1.
History of the Jews in Bessarabia
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The history of the Jews in Bessarabia. Jews are mentioned from very early in the Principality of Moldavia and their main activity in Moldavia was commerce, but they could not compete with Greeks and Armenians, who had knowledge of Levantine commerce and relationships. Several times, when Jewish merchants created monopolies in some places in north Moldavia, one such example was during the reign of Petru Şchiopul, who favored the English merchants led by William Harborne. In the 18th century, more Jews started to settle in Moldavia, some of them were in charge of the Dniester crossings, replacing Moldavians and Greeks, until the captain of Soroca demanded their expulsion. Others traded with spirits, first brought in from Ukraine, afterward building local velniţas on boyar manors, the number of Jews increased significantly during the Russo-Turkish War, when the Podolia-Moldavia border was open. When this war ended, in 1812, Bessarabia was annexed by the Russian Empire, the 1818 Statutory Law of the Governorate of Bessarabia mentions Jews as a separate state, which was further divided into merchants, tradesmen, and land-workers. Unlike the other states, Jews were not allowed to own land, with the exception of empty lots only from the property of the state, for cultivation. During the 1817 census, there were 3,826 Jewish families in Bessarabia, over the next generations, the Jewish population of Bessarabia grew significantly. Unlike most of the rest of the Russian Empire, in Bessarabia, Jews were allowed to settle in fairs, Tzar Nicolas I issued an ukaz that allowed Jews to settle in Bessarabia in as higher number, giving settled Jews two years free of taxation. At the same time, Jews from Podolia and Kherson Governorates were given five years free of taxation if they crossed the Dniester and settle in Bessarabia. This plan was borrowed from the ideas of Emperor Joseph II of Austria in regard to Bukovina Jews, the impression that Jews would not stay in the rural areas was proved wrong by the Russian Tzar, as his colonization at first seemed a success. After more years, many of these Jews moved to fairs, during the 1856 census, there were 78,751 Jews in Bessarabia. Jewish life flourished with 16 Jewish schools and over 2,000 pupils in Chişinău alone, although it was clear that the boy had been killed by a relative, the government called it a ritual murder plot by the Jews. The mobs were incited by Pavel Krushevan, the editor of the Russian language anti-Semitic newspaper Bessarabian and they used the age-old calumny against the Jews. Viacheslav Plehve, the Minister of Interior, supposedly gave orders not to stop the rioters, however, the pogrom lasted for three days, without the intervention of the police. Forty seven Jews were killed,92 severely wounded,500 slightly wounded, despite a world outcry, only two men were sentenced to seven and five years and 22 were sentenced for one or two years. This pogrom is considered the first state-inspired action against Jews in the 20th century and was instrumental in convincing tens of thousands of Russian Jews to leave to the West, many of the younger Jews, including Mendel Portugali, made an effort to defend the community. 1920, The Jewish population had grown to approx,1930, Romanian census registers 270,000 Jews In 1941, the Einsatzkommandos, German mobile killing units drawn from the Nazi SS and commanded by Otto Ohlendorf entered Bessarabia
2.
Anti-Jewish
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Antisemitism is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination directed against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite, Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. The root word Semite gives the impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people. However, the compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a term for Judenhass Jew-hatred. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, the origin of antisemitic terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes, The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, avner Falk similarly writes, The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile. Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renans false ideas about how Semitic races were inferior to Aryan races and he coined the phrase the Jews are our misfortune which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was used by its authors to stress the radical difference between their own antisemitism and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism. In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum, vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both Jewry and jewishness. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of Anti-Semitism as a designation which recently came into use, on 19 July 1882, the editor says, This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. The related term philosemitism was coined around 1885, from the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage Semitic designates a language group, though antisemitism has been used to describe bigotry against people who speak other Semitic languages, the validity of such usage has been questioned. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen, for example, Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to the notion that there is an entity Semitism which anti-Semitism opposes. Objections to the usage of the term, such as the nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s. Because of this bad nature, Jews have to be not as individuals. Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies, Jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist, bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest
3.
Riot
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A riot is a form of civil disorder commonly characterized by a group lashing out in a violent public disturbance against authority, property or people. Riots typically involve vandalism and the destruction of property, public or private, the property targeted varies depending on the riot and the inclinations of those involved. Targets can include shops, cars, restaurants, state-owned institutions, Riots often occur in reaction to a perceived grievance or out of dissent. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots typically consist of disorganized groups that are frequently chaotic, however, there is a growing body of evidence to suggest that riots are not irrational, herd-like behavior, but actually follow inverted social norms. T. S. Charles Wilson noted, Spasmodic rises in food prices provoked keelmen on the Tyne to riot in 1709, today, some rioters have an improved understanding of the tactics used by police in riot situations. Manuals for successful rioting are available on the internet, with such as encouraging rioters to get the press involved, as there is more safety. Citizens with video cameras may also have an effect on both rioters and police, dealing with riots is often a difficult task for police forces. They may use tear gas or CS gas to control rioters, Riot police may use less-than-lethal methods of control, such as shotguns that fire flexible baton rounds to injure or otherwise incapacitate rioters for easier arrest. A police riot is a term for the disproportionate and unlawful use of force by a group of police against a group of civilians and this term is commonly used to describe a police attack on peaceful civilians, or provoking peaceful civilians into violence. A prison riot is a large-scale, temporary act of concerted defiance or disorder by a group of prisoners against prison administrators, prison officers and it is often done to express a grievance, force change or attempt escape. In a race riot, race or ethnicity is the key factor, the term had entered the English language in the United States by the 1890s. Early use of the referred to riots that were often a mob action by members of a majority racial group against people of other perceived races. In a religious riot, the key factor is religion, the rioting mob targets people and properties of a specific religion, or those believed to belong to that religion. Student riots are riots precipitated by students, often in higher education, student riots in the US and Western Europe in the 1960s and the 1970s were often political in nature. Student riots may occur as a result of oppression of peaceful demonstration or after sporting events. Students may constitute a political force in a given country. Such riots may occur in the context of political or social grievances. Urban riots are closely associated with race riots and police riots, sports riots such as the Nika riots can be sparked by the losing or winning of a specific team
4.
Bessarabia Governorate
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Bessarabia was an oblast and later a guberniya in the Russian Empire. The Governorate was disbanded in 1917, with the establishment of Sfatul Ţării, the latter united with Romania in April 1918. Around 70% of the territory of the former governorate now belongs to the Republic of Moldova, as the Russian Empire noticed the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, it occupied the eastern half of the autonomous Principality of Moldavia, between the Prut and Dniester rivers. This was followed by six years of warfare, which were concluded by the Treaty of Bucharest, the Russians used the name Bessarabia for the whole region rather than the southern area. Bessarabia had an area of 45,630 km², more than the rest of Moldavia, in 1818, a special autonomous region was created, which had both Romanian and Russian as languages used in the local administration. Bănulescu-Bodoni also obtained permission for opening a seminary and a printing press, nicholas I of Russia, crowned in 1825, began a campaign of reforms which had the goal of gaining more control over the western provinces. Autonomy of the region was retracted in 1829, with the new constitution written by the governor of New Russia and Bessarabia, Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov. In 1834, Romanian was banned in schools and government facilities, and soon, books, the press and those who fought the changes could be exiled to Siberia. The constitution no longer made the usage of Romanian compulsory for public announcements and in 1854, also around 1850, Romanian was no longer used in schools and the importation of books from Moldavia and Wallachia was banned. Integration within the Russian Empire continued with the introduction of the zemstva in 1869, although this system was meant to increase the participation of the locals in civic affairs, it was run by Russians and other non-Moldavian functionaries brought from across the Empire. Romania became independent in 1878, but millions of ethnic Romanians lived outside its borders and as such it had aspirations toward Transylvania, as well as Bessarabia. In 1856, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Russia was forced to return a significant territory in southern Bessarabia to Moldavia, which joined Wallachia in 1859 to form Romania. The Romanian politicians and public were angered by this action, Romanian politician Mihail Kogălniceanu accused Russia of deception and of treating an ally like a conquered province. He even started a memorandum against Russia to try to influence the Western governments, denouncing not only the annexation of Southern Bessarabia, despite this, none of the European powers wanted to risk a conflict with Russia. According to the Treaty of Berlin, Romania gained Dobruja as a compensation for the loss of Southern Bessarabia, despite being a larger territory, Romanians considered it an unfair exchange and accepted it reluctantly, because there was no other alternative. Bessarabia was the most backward of the provinces of the Russian Empire. In 1897, literacy was just 15. 4% for the whole Bessarabia, with only 6% of ethnically Moldavians being literate, as of 1920, an estimated ten percent of men and one percent of women were able to read and write. Thus, by the 1880s only 23 schools remained, as a result, the literature and cultural life stagnated, only a few notable literary figures arising from Bessarabia, among them being Alexandru Hasdeu, Constantin Stamati and Teodor Vîrnav
5.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
6.
Bessarabia
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Bessarabia is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. The acquisition was among the Empires last territorial acquisitions in Europe, the newly acquired territories were organised as the Governorate of Bessarabia, adopting a name previously used for the southern plains, between the Dniester and the Danube rivers. In 1917, in the wake of the Russian Revolution, the area constituted itself as the Moldavian Democratic Republic, bolshevik agitation in late 1917 and early 1918 resulted in the intervention of the Romanian Army, ostensibly to pacify the region. Soon after, the assembly declared independence, and then union with the Kingdom of Romania. The legality of acts was however disputed, most prominently by the Soviet Union. Axis-aligned Romania briefly recaptured the region in 1941 during the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, in 1947, the Soviet-Romanian border along the Prut was internationally recognised by the Paris Treaty that ended World War II. Part of the Gagauz-inhabited areas in the southern Bessarabia was organised in 1994 as a region within Moldova. According to the interpretation, the name Bessarabia derives from the Wallachian Basarab dynasty. Recent research has however cast doubt on this view, as the name was first applied to the territory by Western cartographers, showing up in local sources only in the second half of the 17th century. Furthermore, the use of the term to refer to the Moldavian lands near the Black Sea was explicitly rejected as a confusion by the early Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin. The confusion may have been caused by Polish references to Wallachia as Bessarabia, according to Dimitrie Cantemir, the name originally applied only to the part of the territory south of the Upper Trajanic Wall, somewhat bigger than current Budjak. The name Bessarabia may literally mean Bessi slaves after the Thracian tribe which was expelled by Trajan north of the Danube. The region is bounded by the Dniester to the north and east, the Prut to the west and the lower River Danube and it has an area of 45,630 km2. The area is mostly hilly plains with flat steppes and it is very fertile, and has lignite deposits and stone quarries. People living in the area grow sugar beet, sunflowers, wheat, maize, tobacco, wine grapes and they also raise sheep and cattle. Currently, the industry in the region is agricultural processing. The regions main cities are Chișinău, Izmail and Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, historically called Cetatea Albă / Akkerman, other towns of administrative or historical importance include, Khotyn, Reni and Kilia, and Lipcani, Briceni, Soroca, Bălți, Orhei, Ungheni, Bender/Tighina and Cahul. In the late 14th century, the newly established Principality of Moldavia encompassed what became known as Bessarabia
7.
Pavel Krushevan
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Pavel Aleksandrovich Krushevan was a journalist, editor, publisher and an official in the Imperial Russia. He was an active Black Hundredist and was known for his far-right, ultra-nationalist, born Pavolaki Krushevan into a family of impoverished Russianized Moldavian aristocrats in the village Gindeshty Bessarabian guberniya, he completed four grades of school. Krushevan served as a clerk in Chişinău City Duma and his writings were first published in 1882. In 1887-1896, he worked as a journalist in newspapers Минский листок, Виленский вестник, Krushevan was reported as being one of the initiators of the Kishinev pogrom in April 1903. In 1903, Saint Petersburg daily newspaper Znamya, where the first edition of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion was published in series from August 28–September 7 O. S. Krushevan promoted ultra-nationalist and racist views and was brought to numerous times for slander, verbal offenses. After a homicidal attempt by a P. S. Dashevsky, it was reported that Krushevan lived in constant fear, kept weapons close at hand and was accompanied by a personal cook out of fear to be poisoned. In 1903 a riot started after an incident on February 6 when a Christian Russian boy, Michael Rybachenko, was murdered in the town of Dubăsari. Although it was clear that the boy had been killed by a relative, Бессарабец, published by Pavel Krushevan, in 1905 Krushevan organized the Bessarabian Patriotic League. He founded the Bessarabian branch of the Union of the Russian People, from 1906 to 1909 he served as a speaker of Kishinev city in the Duma. In 1907 Krushevan was elected to represent Kishinev in the 2nd Russian State Duma
8.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
9.
Ukrainians
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Ukrainians are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is by total population the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term Ukrainians to all its citizens, also among historical names of the people of Ukraine Rusyns, Cossacks, etc. can be found. According to some definitions, a descriptive name for the inhabitants of Ukraine is Ukrainian or Ukrainian people. Belarusians and Russians are considered among the bloodline of Ukrainians, while Rusyns are another closely related group, the ethnonym Ukrainians became widely accepted only in the 20th century after their territory obtained distinctive statehood in 1917. People of these territories were usually called Rus or Rusyns, the Ukrainian language appeared in the 14th – 16th centuries, but at that time, it was mostly known as Ruthenian, like its brothers. In the 16th – 17th centuries, with the establishment of the Zaporizhian Sich, however, the ethnonym Ukrainians and the linguonym Ukrainian were used only occasionally, and the people of Ukraine usually continued to call themselves and their language Ruthenian. This official name did not spread widely among the peasantry constituted the majority of the population. Ukrainian peasants still referred to their country as Ukraine and to themselves, in areas outside the control of the Russian/Soviet state until the mid-20th century, Ukrainians were known by their pre-existing names for much longer. The modern name derives from Ukrayina, a name first documented in 1187. Several scientific theories attempt to explain the etymology of the term, according to some new alternative Ukrainian historians such as Hryhoriy Pivtorak, Vitaly Sklyarenko and other scholars, translate the term u-kraine as in-land, home-land or our-country. The name in this context derives from the word u-kraina in the sense of domestic region, in the last few centuries the population of Ukraine experienced periods of Polonization and Russification, but preserved a common culture and a sense of common identity. Most ethnic Ukrainians live in Ukraine, where make up over three-quarters of the population. The inhabitants of the Kuban, for example, have vacillated among three identities, Ukrainian, Russian, and Cossack, approximately 800,000 people of Ukrainian ancestry live in the Russian Far East in an area known historically as Green Ukraine. According to some assumptions, an estimated number of almost 2.1 million people of Ukrainian origin live in North America. Large numbers of Ukrainians live in Brazil, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Poland, Argentina, Belarus, Portugal, there are also Ukrainian diasporas in the UK, Australia, Germany, Latvia, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Ireland, Sweden and the former Yugoslavia. Today, large ethnic Ukrainian minorities reside in Russia, Canada, Ukrainians have one of the largest diasporas in the world. The East Slavs emerged from the undifferentiated early Slavs with the Slavic migrations in the 6th and 7th centuries CE, the East Slavs were united in the Kievan Rus during the 9th to 13th centuries. East Slavic tribes cited as proto-Ukrainian include the Volhynians, Derevlianians, Polianians, and Siverianians and the less significant Ulychians, Tivertsians, the Gothic historian Jordanes and 6th-century Byzantine authors named two groups that lived in the south-east of Europe, Sclavins and Antes
10.
Dubossary
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Dubăsari or Dubossary is a city in Transnistria, Republic of Moldova, with a population of 23,650. The city is under the administration of the government of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. The origin of the name is the plural form of the Romanian archaic word dubăsar. Dubăsari is the site of one of the oldest settlements in Moldova, stone age artifacts have been found in the area, and there are several kurgans around the city. First mentions of modern Dubăsari date to the beginning of the 16th century, the settlement became part of the Russian Empire in 1792, and was granted city status in 1795. It was part of Kherson Governorate from 1803 to 1922, in 1924-1940, Dubăsari was part of the Soviet-created Moldavian ASSR. The town was industrialized during the pre-WWII period. In the course of World War II, in 1940, when Bessarabia was occupied by the Soviet Union, on 27 July 1941, the town was occupied by German and Romanian troops. It was re-captured by Soviet forces in the summer of 1944, in 1951-1954, the Dubăsari dam, and a 48 MW hydroelectric power plant Dubossarskaya GES was constructed, and Dubossary Reservoir was formed. Dubăsari and its suburbs were the site of conflict during 1990-1992. Since then, it has controlled by the breakaway administration of Transnistria. The citys economy was damaged during the war in 1992. In 1989, the population of the city was 35,806, including 15,414 Moldovans,10,718 Ukrainians,8,087 Russians, and 1,587 others
11.
Blood libel
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Blood libel is an accusation that Jews kidnapped and murdered the children of Christians in order to use their blood as part of their religious rituals during Jewish holidays. Historically, these claims – alongside those of well poisoning and host desecration – have been a theme of the persecution of Jews in Europe. In some cases, the victim of human sacrifice has become venerated as a martyr. Three of these – William of Norwich, Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, and Simon of Trent – became objects of local sects and veneration, one, Gavriil Belostoksky, was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. In Jewish lore, blood libels were the impetus for the creation of the Golem of Prague by Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel in the 16th century. According to Walter Laqueur, Altogether, there have been about 150 recorded cases of blood libel resulted in the arrest and killing of Jews throughout history. In almost every case, Jews were murdered, sometimes by a mob, sometimes following torture, the term blood libel can also refer to any unpleasant and damaging false accusation, and has taken on a broader metaphorical meaning. However, this remains controversial and has been protested by Jewish groups. The supposed torture and human sacrifice alleged in the blood libels run contrary to the teachings of Judaism, according to the Bible, God commanded Abraham in the Binding of Isaac to sacrifice his son, but ultimately provided a ram as a substitute. The Ten Commandments in the Torah forbid murder, in addition, the use of blood in cooking is prohibited by the kosher dietary laws. Blood from slaughtered animals may not be consumed, and must be drained out of the animal, according to the Book of Leviticus, blood from sacrificed animals may only be placed on the altar of the Great Temple in Jerusalem. Furthermore, consumption of human flesh would violate kashrut, while animal sacrifice was part of the practice of ancient Judaism, the Tanakh and Jewish teachings portray human sacrifice as one of the evils that separated the pagans of Canaan from the Hebrews. Jews were prohibited from engaging in rituals and were punished for doing so. In fact, ritual cleanliness for priests prohibited them from even being in the room as a human corpse. The earliest versions of the accusation involved Jews crucifying Christian children at Easter/Passover because of a prophecy, there is no reference to the use of blood in unleavened matzo bread, which evolves later as a major motivation for the crime. The Graeco-Egyptian author Apion claimed that Jews sacrificed Greek victims in their temple and this accusation is known from Josephus rebuttal of it in Against Apion. Apion states that when Antiochus Epiphanes entered the temple in Jerusalem, every year, Apion claimed, the Jews would sacrifice a Greek and consume his flesh, at the same time swearing eternal hatred to Greeks. Apions claim probably repeats ideas already in circulation as similar claims are made by Posidonius and Apollonius Molon in the 1st century BC, another example concerns the murder of a Christian boy by a group of Jewish youths
12.
Matzo
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Matzo, matza or matzah is an unleavened flatbread that is part of Jewish cuisine and forms an integral element of the Passover festival, during which chametz is forbidden. Matzo that is kosher for Passover is limited in Ashkenazi tradition to plain matzo made from flour, the flour may be whole grain or processed grain, but must be either wheat, spelt, barley, rye, or oat. Sephardic tradition also allows eggs to be used, Passover and non-Passover matzo may be soft or crisp, but only the crisp cracker type is available commercially in most locations. Soft matzo, if it were available, would essentially be a kosher flour tortilla. Non-Passover matzo may be made with onion, garlic, poppy seed and it can even be made from rice, maize, buckwheat and other non-traditional flours that can never be used for Passover matzo. Oat matzo may only be used by those who cannot have any kind because its not certain that oat is actually one of the 5 grains. Matzo is mentioned in the Torah several times in relation to The Exodus from Egypt, That night, they are to eat the meat, roasted in the fire, they are to eat it with matzo and maror. From the evening of the day of the first month until the evening of the twenty-first day. You are not to eat any chametz with it, for seven days you are to eat with it matzo, thus you will remember the day you left the land of Egypt as long as you live. For six days you are to eat matzo, on the day there is to be a festive assembly for Ha Shem your God. There are numerous explanations behind the symbolism of matzo, one is historical, Passover is a commemoration of the exodus from Egypt. The biblical narrative relates that the Israelites left Egypt in such haste they could not wait for their bread dough to rise, the bread, when baked, was matzo. The other reason for eating matzo is symbolic, On the one hand, matzo symbolizes redemption and freedom, thus it serves as a reminder to be humble, and to not forget what life was like in servitude. Also, leaven symbolizes corruption and pride as leaven puffs up, eating the bread of affliction is both a lesson in humility and an act that enhances the appreciation of freedom. Another explanation is that matzo has been used to replace the pesach, during the Seder the third time the matzo is eaten it is preceded with the Sephardic rite, zekher lkorban pesach haneekhal al hasova. This means remembrance of the Passover offering, eaten while full and this last piece of the matzo eaten is called afikoman and many explain it as a symbol of salvation in the future. At the Passover seder, simple matzo made of flour and water is mandatory, Sephardic tradition additionally permits the inclusion of eggs in the recipe. The flour must be ground from one of the five grains specified in Jewish law for Passover matzo, wheat, barley, spelt, matzo made with wine, fruit juice, onion, garlic, etc. is not acceptable for use at any time during the Passover festival
13.
Passover
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Passover or Pesach, is an important, biblically derived Jewish holiday. The Jewish people celebrate Passover as a commemoration of their liberation by God from slavery in Egypt and it commemorates the story of the Exodus as described in the Hebrew Bible especially in the Book of Exodus, in which the Israelites were freed from slavery in Egypt. According to standard biblical chronology, this event would have place at about 1300 BCE. Passover commences on the 15th of the Hebrew month of Nisan and lasts for seven days or eight days for Orthodox, Hasidic. The rituals unique to the Passover celebrations commence with the Passover Seder when the 15th of Nisan has begun, in the Northern Hemisphere Passover takes place in spring as the Torah prescribes it, in the month of spring. It is one of the most widely observed Jewish holidays, when the Pharaoh freed the Israelites, it is said that they left in such a hurry that they could not wait for bread dough to rise. In commemoration, for the duration of Passover no leavened bread is eaten, thus matzo is eaten during Passover and it is a tradition of the holiday. Samaritans still make this pilgrimage to Mount Gerizim, but only men participate in public worship, the Passover begins on the 15th day of the month of Nisan, which typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. Passover is a festival, so the 15th day of Nisan typically begins on the night of a full moon after the northern vernal equinox. However, due to months or leap months falling after the vernal equinox, Passover sometimes starts on the second full moon after vernal equinox. If the barley was not ripe, or various other phenomena indicated that spring was not yet imminent, however, since at least the 4th century, the date has been fixed mathematically. Diaspora Jews historically observed the festival for eight days, and most still do, reform and Reconstructionist Jews and Israeli Jews, wherever they are, usually observe the holiday over seven days. The reason for this day is due to enactment of the ancient Jewish sages. It is thought by scholars that Jews outside of Israel could not be certain if their local calendars fully conformed to practice of the Temple at Jerusalem. Karaites and Samaritans use different versions of the Jewish calendar, which are out of sync with the modern Jewish calendar by one or two days. In 2009, for example, Nisan 15 on the Jewish calendar used by Rabbinic Judaism corresponds to April 9, on the calendars used by Karaites and Samaritans, Abib or Aviv 15 corresponds to April 11 in 2009. The Karaite and Samaritan Passovers are each one day long, followed by the six-day Festival of Unleavened Bread – for a total of seven days, scholarly consensus dates the origin of the festival to a period earlier than the Exodus. Hyssop was employed to daub the blood of a sheep on the lintels
14.
Pogrom
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A pogrom is a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. The term originally entered the English language in order to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire, similar attacks against Jews at other times and places also became retrospectively known as pogroms. The word is now sometimes used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish ethnic or religious groups. First recorded in 1882, the Russian word pogrom is a derived from the verb gromit meaning to destroy, to wreak havoc. Its literal translation is to harm, the noun pogrom, which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword, possibly borrowed via Yiddish. Its widespread circulation in todays world began with the excesses in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883. Anti-Jewish riots took place in Europe already in the Middle Ages, some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed in this period, extending further to the Brussels massacre of 1370. The first atrocities against Jewish civilians, on a scale of destruction, were committed during the Khmelnytsky Pogroms of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, although it is estimated that about 20 percent of Jews of the region were killed. Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytskys Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children, or perhaps many more. In conquered territories, a new entity called Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great. Most Jewish people from the former Commonwealth were only allowed to reside within the Pale, including families expelled by decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow. The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia, Jewish self-governing Kehilla was abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844. The first, in the 20th century Russia, was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 47 Jews were killed and it was followed by the Kiev pogrom of October 1905, resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews. However, at about the time, the Jewish Labour Bund began organizing armed self-defence units ready to shoot. According to professor Colin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920, there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless. Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War and the Revolution of 1917. Professor Zvi Gitelman estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine thus amounting to a greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648
15.
Julian calendar
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The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on 1 January 45 BC, by edict, the Julian calendar gains against the mean tropical year at the rate of one day in 128 years. For the Gregorian the figure is one day in 3,030 years, the difference in the average length of the year between Julian and Gregorian is 0. 002%. The Julian calendar has a year of 365 days divided into 12 months. A leap day is added to February every four years, the Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. It was intended to approximate the tropical year, as a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582, consequently, the Julian calendar is currently 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar. Egypt converted on 20 December 1874/1 January 1875, turkey switched on 16 February/1 March 1917. Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918, Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923 - the national day, which was a religious holiday, was to remain on the old calendar. Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian as the basis for their liturgical calendars. However, most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church still use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, some Orthodox churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while other Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes. The Julian calendar is used by the Berbers of the Maghreb in the form of the Berber calendar. In the form of the Alexandrian calendar, it is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, during the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems. In contemporary as well as texts that describe events during the period of change. The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, in addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, some say the mensis intercalaris always had 27 days and began on either the first or the second day after the Terminalia. According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. In this system, the average Roman year would have had 366 1⁄4 days over four years, Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days
16.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
17.
Vyacheslav von Plehve
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Vyacheslav Konstantinovich von Plehve, also Pléhve, or Pleve was the director of Imperial Russias police and later Minister of the Interior. He was very conservative throughout his career and he put many on his men in government positions during his time as minister of interior, Plehve was born in Meshchovsk, Russia, on 20 April 1846. He was the son of schoolteacher Konstantin von Plehve and Elizaveta Mikhailovna Shamaev. In 1851 Plehves family moved from Meshchovsk to Warsaw, where his father accepted a job as instructor in a gymnasium, after studying law at the Moscow University, he joined the ministry of justice in 1867. He served as assistant prosecutor in the Vladimir circuit court and as prosecutor in Vologda, in 1876 he was appointed assistant prosecutor of the Warsaw Chamber of Justice, and - in 1879 - prosecutor of the St. Petersburg Chamber of Justice. In 1881 he investigated the murder of Alexander II and then joined the MVD as a Director of the Department of Police and he is credited with the destruction of numerous Peoples Will terrorist groups. He became a member of the Governing Senate in 1884 and assistant minister of Interior in 1885, as assistant minister, at first under Count Dmitry Tolstoy and later under his successor, Ivan Durnovo, Plehve had shown definite administrative talent. Made an Actual Privy Counsellor in 1899, he was Finnish Minister Secretary of State from that year until 1904 and he supported the abolition of the separate Finnish army in 1901. In April 1902, following the assassination of Dmitry Sipyagin, he was appointed minister of interior, after a brief attempt at conciliation with the zemstvo conservatives failed, he relapsed - disbanding the police-supported labour unions. Plehve became a target for Jewish revolutionaries after his meeting with Theodore Herzl although he had forwarded Herzls proposals to the czar. After he did nothing to prevent a wave of anti-Jewish violence in 1903. He survived one attack in 1903 and two in 1904 before the Socialist-Revolutionary Combat Group succeeded, on 28 July 1904, a bomb was thrown into Plehves carriage by Yegor Sazonov, in Saint Petersburg, killing him at 58. Plehve had used his position as minister of interior to insist that Hirsh Lekert and this virtually guaranteed a death sentence. Features And Figures Of The Past, government And Opinion In The Reign Of Nicholas II. Plehve, repression and reform in imperial Russia, 1902-1904, reactions to Assassination of Pogrom Organizer Plehve, Original Letters Shapell Manuscript Foundation
18.
Sefer Torah
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A Sefer Torah is a handwritten copy of the Torah, the holiest book in Judaism. It must meet strict standards of production. The Torah scroll is used in the ritual of Torah reading during Jewish prayers. The text of the Torah is also printed and bound in book form for non-ritual functions. It is then known as a Chumash, and is accompanied by commentaries or translations. Torah reading from a Sefer Torah is traditionally reserved for Monday and Thursday mornings, as well as for Shabbat, the presence of a minyan is required for the reading of the Torah to be held in public during the course of the worship services. As the Torah is sung, following the often dense text is aided by a yad, according to halakha, a sefer Torah is a copy of the formal Hebrew text of the Torah hand-written on gevil or klaf by using a quill dipped in ink. Producing a sefer Torah fulfills one of the 613 commandments, an error during transcription may render the sefer Torah pasul. According to the Talmud, all scrolls must also be written on parchment that is treated with salt, flour. Scrolls not processed in this way are considered invalid, the calfskin or parchment on which the sacred Hebrew text is written is mounted into a wooden housing called עץ חיים in Hebrew. The housing has two rollers, each of which has two handles used for scrolling the text, four handles in all, most modern Sifrei Torah are written with forty-two lines of text per column. Very strict rules about the position and appearance of the Hebrew alphabet are observed, see for example the Mishnah Berurah on the subject. Any of several Hebrew scripts may be used, most of which are fairly ornate, some errors are inevitable in the course of production. If the error involves an other than the name of God. If the name of God is written in error, the page must be cut from the scroll and a new page added. The new page is sewn into the scroll to maintain continuity of the document, the old page is treated with appropriate respect, and is buried with respect rather than being otherwise destroyed or discarded. It is an honor to be chosen for this. It is a mitzvah for every Jewish male to either write or have written for him a Sefer Torah
19.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
20.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
21.
Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
22.
Nicholas II of Russia
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Nicholas II was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 15 March 1917. His reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic, Soviet historiography portrayed Nicholas as a weak and incompetent leader, whose decisions led to military defeats and the deaths of millions of his subjects. The Anglo-Russian Entente, designed to counter German attempts to influence in the Middle East. Nicholas approved the Russian mobilisation on 30 July 1914, which led to Germany declaring war on Russia on 1 August 1914 and it is estimated that around 3,300,000 Russians were killed in World War I. Following the February Revolution of 1917, Nicholas abdicated on behalf of himself and his son, Nicholas, the recovered remains of the Imperial Family were finally re-interred in St. Petersburg, eighty years to the day on 17 July 1998. In 1981, Nicholas, his wife and their children were canonized as martyrs by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, located in New York City. On 15 August 2000 Nicholas and his family were canonized as passion bearers, Nicholas was born in the Alexander Palace in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, the eldest son of Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia. He had five siblings, Alexander, George, Xenia, Michael. Nicholas often referred to his father nostalgically in letters after Alexanders death in 1894 and he was also very close to his mother, as revealed in their published letters to each other. His paternal grandparents were Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia and his maternal grandparents were King Christian IX and Queen Louise of Denmark. Nicholas was of primarily German and Danish descent, his last ethnically Russian ancestor being Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna, Nicholas was related to several monarchs in Europe. His mothers siblings included Kings Frederik VIII of Denmark and George I of Greece, Nicholas, his wife Alexandra, and Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany were all first cousins of King George V of the United Kingdom. Nicholas was also a first cousin of both King Haakon VII and Queen Maud of Norway, as well as King Constantine I of Greece, Tsar Nicholas II was the first cousin-once-removed of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich. To distinguish between them the Grand Duke was often known within the Imperial family as Nikolasha and Nicholas the Tall, while the Tsar was Nicholas the Short. In his childhood, Nicholas, his parents and siblings made annual visits to the Danish royal palaces of Fredensborg and Bernstorff to visit his grandparents, the king and queen. The visits also served as family reunions, as his mothers siblings would come from the United Kingdom, Germany. It was there in 1883, that he had a flirtation with one of his English first cousins, in 1873, Nicholas also accompanied his parents and younger brother, two-year-old George, on a two-month, semi-official visit to England. In London, Nicholas and his family stayed at Marlborough House, as guests of his Uncle Bertie and Aunt Alix, the Prince and Princess of Wales, where he was spoiled by his uncle
23.
Roosevelt Corollary
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The Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in his State of the Union address in 1904 after the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–03. Roosevelt tied his policy to the Monroe Doctrine, and it was consistent with his foreign policy included in his Big Stick Diplomacy. While the Monroe Doctrine had sought to prevent European intervention, the Roosevelt Corollary was used to justify US intervention throughout the hemisphere, in 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt renounced interventionism and established his Good Neighbor policy for the Western Hemisphere. The Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine, however, Roosevelt first used the Corollary to act in the Dominican Republic in 1904, which at the time was severely indebted and becoming a failed state. The United States dispatched two warships and demanded the customs house be turned over to U. S. negotiators and this model—in which United States advisors worked to stabilize Latin American nations through temporary protectorates, staving off European action—became known as dollar diplomacy. The Dominican experiment, like most other dollar diplomacy arrangements, proved temporary and untenable, U. S. Presidents also cited the Roosevelt Corollary as justification for U. S. intervention in Cuba, Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. Herbert Hoover also helped move the U. S, the era of the Good Neighbor Policy ended with the ramp-up of the Cold War in 1945, as the United States felt there was a greater need to protect the western hemisphere from Soviet influence. Rather, the Roosevelt Corollary was a new diplomatic tenet that epitomized his big stick approach to foreign policy. In other words, while the Monroe Doctrine sought to bar entry to the European empires, norteamérica vis-à-vis Hispanoamérica, ¿opposición o asociación. Toronto, Canadian Academy of the Arts,2005, meiertöns, Heiko The Doctrines of US Security Policy - An Evaluation under International Law, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-76648-7. The Danger of Dreams, German and American Imperialism in Latin America, Mitchener, Kris James, Empire, public goods, and the Roosevelt Corollary. Journal of Economic History 64#5 pp 658+ Rabe, Stephen G. Theodore Roosevelt, the Panama Canal, a Companion to Theodore Roosevelt Ricard, Serge. ISSN 0360-4918 Fulltext, in Swetswise and Ingenta Ricard, Serge, Theodore Roosevelt, Imperialist or Global Strategist in the New Expansionist Age. Diplomacy & Statecraft 19#3 pp 639–657, the Monroe Doctrine, Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America
24.
Tsar
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Tsar /zɑːr/ or /tsɑːr/, also spelled tzar, csar, or czar, is a title used to designate certain Slavic monarchs or supreme rulers. As a system of government in the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, it is known as Tsarist autocracy, occasionally, the word could be used to designate other secular supreme rulers. Simeon II, the last Tsar of Bulgaria, is the last person to have borne the title Tsar, the title Tsar is derived from the Latin title for the Roman emperors, Caesar. In the history of the Greek language, basileus had originally meant something like potentate and it gradually approached the meaning of king in the Hellenistic Period, and it came to designate emperor after the inception in the Roman Empire. Thus, tsar was not only used as an equivalent of Latin imperator but was used to refer to Biblical rulers. From this ambiguity, the development has moved in different directions in the different Slavic languages, thus, the Bulgarian language and Russian language no longer use tsar as an equivalent of the term emperor/imperator as it exists in the West European tradition. Currently, the term refers to native sovereigns, ancient and Biblical rulers, as well as monarchs in fairy tales. The title of king is sometimes perceived as alien and is by some Russian-speakers reserved for European royalty, foreign monarchs of imperial status, both inside and outside of Europe, ancient as well as modern, are generally called imperator, rather than tsar. Biblical rulers in Serbian are called цар and in Croatian kralj, in the Polish language however tsar is always used as imperator, never as king. The term tsar is very used to refer to the Russian rulers after Peter the Great. In 705 Emperor Justinian II named Tervel of Bulgaria Caesar, the first foreigner to receive this title, the sainted Boris I is sometimes retrospectively referred to as tsar, because at his time Bulgaria was converted to Christianity. However, the tsar was actually adopted and used for the first time by his son Simeon I. Since in Byzantine political theory there was place for two emperors, Eastern and Western, the Bulgarian ruler was crowned basileus as a spiritual son of the Byzantian basileus. In Latin sources the Emperor of Bulgaria is sometimes designated Emperor of Zagora, various additional epithets and descriptions apart, the official style read Emperor and autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks. During the five-century period of Ottoman rule in Bulgaria, the sultan was referred to as tsar. This may be related to the fact that he had claimed the legacy of the Byzantine Empire or to the fact that the sultan was called Basileus in medieval Greek, after Bulgarias liberation from the Ottomans in 1878, its new monarchs were at first autonomous prince. With the declaration of independence, Ferdinand I of Bulgaria adopted the traditional title tsar in 1908. However, these titles were not generally perceived as equivalents of emperor any longer, in the Bulgarian as in the Greek vernacular, the meaning of the title had shifted
25.
October Manifesto
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The Manifesto was issued by Emperor Nicholas II, under the influence of Sergei Witte, on 30 October 1905 as a response to the Russian Revolution of 1905. According to his memoirs Witte did not force the Tsar to sign the October Manifesto, while France, Great Britain, and the United States had chosen democracy in one form or another, the Russian Empire maintained its ancient autocratic government, headed by the Tsar. Russia had in the early 1890s, under guidance of Minister of Finance Sergei Witte, embarked on a programme of industrialisation through foreign investments. However the rapid growth in industry during this period was not met by political reform, nonetheless, peasants still formed 80 percent of the population and, despite the emancipation of the serfs, agrarian problems were still marked. Russia, remaining a mostly agricultural economy, created economic issues, the conflict created by Russia’s economic and political issues climaxed in the months prior to October 1905, also known as the Russian Revolution of 1905. On January 22,1905, peaceful protesters attempted to bring a petition to the Tsar, however this protest was violently put down outside the winter palace when guards were ordered to fire on the protesters. The result of the violent revolt of the protest would be known as Bloody Sunday, the violent reaction to the protest increased the tension throughout Russia further. Unrest amongst the Russian people followed Bloody Sunday, by the thousands people refused to go to work and general strike crippled the Empire. Unrest eventually spread to the Russian countryside where peasants began to burn their masters manors as the Russian people revolted against the autocracy, with Russia’s communication, transportation and public services crippled by the strikes, Nicholas II was forced to act before he lost power completely. Although Russia was at a standstill with violent revolts terrorizing the nation. Nicholas felt that it was not his place to limit a system created by his ancestors and is quoted as saying I cannot squander a legacy that is not mine to squander. Nicholas could not bring himself to understand that the Russian people wished to limit his power, the Manifesto also introduced universal male suffrage in Russia which was common in Western countries at the time. This document, although granting basic rights to the Russian people, instead the Manifesto just stated that the people now had basic rights and a voice in legislation. One provision of the Manifesto was the creation of a body in Russia. The legislative body known as the Duma was flawed from its inception, one major flaw of the Duma was that the Tsar maintained the power to veto any legislation that he wished. The Duma was also weakened by the influence of the Russian bureaucracy, as well as the fact that the body could be disbanded by Nicholas if he, the October Manifesto divided opposition to the Emperor. The Kadets were appeased by the idea of having freedom of speech and a representative government. Successes of the Manifesto were immediate and short-lived, the strikes and much of the violence ended almost as soon as it was published
26.
Arthur Cassini
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Arthur Paul Nicholas Cassini was born in 1836 into a noble Russian family of Italian lineage which first entered the service of the Czar during the Napoleonic Wars. His father, Paul Viktorovich Cassini, had served as Russian Consul at Trieste, having graduated from the prestigious Imperial Alexander Lyceum in 1854, Cassini entered into Government service on December 18,1854, by joining the Foreign Office in St. Petersburg at age 18. In 1862 he was granted the title gentleman of the bedchamber, in 1880—that of Chamberlain, Cassini was married to Zoe Dmitrievna Bibikova, daughter of Russian Minister of Internal Affairs between 1852 and 1855, Dmitry Bibikov. In 1854 Count Cassini entered Imperial Service in the Ministry of foreign affairs, in 1864 he was attached to the Dresden mission and soon afterward he was promoted to the office of the first secretary of the legation. The held the same position subsequently at the Russian missions in Baden, Copenhagen, by September 25,1884 he was the chargé daffaires, and on May 10,1888 Minister Resident at Hamburg. After 10 years at Dresden, on November 17,1891, Czar Alexander III appointed him to the key post of envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the Chinese Imperial Court at Beijing. Then a seasoned diplomat, upon his arrival at Beijing, Cassini took the unprecedented step of refusing to present his credentials to anyone other than the Emperor himself. Although the Chinese Foreign Office tried to assuage him from that position, recognizing the strategic importance of his role, Cassini is said to have told his niece and adoptive daughter Marguerite that To possess the East, Russia must possess the Liaotung peninsula. Indeed, Cassinis mendacity on occasion resulted in friction with the White House. While that was the case, Cassinis service at Washington was not short lived, as a result, he headed the line of ambassadors accredited to the United States, and headed the Diplomatic Corps at occasions such as the second inauguration of President Roosevelt. Cassinis niece and adopted daughter, Marguerite, indeed, was friends with President Roosevelts eldest Child, Alice. Upon his reaching 50 years of Imperial Service, in 1905, edmund Morris describes Cassinis position in Washington as follows, Hay cautioned that Cassini could not be trusted. For all his Italian nomenclature, he was as Russian as borscht and his numberless jeweled decorations may not all have been earned in the Tsars service, but they were the glittering envy of Embassy Row. When he stood under a chandelier at receptions, he looked like a section of the Milky Way, although Cassini was said to have refused to believe the plot existed and the offer of protection, President Roosevelt himself was reported as having insisted on protection being extended. As part of his duties there, he acted as signatory for the Russian Government to the agreement prepared following the Algeciras Conference on April 7,1906, Cassini retired in 1909, after having spent 55 years in the service of the Czar. He died in 1919 at age 83
27.
National Archives and Records Administration
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The NARA also transmits votes of the Electoral College to Congress. The chief administrator of NARA is the Archivist of the United States, the Archivist of the United States is the chief official overseeing the operation of the National Archives and Records Administration. The Archivist not only maintains the official documentation of the passage of amendments to the U. S, Constitution by state legislatures, but has the authority to declare when the constitutional threshold for passage has been reached, and therefore when an act has become an amendment. The Office of the Federal Register publishes the Federal Register, Code of Federal Regulations and it also administers the Electoral College. Since 1964, the NHPRC has awarded some 4,500 grants, the Office of Government Information Services is a Freedom of Information Act resource for the public and the government. Congress has charged NARA with reviewing FOIA policies, procedures and compliance of Federal agencies, NARAs mission also includes resolving FOIA disputes between Federal agencies and requesters. Originally, each branch and agency of the U. S. government was responsible for maintaining its own documents, Congress established the National Archives Establishment in 1934 to centralize federal record keeping, with the Archivist of the United States as chief administrator. The National Archives was incorporated with GSA in 1949, in 1985 it became an independent agency as NARA, connor, began serving in 1934, when the National Archives was established by Congress. As a result of a first Hoover Commission recommendation, in 1949 the National Archives was placed within the newly formed General Services Administration. The Archivist served as an official to the GSA Administrator until the National Archives. An audit indicated that more than one third withdrawn since 1999 did not contain sensitive information, the program was originally scheduled to end in 2007. In 2011, a retired employee pleaded guilty to stealing original sound recordings from the archives, Archival Recovery Teams investigate the theft of records. NARAs holdings are classed into record groups reflecting the governmental department or agency from which they originated, Records include paper documents, microfilm, still pictures, motion pictures, and electronic media. Archival descriptions of the permanent holdings of the government in the custody of NARA are stored in the National Archives Catalog. The archival descriptions include information on traditional paper holdings, electronic records, as of December 2012, the catalog consisted of about 10 billion logical data records describing 527,000 artifacts and encompassing 81% of NARAs records. There are also 922,000 digital copies of already digitized materials, most records at NARA are in the public domain, as works of the federal government are excluded from copyright protection. However, records from other sources may still be protected by copyright or donor agreements and its Information Security Oversight Office monitors and sets policy for the U. S. governments security classification system. Many of NARAs most requested records are used for genealogy research
28.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
29.
Palestine (region)
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Palestine is a geographic region in Western Asia between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. It is sometimes considered to include adjoining territories, the name was used by Ancient Greek writers, and was later used for the Roman province Syria Palaestina, the Byzantine Palaestina Prima, and the Islamic provincial district of Jund Filastin. The region comprises most of the claimed for the biblical regions known as the Land of Israel. Historically, it has known as the southern portion of wider regional designations such as Canaan, Syria, ash-Sham. The boundaries of the region have changed throughout history, today, the region comprises the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories in which the State of Palestine was declared. Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of Hebrew Pelesheth, the term Peleset is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from c.1150 BCE during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term, approximately a century later, Aristotle used a similar definition for the region in Meteorology, in which he included the Dead Sea. The term is accepted to be a translation of the Biblical name Peleshet. The term is used in the Septuagint, who used a transliteration Land of Phylistieim different from the contemporary Greek place name Palaistínē. Following the Muslim conquest, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic, Modern archaeologists and historians of the region refer to their field of study as Levantine archaeology. The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities, during the Bronze Age, independent Canaanite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Between 1550–1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c.740 BCE, in 539 BCE, the Babylonian empire was replaced by the Achaemenid Empire. In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the region and it ultimately fell to the Seleucid Empire between 219–200 BCE. In 116 BCE, a Seleucid civil war resulted in the independence of certain regions including the Hasmonean principality in the Judaean Mountains, from 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, creating a Judaean–Samaritan–Idumaean–Ituraean–Galilean alliance. The Judaean control over the region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea. Between 73–63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War, conquering Judea in 63 BCE, and splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. The three-year Ministry of Jesus, culminating in his crucifixion, is estimated to have occurred from 28–30 CE, in 70 CE, Titus sacked Jerusalem, resulting in the dispersal of the citys Jews and Christians to Yavne and Pella
30.
Zionism
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Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the state in Palestine. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to threats to its continued existence. A variety of Zionism, called cultural Zionism, founded and represented most prominently by Ahad Haam, unlike Herzl, the founder of political Zionism, Ahad Haam strived for Israel to be a Jewish state and not merely a state of Jews. Advocates of Zionism view it as a liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people residing as minorities in a variety of nations to their ancestral homeland. The term Zionism is derived from the word Zion, referring to Jerusalem and these groups were collectively called the Lovers of Zion and were seen to encounter a growing Jewish movement toward assimilation. The first use of the term is attributed to the Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, founder of a nationalist Jewish students movement Kadimah, the common denominator among all Zionists is the claim to Eretz Israel as the national homeland of the Jews and as the legitimate focus for Jewish national self-determination. It is based on ties and religious traditions linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel. Zionism does not have an ideology, but has evolved in a dialogue among a plethora of ideologies, General Zionism, Religious Zionism, Labor Zionism, Revisionist Zionism, Green Zionism. The political movement was established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl in 1897 following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat. At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to Ottoman Palestine, although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe where these alternative movements were rooted, the alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine but the Zionists persisted. The movement was successful in establishing Israel on May 14,1948. The proportion of the worlds Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged, by the early 21st century, more than 40% of the worlds Jews live in Israel, more than in any other country. These two outcomes represent the success of Zionism, and are unmatched by any other Jewish political movement in the past 2,000 years. In some academic studies, Zionism has been analyzed both within the context of diaspora politics and as an example of modern national liberation movements
31.
Revisionist Zionism
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Revisionist Zionism is a faction within the Zionist movement. It is the ideology of the non-religious right in Israel. Revisionism led to the development of the Likud Party and he founded the New Zionist Organization to conduct independent political activity for free immigration and the establishment of a Jewish State. Revisionist Zionism was based on a vision of political Zionism, which Jabotinsky regarded as following the legacy of Theodor Herzl, in its early years, and under Jabotinskys leadership, Revisionist Zionism was focused on gaining the aid of Britain as a major power for settlement. Revisionism was distinguished primarily from other ideologies within Zionism by its territorial maximalism and they had a vision of occupying the full territory, and insisted upon the Jewish right to sovereignty over the whole territory of Eretz Yisrael. The British establishment of Transjordan adversely affected this goal and was a great set-back for the movement, until Israel achieved statehood, Revisionist Zionism became known more for its advocacy of more belligerent, assertive posture and actions against both British and Arab control of the region. Jewish statehood was always a major goal for Revisionism. Jabotinsky and his followers consistently rejected proposals to partition Palestine into an Arab state, Menachem Begin, Jabotinskys successor, opposed the 1947 United Nations partition plan. Revisionists considered the subsequent partition of Palestine following the 1949 Armistice Agreements to be illegitimate, during the first two decades after independence, the Revisionist Party, Herut, remained in opposition. The party slowly began to revise its ideology in an effort to change this situation, while Begin maintained the Revisionist claim to Jewish sovereignty over all of Eretz Israel, by the late 1950s, control over the East Bank of the Jordan ceased to be integral to Revisionist ideology. Following Heruts merger with the Liberal Party in 1965, references to the ideal of Jewish sovereignty over both banks of the Jordan appeared less and less frequently, by the 1970s, the legitimacy of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan was no longer questioned. In 1994, the complete abandonment of the both banks principle was apparent when an overwhelming majority of Likud Knesset Members voted in favour of the peace treaty with Jordan. On the day the Six-Day War started in June 1967, the Revisionists, as part of the Gahal faction, Begin served in the cabinet for the first time. This action helped legitimize the views of the opposition and it also showed that the dominant party no longer felt that it could monopolize power. This unity arrangement lasted until August 1970, when Begin and Gahal left the government, some sources indicate the resignation was due to disagreements over the Rogers Plan and its in place cease-fire with Egypt along the Suez Canal, other sources, including William B. Quandt, note that Begin left the unity government because the Labour party, on August 5,1970, Begin himself explained before the Knesset why he was resigning. He said, As far as we are concerned, what do the words withdrawal from territories administered since 1967 by Israel mean other than Judea, not all the territories, but by all opinion, most of them. Following Israels capture of the West Bank and Gaza in the 1967 war and these areas were far more central to ancient Jewish history than the East Bank of the Jordan and most of the areas within Israels post-1949 borders
32.
Ze'ev Jabotinsky
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Zeev Jabotinsky, MBE, was a Russian Jewish Revisionist Zionist leader, author, poet, orator, soldier and founder of the Jewish Self-Defense Organization in Odessa. With Joseph Trumpeldor, he co-founded the Jewish Legion of the British army in World War I, later he established several Jewish organizations in what was then called Palestine, including Beitar, HaTzohar and the Irgun. Jabotinsky was born Vladimir Yevgenyevich Zhabotinsky in Odessa, Russian Empire into an assimilated Jewish family and his father, Yevno Zhabotinsky, hailed from Nikopol, Ukraine. He was a member of the Russian Society of Sailing and Trade and was involved in wheat trading. His mother, Chava Zach, came from Berdychiv, Jabotinskys older brother died in childhood. His sister, Tereza Zhabotinskaya-Kopp, founded a private, female secondary school in Odessa, in 1885 the family moved to Germany due to his fathers illness, returning a year later after his fathers death. Raised in a Jewish middle-class home, Jabotinsky was educated in Russian schools, although he studied Hebrew as a child, he wrote in his autobiography that his upbringing was divorced from Jewish faith and tradition. Chava Zhabotinskaya opened a store in Odessa selling stationery, and enrolled young Vladimir in the citys gymnasium, Jabotinsky did not finish school, having become involved in journalism. In 1896 he began writing articles for a major local Russian newspaper, the Odessa Leaflet and he also worked with the Odessa News. Jabotinsky was a friend of Russian journalist and poet Korney Chukovsky. Jabotinsky wrote under the pseudonym Altalena and his dispatches from Italy earned him recognition as an up-and-coming Russian-language journalist. He was a student at the Sapienza University of Rome law school, in the summer of 1901 he returned to Odessa and began working as a journalist at the newspaper Odessas News. Later he edited newspapers in Russian and Hebrew and he married Yohana Galperina in October 1907. They had one child, Eri Jabotinsky, who became a member of the Irgun-inspired Bergson Group. Eri Jabotinsky briefly served in the 1st Knesset of Israel, he died on June 6,1969, prior to the Kishinev pogrom of 1903, Jabotinsky joined the Zionist movement, where he soon became known as a powerful speaker and an influential leader. With more pogroms looming on the horizon, he established the Jewish Self-Defense Organization and he became the source of great controversy in the Russian Jewish community as a result of these actions. Around this time, he began learning modern Hebrew, and took a Hebrew name, during the pogroms, he organized self-defense units in Jewish communities across Russia and fought for the civil rights of the Jewish population as a whole. His slogan was, Better to have a gun and not need it than to need it, another slogan was, Jewish youth, learn to shoot
33.
Vladimir Korolenko
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Vladimir Galaktionovich Korolenko was a Russian and Ukrainian short story writer, journalist, human rights activist and humanitarian. His best-known work include the short novel The Blind Musician, as well as short stories based upon his experience of exile in Siberia. Korolenko was a critic of the Tsarist regime and in his final years of the Bolsheviks. Vladimir Korolenko was born in Zhytomyr, Volhynian Governorate, Russian Empire and his mother Evelina Skórewicz was of Polish origins. In his early childhood Korolenko did not very well know to which nationality he belonged and learned to read Polish before he did Russian and it was only after the 1863 January Uprising that the family did have to choose its nationality and decided to become Russians. After the sudden death of her husband in Rovno in 1866 Evelina Iosifovna, suffering enormous hardships, somehow managed to raise her five children, three sons and two daughters, on a meagre income. Korolenko started his education in a Polish Rykhlinsky boarding school to continue it in the Zhitomir and later Rovno gymnasiums, in his final year, he discovered the works of Nikolai Nekrasov and Ivan Turgenev. It was then that I found my true native land and that was the world of, first and foremost, Russian literature and he also cited Taras Shevchenko and Ukrainian folklore as major influences. In 1871 Korolenko enrolled into Saint Petersburg Technological Institute but after a year spent in utmost poverty had to leave in early 1873 due to financial problems, in 1874 he moved to Moscow and joined the Moscow College of Agriculture and Forestry. In August 1877 Korolenko enrolled in the Saint Petersburg Mineral Resources Institute where he became a member of a Narodnik group. Eight months later was reported on by a 3rd Section spy, arrested and sent into exile, first to Vyatka, then Vyshnevolotsk Region and he was finally allowed to settle in Perm. Another early story, Chudnaya, written in prison cell, spread across Russia in its form and was first published in London in 1893. In August 1881, while in Perm, Korolenko refused to swear allegiance to the new Russian Tsar Alexander III and was exiled again, this time much farther, to Yakutia. He spent the three years in Amga, a small settlement 275 verstas from Yakutsk, where he did manual work. In Nizhny, Korolenko became the center of the social activism, attracting radicals to fight all kinds of wrong-doing committed by the authorities. Makars Dream established his reputation as a writer when it was published in 1885, the story, based on a dying peasants dream of heaven, was translated and published in English in 1892. Also in 1886 he published the short novel Slepoi Muzykant, which enjoyed 15 re-issues during its authors lifetime and it was published in English as The Blind Musician in 1896-1898. One of his Siberian stories, Sokolinets was praised by Anton Chekhov, in 1896 Korolenko moved his family to Saint Petersburg
34.
Leo Tolstoy
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Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, usually referred to in English as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time. Born to an aristocratic Russian family in 1828, he is best known for the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, often cited as pinnacles of realist fiction. He first achieved acclaim in his twenties with his semi-autobiographical trilogy, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth. Tolstoys fiction includes dozens of stories and several novellas such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich, Family Happiness. He also wrote plays and numerous philosophical essays, in the 1870s Tolstoy experienced a profound moral crisis, followed by what he regarded as an equally profound spiritual awakening, as outlined in his non-fiction work A Confession. His literal interpretation of the teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him to become a fervent Christian anarchist and pacifist. Tolstoy also became an advocate of Georgism, the economic philosophy of Henry George. Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, a family estate 12 kilometres southwest of Tula, the Tolstoys were a well-known family of old Russian nobility, tracing their ancestry to a mythical Lithuanian noble Indris. He was the fourth of five children of Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy, a veteran of the Patriotic War of 1812, Tolstoys parents died when he was young, so he and his siblings were brought up by relatives. In 1844, he began studying law and oriental languages at Kazan University and his teachers described him as both unable and unwilling to learn. Tolstoy left the university in the middle of his studies, returned to Yasnaya Polyana and then spent much of his time in Moscow, in 1851, after running up heavy gambling debts, he went with his older brother to the Caucasus and joined the army. It was about time that he started writing. Others who followed the path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy witnessed an execution in Paris. Writing in a letter to his friend Vasily Botkin, The truth is that the State is a conspiracy designed not only to exploit, henceforth, I shall never serve any government anywhere. Tolstoys concept of non-violence or Ahimsa was bolstered when he read a German version of the Tirukkural and he later instilled the concept in Mahatma Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi corresponded with him seeking his advice. His European trip in 1860–61 shaped both his political and literary development when he met Victor Hugo, whose literary talents Tolstoy praised after reading Hugos newly finished Les Misérables, the similar evocation of battle scenes in Hugos novel and Tolstoys War and Peace indicates this influence. Tolstoys political philosophy was influenced by a March 1861 visit to French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
35.
Maxim Gorky
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Alexei Maximovich Peshkov, primarily known as Maxim Gorky, was a Russian and Soviet writer, a founder of the socialist realism literary method and a political activist. He was also a nominee for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Around fifteen years before success as a writer, he changed jobs and roamed across the Russian Empire. Gorkys most famous works were The Lower Depths, Twenty-six Men and he had an association with fellow Russian writers Leo Tolstoy and Anton Chekhov, Gorky would later mention them in his memoirs. Gorky was active with the emerging Marxist social-democratic movement and he publicly opposed the Tsarist regime, and for a time closely associated himself with Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanovs Bolshevik wing of the party. For a significant part of his life, he was exiled from Russia, in 1932, he returned to Russia on Joseph Stalins personal invitation and died there in June 1936. Born as Alexei Maximovich Peshkov on 28 March 1868, in Nizhny Novgorod and he was brought up by his grandmother and ran away from home at the age of twelve in 1880. After an attempt at suicide in December 1887, he travelled on foot across the Russian Empire for five years, changing jobs, as a journalist working for provincial newspapers, he wrote under the pseudonym Иегудиил Хламида. He began using the pseudonym Gorky in 1892, while working in Tiflis for the newspaper Кавказ, the name reflected his simmering anger about life in Russia and a determination to speak the bitter truth. Gorkys first book Очерки и рассказы in 1898 enjoyed a sensational success, Gorky wrote incessantly, viewing literature less as an aesthetic practice than as a moral and political act that could change the world. He described the lives of people in the lowest strata and on the margins of society, revealing their hardships, humiliations, and brutalisation, but also their inward spark of humanity. Gorkys reputation grew as a literary voice from the bottom strata of society and as a fervent advocate of Russias social, political. By 1899, he was associating with the emerging Marxist social-democratic movement. At the heart of all his work was a belief in the inherent worth, in his writing, he counterposed individuals, aware of their natural dignity, and inspired by energy and will, with people who succumb to the degrading conditions of life around them. But if thou art for thyself alone, wherefore art thou and he publicly opposed the Tsarist regime and was arrested many times. Gorky befriended many revolutionaries and became a friend of Vladimir Lenin after they met in 1902. He exposed governmental control of the press, in 1902, Gorky was elected an honorary Academician of Literature, but Tsar Nicholas II ordered this annulled. In protest, Anton Chekhov and Vladimir Korolenko left the Academy, from 1900 to 1905, Gorkys writings became more optimistic
36.
Hayim Nahman Bialik
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Hayim Nahman Bialik, also Chaim or Haim, was a Jewish poet who wrote primarily in Hebrew but also in Yiddish. Bialik was one of the pioneers of modern Hebrew poetry and he was part of the vanguard of Jewish thinkers who gave voice to the breath of new life in Jewish life. Bialik ultimately came to be recognized as Israels national poet, Bialik was born in the village of Radi, Volhynia in the Ukrainian part of the Russian Empire to Yitzhak Yosef Bialik, a scholar and businessman, and his wife Dinah. Bialiks father died in 1880, when Bialik was 7 years old, be that as it may, from the age 7 onwards Bialik was raised in Zhitomir by his Orthodox grandfather, Yaakov Moshe Bialik. In Zhitomir he received a traditional Jewish religious education, but also explored European literature, attracted to the Jewish Enlightenment movement, Bialik gradually drifted away from yeshiva life. At 18 he left for Odessa, the center of modern Jewish culture in Ukraine, in Odessa, Bialik studied Russian and German language and literature, and dreamed of enrolling in the Modern Orthodox Rabbinical Seminary in Berlin. Alone and penniless, he made his living teaching Hebrew and he joined the Hovevei Zion movement and befriended Ahad Haam, who had a great influence on his Zionist outlook. In 1892 Bialik heard news that the Volozhin yeshiva had closed and returned home to Zhitomir to prevent his grandfather from discovering that he had discontinued his religious education and he arrived to discover his grandfather and his older brother both on their deathbeds. Following their deaths, Bialik married Mania Averbuch in 1893, for a time he served as a bookkeeper in his father-in-laws lumber business in Korostyshiv, near Kiev. But when this unsuccessful, he moved in 1897 to Sosnowiec, a small town in Zaglembia, southern Poland. In Sosnowiec, Bialik worked as a Hebrew teacher and tried to earn income as a coal merchant. He was finally able to return to Odessa in 1900, having secured a teaching job, for the next two decades, Bialik taught and continued his activities in Zionist and literary circles, as his literary fame continued to rise. This is considered Bialiks golden period, in 1901 his first collection of poetry was published in Warsaw, and was greeted with much critical acclaim, to the point that he was hailed the poet of national renaissance. Bialik relocated to Warsaw briefly in 1904 as literary editor of the weekly magazine HaShiloah founded by Ahad Haam, in 1903 Bialik was sent by the Jewish Historical Commission in Odessa to interview survivors of the Kishinev pogroms and prepare a report. In response to his findings Bialik wrote his epic poem In the City of Slaughter, Bialiks condemnation of passivity against anti-Semitic violence is said to have influenced the founding Jewish self-defense groups in the Russian Empire, and eventually the Haganah in Palestine. In the early 20th century, Bialik founded with Ravnitzky, Simcha Ben Zion and Elhanan Levinsky, a Hebrew publishing house, Moriah, which issued Hebrew classics and school texts. He translated into Hebrew various European works, such as Shakespeares Julius Caesar, Schillers Wilhelm Tell, Cervantes Don Quixote, and Heines poems, throughout the years 1899-1915, Bialik published about 20 of his Yiddish poems in different Yiddish periodicals in the Russian Empire. These poems are considered to be among the best achievements of modern Yiddish poetry of that period
37.
Israel Zangwill
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Israel Zangwill was a British author at the forefront of cultural Zionism during the 19th century, he was a close associate of Theodor Herzl. He later rejected the search for a Jewish homeland and became the prime thinker behind the territorial movement, Zangwill was born in London on 21 January 1864, in a family of Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire. His father, Moses Zangwill, was from what is now Latvia and his brother was novelist Louis Zangwill. Zangwill received his schooling in Plymouth and Bristol. When he was nine years old, Zangwill was enrolled in the Jews Free School in Spitalfields in east London, at this school he excelled and even taught part-time, eventually becoming a full-fledged teacher. While teaching, he studied for his degree from the University of London and he initiated and edited Ariel, The London Puck, and did miscellaneous work for the London press. Zangwills work earned him the nickname the Dickens of the Ghetto and he wrote a very influential novel Children of the Ghetto, A Study of a Peculiar People. The use of the metaphorical phrase melting pot to describe American absorption of immigrants was popularised by Zangwills play The Melting Pot, a success in the United States in 1909–10. When The Melting Pot opened in Washington D. C. on 5 October 1909, former President Theodore Roosevelt leaned over the edge of his box and shouted, Thats a great play, Mr. Zangwill, thats a great play. The protagonist of the play, David, emigrates to America after the Kishinev pogrom in which his family is killed. He writes a great symphony named The Crucible expressing his hope for a world in all ethnicity has melted away. The dramatic climax of the play is the moment when David meets Veras father, Veras father admits guilt, the symphony is performed to accolades, David and Vera live happily ever after, or, at least, agree to wed and kiss as the curtain falls. Melting Pot celebrated Americas capacity to absorb and grow from the contributions of its immigrants, Zangwill was writing as a Jew who no longer wanted to be a Jew. His real hope was for a world in which the entire lexicon of racial, liebler & Co. produced all three plays as well as The Melting Pot. Daniel Frohman produced Zangwills 1904 play, The Serio-Comic Governess, featuring Cecilia Loftus, Kate Pattison-Selten, in 1931 Jules Furthman adapted Merely Mary Ann for a Janet Gaynor film. Zangwills simulation of Yiddish sentence structure in English aroused great interest and he also wrote mystery works, such as The Big Bow Mystery, and social satire such as The King of Schnorrers, a picaresque novel. His Dreamers of the Ghetto includes essays on famous Jews such as Baruch Spinoza, Heinrich Heine, the Big Bow Mystery was the first locked room mystery novel. It has been almost continuously in print since 1891 and has used as the basis for three commercial movies
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The Melting Pot (play)
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The Melting Pot is a play by Israel Zangwill, first staged in 1908. It depicts the life of a Russian-Jewish immigrant family, the Quixanos, David Quixano has survived a pogrom, which killed his mother and sister, and he wishes to forget this horrible event. He composes an American Symphony and wants to look forward to a society free of divisions and hatred. David, the hero of the play proclaims, There she lies, cant you hear the roaring and the bubbling. There gapes her mouth --the harbour where a thousand mammoth feeders come from the ends of the world to pour in their human freight, ah, what a stirring and a seething. Here shall they all unite to build the Republic of Man, although the idea of melting as a metaphor for ethnic assimilation had been used before, Zangwills play popularized the term melting pot as a symbol for this occurrence in American society. The Melting Pot opened in Washington, DC, on October 5,1908, president Theodore Roosevelt, in attendance that night, is said to have shouted Thats a great play, Mr. Zangwill. It opened at the Comedy Theatre in New York on September 6,1909 and it was produced by Liebler & Co. and staged by Hugh Ford. As in the production, Walker Whiteside played David, Henry Vogel played Herr Pappelmeister. In the play, David emigrates to America in the wake of the 1903 Kishinev pogrom in which his family is killed. He writes a great symphony called The Crucible expressing his hope for a world in all ethnicity has melted away. The dramatic peak of the play is the moment when David meets Veras father, Veras father admits his guilt, the symphony is performed to accolades, David and Vera live happily ever after, or, at least, agree to wed and kiss as the curtain falls. The play received a production at New Yorks Metropolitan Playhouse in March 2006, edna Nahshon, From the Ghetto to the Melting Pot, Israel Zangwill’s Jewish Plays,2006. ISBN 978-0-8143-2955-9 The Melting Pot at Project Gutenberg The Melting Pot public domain audiobook at LibriVox
39.
Joann Sfar
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Joann Sfar is a French comics artist, comic book creator, novelist, and film director. Sfar was born in Nice, the son of Lilou, a pop singer, as a result of his mothers early death, Sfar was raised by his father and maternal grandfather, a military doctor of Ukrainian origin in the Alsace-Lorraine Independent Brigade during World War II. Sfars grandfather reportedly saved the right hand of the leader, novelist André Malraux. Many of his comics were published by LAssociation which was founded in 1990 by Jean-Christophe Menu and he also worked together with many of the groups main artists, e. g. David B. and Lewis Trondheim. The Donjon series which he created with Trondheim has a following in many countries. Some of his comics are inspired by his Jewish heritage, Sfar is the son of Jewish parents. He himself says that there is Ashkenazi humor in his Professeur Bell series, Les olives noires is a series about a Jewish child in Israel at the time of Jesus. Like Le chat du rabbin, the contains a lot of historical and theological information. His main influences are Fred and André Franquin as well as Marc Chagall, Chaim Soutine, Will Eisner, Hugo Pratt and John Buscema. From 2009 to 2010, Sfar wrote and directed Gainsbourg, Vie Héroïque, the film, which draws substantially on Sfars abilities as a comic book artist through its extensive use of fantasy artwork, animation and puppetry, was released in 2010 to general critical acclaim. Klezmer, Tales of the Wild East, First Second Books, Vampire Loves, First Second Books, New York,2006. Sardine in Outer Space,6 volumes, with Emmanuel Guibert, First Second Books, New York, the Professors Daughter, with Emmanuel Guibert, First Second Books, New York,2007. The Rabbis Cat 2, Pantheon,2008, Little Vampire, First Second Books, New York,2008. Dungeon The Little Prince, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, New York,2010, petrus Barbygère Lelficologue Le croquemitaine décume Les Potamoks 1. Nous et le désert La Fille du professeur Published in English by First Second Books as The Professors Daughter, mille et un ennuis Professeur Bell 1. Le mexicain à deux têtes 2, lIrlande à bicyclette Urani Grand Vampire 1. Quai des brunes Books 1-4 published in English as Vampire Loves 5, Le peuple est un Golem Les olives noires 1. Pourquoi cette nuit est-elle différente des autres nuits, tu ne mangeras pas le chevreau dans le lait de sa mère Le chat du rabbin 1
40.
Jewish Encyclopedia
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The Jewish Encyclopedia is an English encyclopedia containing over 15,000 articles on the history, culture, and state of Judaism and the Jews up to the early 20th century. It was originally published in 12 volumes by Funk and Wagnalls of New York City between 1901 and 1906 and reprinted in the 1960s by KTAV Publishing House and it is now in the public domain and hosted at various sites around the internet. The encyclopedias managing editor was Isidore Singer, the editorial board was chaired by Isaac K. Funk and Frank H. Vizetelly. William Popper served as the assistant revision editor and chief of translation for Vols, in the 20th century, the movements members dispersed to Jewish Studies departments in the United States and Israel. L. Rapoport, David Zvi Hoffman, Heinrich Graetz, etc, of the works cited which are not German—usually the more classical works—the large part are either Hebrew or Arabic. The only heavily cited English-language source of scholarship is Solomon Schechters publications in the Jewish Quarterly Review. Wolfson continues that if a Jewish Encyclopedia in a language were planned for the first time. The Jewish Encyclopedia was heavily used as a source by the 16-volume Jewish Encyclopedia in Russian, published by Brockhaus, the unedited text of the original can be found at the Jewish Encyclopedia website. The site offers both JPEG facsimiles of the articles and Unicode transcriptions of all texts. Thus, for example, to search for Halizah, one would have to know that they have transliterated this as Ḥaliẓah. The alphabetic index ignores diacriticals so it can be useful when searching for an article whose title is known. The scholarly apparatus of citation is thorough, but can be a bit daunting to contemporary users, a list of abbreviations used in the encyclopedia is provided on the Jewish Encyclopedia website. I, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, the Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. II, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. III, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, the Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. V, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, VI & VII, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, IX, X, & XI, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. XII, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, schwarz, Leo W. com, maintained by the Kopelman Foundation. Multiple copies at the Internet Archive Hathi Trust
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
42.
MetaFilter
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MetaFilter, known as MeFi to its members, is a general-interest community weblog, founded in 1999 and based in the United States, featuring links to content that users have discovered on the web. Since 2003, it has included the popular question-and-answer subsite Ask MetaFilter, the site has six paid staff members, including the owner, and, as of early 2011, about 12,000 active members. MetaFilter was founded by Matthew Haughey in 1999, Haughey wrote the software for the site himself, using Macromedia ColdFusion and Microsoft SQL Server. The earliest Front Page Post, concerning cats in scanners and the resulting pictures, from its early beginnings as a small community of webloggers who traded links, the weblog now enjoys international popularity. Members are permitted to one post to the front page per day. Members may then comment on these posts, although membership was initially free and unrestricted, growing membership forced frequent extended closures of new-member signup. On November 18,2004, Haughey reopened signups, but with a 5 USD life-time membership fee. According to Time magazine, this fee keeps the site free of trolls, griefers and other anonymous jerks. MetaFilter has developed a stable community with a variety of in-jokes. Readers can mark other users’ comments as a favorite, and commenters derive pride from how many times they have been favorited, MetaFilter was included in Times 50 Best Websites 2009 feature. At SXSW2011, Haughey gave a talk in which he noted that MetaFilter had about 125,000 user accounts, metaFilters name derives from the idea that weblogs filter the best of the web, and MetaFilter posts would be the best of the best. Posters are presumed responsible for selecting only the most interesting or novel websites to link, posts must contain a link, and the site linked must be of high quality. Online art, award-winning web design, photography galleries, and the like fit into a site of the day theme that is highly prized. Flash games and funny online movies also appear, net and blog culture discussions also percolate through MetaFilter, reflecting its early connections with Blogger, but this is becoming less common as membership expands. Open posting permits less rigorous items as well, the derisive term for this on MetaFilter is NewsFilter. Nevertheless, it is accepted that some discussion of current events and politics in particular is inevitable, and a certain level is tolerated. If more than one post is made about a news topic, important news items or political arguments can turn into very long discussions, such as 9/11, the London Bombings, and Hurricane Katrina —which generated over 80 front page posts in about a week. The first example of this was arguably the 2001 Nisqually earthquake, because MetaFilter bans selflinks or posts by a person with a significant conflict of interest, posts tend to be scrutinized closely
43.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
Rosenthal, Herman; Rosenthal, Max (1901–1906). "Kishinef (Kishinev)". In Singer, Isidore; et al. Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.