8th LPRP Congress and became a Major General at the age of 41. However, he suffered a death, at the age of 45. His son, Xaysomphone Phomvihane currently serves as Vice President of the National Assembly, Thailand, Knight of the Order of Rajamitrabhorn
37.
French Union
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The French Union was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace the old French colonial system, colloquially known as the French Empire. It was the end of the indigenous status of French subjects in colonial areas. The French Union had five components, Metropolitan France, which included French Algeria, old colonies, notably those of the French West Indies in the Caribbean that became Overseas departments in 1946. It had been expected that other protectorates would become part of the French Union, united Nations Trust Territories, such as French Cameroons and French Togoland, successors of the League of Nations mandates. The French Union was established by the French constitution of October 27,1946, the goal of this union was assimilation of the overseas territories into a greater France, inhabited by French citizens, and blessed by French culture. This French Union had a President, a High Council and an Assembly, the President was the President of the Republic. The High Council ultimately only met three times, first in 1951, the Assembly was the only actually functioning institution that could manage legislation within the overseas territories. In reality, the areas had representation but all power remained in the French Parliament. The colonies had local assemblies but these had limited local power. Instead, various natives of the territories in metropolitan France grew into a group of elites. Cambodia withdrew on 25 September 1955, south Vietnam withdrew on 9 December 1955. Laos withdrew on 11 May 1957 by amending its constitution, decolonization First Indochina War CEFEO French Community French colonial empire Cooper, Frederick. French Africa, 1947–48, Reform, Violence, and Uncertainty in a Colonial Situation, in JSTOR Simpson, Alfred William Brian. Human Rights and the End of Empire, Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention, a comparative study of French and British decolonization. Comparative Studies in Society and History 20#1 pp, 70-102, the French Colonial Consensus and Peoples War, 1946-58
38.
Royal Lao Government
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The Royal Lao Government was the ruling authority in the Kingdom of Laos from 1947 until the communist seizure of power in December 1975 and the proclamation of the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic. During this period, a number of attempts were made to establish coalition governments. Other members of the Royal Lao Government included, Prince Souphantharangsi – the secretary-general of the royal palace, Prince Bovone Vatthana – former provincial governor and half brother of the king. Prince Thongsouk – director of protocol of the palace and half brother of the king. Prince Souk Bouavong – former provincial governor and minister, touby Lyfoung – deputy Minister for telecommunications. Pheng Phongsavan – Minister of Interior The First Coalition Government was founded on the basis of the Vientiane Agreements of 1957 and it would last until May 1958. The Second Coalition Government was founded as a condition toward enacting the International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos in 1962, the Royalist defeat at the Battle of Luang Namtha weakened their bargaining position so that they agreed to the coalition. History of Laos since 1945 Major General Vang Pao Stuart-Fox, Martin Historical Dictionary of Laos, country Study – Kingdom of Laos
39.
Royal Lao Armed Forces
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The FAR was responsible for the defense of the Kingdom since its independence in October 1953 from France. This act signalled the creation of a Laotian government capable of building its own administration over the few years. By July 1959, it was known as the Laotian Armed Forces, throughout its existence, the Laotian Armed Forces were plagued by an ineffective leadership, particularly at senior levels, which often led to chain-of-command problems. After the Kingdom of Laos gained its independence in late 1953, the few urban elite families who dominated Laotian society felt it advantageous to have family members or friends in key posts of the military establishment. These officers indulged in political manoeuvres or involved themselves in profitable illicit activities, as a result, the FAR officer corps was riven by corruption and inefficiency, further aggrieved by political divisions and even personal rivalries at all echelons of command. Both professional and personal jealousy was not unknown amongst Laotian higher Commanders, which resulted in endless internal squabbles and this situation was further complicated by a descentralized command structure, in which the FAR General Staff in Vientiane served primarily an administrative function. A high-echelon command position within a Military Region was dependent upon the influence of an urban elite aristocratic family who economically and politically dominated the MR, if a general was not a scion of one of these families, then he had to get their support in some other manner. Laos was divided since 1955 into five Military Regions roughly corresponding to the areas of the countrys 13 provinces, the Military Regions were the basis of the warlordism culture that affected the ANL and the FAR high command. By September 1961 the Royal Lao Armed Forces consisted of three conventional ground, air and naval branches of service. S, first set up at Pakse, the latter institution was later transferred to Dong Hene in Savannakhet Province, which eventually became the Lao Military Academy. A Staff and Command school, the Military Institution of Higher Learning, a Laotian Armed Forces training Centre was established by the French at Khang Khai in March 1960. S. Military Assistance Advisory Group advisors, and at Seno, near Savannakhet by French Military Mission in Laos advisers. A fourth Parachute School was briefly established by the Neutralists at Muang Phanh in 1961, a third one, the CIA-run PS18 secret camp near Pakse in Champassak Province was used for two RLA brigades being raised in the Fourth Military Region. In December 1961, the Neutralists set up an Armoured Training Centre at Phongsavang with the help of NVA instructors, though it was later shut down by the Pathet Lao offensive of May 1964. In addition, a number of Laotian naval officer candidate students were also sent to France, in order to attend advanced Officer. In late 1969,76 RLA students were dispatched to the RTA Kokethiem training center in Thailand for training in M-706 armoured car tactics, ISBN 978-9623616225 Bernard Fall, Anatomy of a Crisis, The Laotian Crisis of 1960–1961, Doubleday & Co.1969. Kenneth Conboy and Don Greer, War in Laos 1954–1975, Carrolton, TX, ISBN0897473159 Kenneth Conboy and Simon McCouaig, South-East Asian Special Forces, Elite series 33, Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1991. ISBN 1-85532-106-8 Kenneth Conboy and Simon McCouaig, The War in Laos 1960–75, Men-at-arms series 217, Osprey Publishing Ltd, ISBN9780850459388 Kenneth Conboy with James Morrison, Shadow War, The CIAs Secret War in Laos, Boulder CO, Paladin Press,1995. Timothy Castle, At War in the Shadow of Vietnam, United States Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government, 1955–1975, anthony and Richard R. Sexton, The War in Northern Laos, Command for Air Force History,1993
40.
Royal Lao Army
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The ARL traced back its origins to World War II, when the first entirely Laotian military unit, the 1st Laotian Rifle Battalion, was raised early in 1941 by the Vichy French colonial authorities. The battalion then retreated into the mountains, where they linked with the Laotian irregular guerrilla fighters operating there and that month, the Laotian battalions provided infantry support to French Far East Expeditionary Corps armoured units fighting Lao Issara troops at the Battle of Thakhek in Khammouane Province. By the end of April, they had assisted the French in the recapture of Vientiane, in July 1959, the ANL, the Laotian Navy, and the Laotian Aviation were gathered into the newly created Laotian Armed Forces, renamed Royal Lao Armed Forces in September 1961. The chain of command of the Royal Lao Army was placed under the Ministry of Defense in Vientiane, the country was divided into five military regions, roughly corresponding to the areas of the countrys 13 provinces. Military organization and tactical training reflected French traditions, most of the equipment was of U. S. origin, however, because early in the First Indochina War, the Americans had been supplying the French with matériel ranging from guns to aircraft. By the time the PEO changed into the Requirements Office in September 1962, PEO also noted that CIA-trained Hmong guerrillas were the only troops fighting to preserve northeastern Laos. When the PEO brought in Operation White Star trainers, the found that 19 out of 20 Laotian soldiers had fewer than three years of education. A Laotian regular infantry battalion was organized according to the French Army model into a battalion headquarters, long-standing major formations above battalion level, such as Regiments, Half-brigades, Brigades or even Divisions, were virtually unexistant at the time. Being essentially a regimental-sized combat task-force, a typical Laotian GM consisted of two or three battalions assembled for specific operations, by late 1966 the number of mobile groups had increased to twelve, with the addition of the airborne GMs 21 and 802, and the mixed GM801. The regular units were supplemented by eighteen Regional Battalions, eighteen Volunteer Battalions, as with its ANL predecessor, the RLA was capable only of limited offensive and counter-insurgency operations, and consequently its conventional military value was very low. This move however, placed a heavy burden on these already overstretched elite formations that actually did most of the fighting. In 1971, with the Vietnamisation process in full swing in South Vietnam, following a US Army system of organization, the regular infantry battalions were consolidated into two light divisions, locally designated as Strike Divisions. Gen. Thao Ty and based at Seno near Savannakhet, was oriented towards the south, as stipulated by the January 1973 Paris Peace Accords, the old ethnic SGU guerrilla forces were scheduled for integration into the RLA. By late 1974 a thinning of RLA ranks forced the FAR High Command to replace the two divisions by a series of smaller, understrength brigades. These were maintained until May 1975, when the Pathet Lao entered Vientiane, Officers and NCOs received MAS-35-S, Luger P08, or Colt.45 M1911 pistols. After 1955, the ANL began the process of standardisation on U. S. equipment, airborne units took delivery of the M1 Garand semi-automatic rifle in late 1959, followed by the M1/M2 Carbine the following year. The M3A1 Grease Gun was also received, along with Smith & Wesson Model 39 pistols, the ANL was equally provided with Browning M1919A4/Mk 21 medium machine guns and Browning M2HB.50 Cal Heavy machine guns. Limited quantities of the Sterling submachine gun and L1A1 SLR Assault rifle were acquired from the British for evaluation, the Carl Gustav m/45 submachine gun was provided in small numbers by the Americans, eventually finding its way into the irregular SGU units
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Royal Lao Navy
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The Royal Lao Navy was the naval component of the Royal Lao Armed Forces, the official military of the Royal Lao Government and the Kingdom of Laos during the Laotian Civil War between 1960 and 1975. The Laotian Navy was first formed in January 28,1955 as the wing of the Laotian National Army. Like the ANL, the fledging Laotian Navy soon found itself involved in the turmoil that engulfed the Kingdom of Laos in the early 1960s. Gen. Nosavans rebel troops towards Vientiane, besides its tiny surface fleet, the MRL was also unique in its genre for not maintaining a permanent Naval Infantry branch or even specialist combat diver/Marine Commando units. Upon its formation at the mid-1950s, most Laotian Navy personnel received the standard French Navys tropical working and service dress, consisting of a khaki cotton shirt. The French Navys M1948 shirt featured a front and two pleated breast pockets closed by pointed flaps, was provided with shoulder straps and had long sleeves with buttoned cuffs. It was worn with matching khaki M1945/52 slacks, which featured two pleats at the front hips, side slashed pockets and a pocket at the back. The French Armys tropical light khaki cotton shirt and pants, modelled after the WWII US Army tropical Chino working dress was also issued. While the cut of the khaki trousers was virtually identical to the Navy pattern. In alternative, the short-sleeved M1946 – whose cut was almost identical to the M1948 variant –, reflecting the increasing American influence, a new set of distinctive uniforms was introduced for the MRL in the early 1960s. The jacket had a row of six gilt metal buttons bearing the Royal Lao Armed Forces wreathed Vishnu trident. The tunics front fly was secured by metal buttons initially bearing the ANL Airavata crest. Thai and South Vietnamese versions, as well as Laotian-made copies were also worn, olive green US M-1951 field jackets were also issued to all-ranks. After September 1961, the MRL replaced the old ANL crest with the standard gilt metal FAR wreathed Vishnu trident cap badge, French M1946 and M1957 light khaki sidecaps were also worn by all-ranks. An American-style Dixie cup white hat was worn with the Navy Blue service uniform by enlisted ranks, during the 1960s and early 1970s, a wide range of OG Boonie hats and baseball caps from the US, South Vietnam and Thailand were adopted by MRL officers and enlisted men. The steel helmet worn by Laotian Navy vessel crews in the mid-1950s were the WWII-vintage US M-1 or the newer French M1951 NATO models. Initially, the Laotian Navy wore the rank insignia as their French and ANL counterparts. Junior officers and petty officers ranks were worn on black shoulder boards or shoulder strap slides similar to the Army pattern
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Royal Lao Air Force
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The original Lao military aviation establishment was the Laotian Aviation, established by the French on 28 January 1955 as a small aerial observation and transport arm of the then National Lao Army. As the French withdrew from Indochina, the Lao Aviation was supported by American aid, with the addition of offensive capabilities, it morphed into the Royal Lao Air Force. The RLAF struggled into existence in the face of its enemies, while dealing with its own internal divisions as well as bucking a tide of pilot, the RLAF began its operations as a liaison, logistics and transport unit. Its initial stock were a melange of French and American supplied rotary-wing and fixed-wing aircraft inherited from its predecessor, on 9 January 1961, the new RLAF was supplied with six AT-6 Texans as its first strike aircraft. Although these were quickly lost, they were replaced by five T-28 Trojans, despite ongoing losses, the T-28 inventory would eventually burgeon under American auspices to 75 Trojans on board in 1973. It would also acquire ten AC-47 gunships for a time, by the time American aid was withdrawn in 1973, dooming the force, the RLAF would total 180 aircraft, both fixed wing and helicopters. The RLAF, along with the Royal Lao Navy, and the Royal Lao Army, was placed under the control of the Ministry of Defense in Vientiane, the RLAF received assistance over the years from France, the USA and Thailand. The serving ambassador thus became a de facto commander of the Royal Lao Air Force during the Laotian Civil War, Leonard S. Unger William H. Sullivan G. McMurtrie Godley Charles S. Proposed equipment consisted of French MS.500 Criquets, DHC L-20 Beavers, on 6 August 1954, as Laos became independent, the departing French military lent Criquets to the ANL for artillery observation. The treaty of independence granted France the right to maintain a training mission in Laos. Its initial unit was the 1st Observation and Liaison Squadron, which served a purpose as its Criquets were used for training Lao pilots. By February 1955, it was equipped with ten Criquets delivered by the French, other than Wattay, available landing strips in the country consisted of rough runways at Xieng Khouang, Luang Prabang, Pakse, and the Plaine des Jarres. The French Air Force bequeathed four C-47s with French aircrews to the RLAF, the loan was conditional upon aircraft remaining in-country. Some 6,500 Royal Lao Army troops out of its 30,000 personnel were surrounded by North Vietnamese, because Laos was a nation with a nearly nonexistent road network, the RLAFs first mission was aerial resupply of these besieged troops. The French air crews operated the transports while Laotians were being trained, the first aggressive action by the new air force was the aerial movement of Royalist troops to the Plaine de Jarres in early 1955. These Royalist ground troops on the Plaine de Jarres became part of the air bridge resupply effort, in late 1955,22 Lao students departed to France and Morocco for aviation training. One of these cadets was Thao Ma, an ex-paratrooper who later rose to command the Royal Lao Air Force, the French-crewed C-47s were used for this operation, in conjunction with C-46 Commandos leased from Civil Air Transport. Civilian C-47s under contract were used to drop the Royalist Paratroop Battalion in Xieng Khouang to counter Pathet Lao expansion into the province, as part of this action, Lao pilots in training flew reconnaissance missions in the Criquets
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