1.
Hamsun (film)
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It won the Gulbagge Awards for Best Film, Best Actor, Best Actress and Best Screenplay. The film was selected as the Danish entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 69th Academy Awards, max von Sydow as Knut Hamsun Ghita Nørby as Marie Hamsun Anette Hoff as Ellinor Hamsun Gard B. But NRK dropped out on the project, believing it would be too controversial, the shooting took place during the spring and summer 1995, with a budget of around 40 million SEK. It also saved the film from having to compete against Bille Augusts historical epic Jerusalem
2.
Lom, Norway
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Lom is a municipality in Oppland county, Norway. It is part of the region of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Fossbergom, the municipality of Lom was established on 1 January 1838. The area of Skjåk was separated from Lom to become a municipality of its own in 1866, Lom is famous for its extensive history, for having one of the few remaining stave churches in Norway, and for lying in the midst of the highest mountains in Northern Europe. The Old Norse forms of the name was Lóar and Lóm, the name is the plural form of ló which means meadow. The coat-of-arms is from modern times and they were granted on 6 February 1987. The arms show three silver-colored skjeltrekor on a blue background and these spades were historically used to scoop water from the irrigation channels typical for the area. The area is one of the driest in Norway, but the soil is good for agriculture, in the 17th century, a system was developed in which melting water from the mountains was transported to the area using wooden channels or aqueducts. The water was divided using irrigation channels. An ancient trade route passed up from Sunnmøre through Lom and Skjåk, the trade consisted of fish and salt heading inland, and grain heading to the coast. The Saga of Olaf Haraldson relates that St. Olaf commented as he first looked down on Lom, “What a pity to have to lay waste to such a beautiful valley. ”In the face of such a motivation, the residents of the valley converted St. Olafs-stuggu. The building is part of the Presthaugen District Museum, Lom stave church, which is located at Lom center, is believed to have been built in 1158, making 2008 the 850th anniversary. It was extended in 1634, with addition of two naves in 1667. It is believed that the church was surrounded by a circumambulatory passage, like many other Norwegian stave churches. A few Runic inscriptions can be still be seen in the church, the church also contains numerous paintings from the 17th and 18th centuries with religious motifs. Many of the paintings were made by local artist Eggert Munch, the church also contains numerous examples of local woodcarving, as seen in the elaborate acanthus scrolls adorning the pulpit. Carved dragon figures on the roof are old symbols of protection against evil and it is still in use as the local church. The Garmo stave church, which was built around 1150, has relocated from Lom municipality and is now at Maihaugen in Lillehammer
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Gudbrandsdalen
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Gudbrandsdalen is a valley and traditional district in the Norwegian county of Oppland. The valley is oriented in a direction from Lillehammer and the lake of Mjøsa. The river of Gudbrandsdalslågen flows through the valley, starting from Lesjaskogsvatnet, the Otta river flowing through Otta valley is a major tributary to Lågen. The valleys of the rivers such as Otta and Gausa are usuall regarded as part of the Gudbrand Valley. The total area of the valley is calculated from the areas of the related municipalities, together with Glomma river and Østerdalen, Lågen and the Gudbrand Valley forms Norways largest drainage system covering major parts of East Norway. The Gudbrand Valley is home to Dovre Line and the E6 road, the valley is divided into three parts, Norddalen, Midtdalen, and Sørdalen. The valley has two courts, north and south. Until 2016 the valley was also a police district, the main character in Henrik Ibsens play Peer Gynt was inspired by a real or legendary person living in the valley in the 18th or 17th century. Ibsen travelled through the valley in 1862 and collected stories, legends. The name Gudbrandsdalen means the valley/dale of Gudbrand, Gudbrand is an old male name compounded of guð, god and brandr, sword. Dale-Gudbrand was the name of the first ruler of the valley, Gudbrand Valley includes the most arid area in Norway. At Skjåk the average precipitation is only 278 mm. Gudbrand Valley sits in the rain shadow of the mountains West, North. In July 1789 the Storofsen flood disaster occurred and Gudbrandsdalslågen overflooded and this is the largest flood recorded in Norway and the valley was particularly affected. About 3000 houses were damaged and some thousand livestock drowned. Lågen rose up to 7 meters above its level and covered most of the valley floor. A number of farmers abandoned their farms and settled in Målselv. The second largest flood occurred in the summer of 1995 and again the valley floor was covered by water. After Storofsen the valley upstream from Sel church changed into bogs and shallow lakes because stone
4.
Grimstad
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Grimstad is a town and municipality in Aust-Agder county, Norway. It belongs to the region of Sørlandet. The administrative center of the municipality is the town of Grimstad, other notable places in Grimstad include Eide, Fevik, Fjære, Landvik, Prestegårdskogen, Reddal, and Roresanden. It is a maritime town set among many small islands. Ibsens intimate knowledge of the people and surroundings can be seen in his poem Terje Vigen. The town of Grimstad was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, on 1 January 1878, part of the neighboring municipality of Fjære was transferred to Grimstad. Again, on 1 January 1960, another part of Fjære was transferred to Grimstad, the citys name was originally Grømstad, when Norway belonged to the Danish kingdom. The name was misunderstood and became Grimstad during the registration of Norwegian cities, the site of the town was originally the port of the old Grøm farm. The exact meaning of the name Grøm is uncertain, but it is derived from a river name Gró or Gróa which means the growing one, the coat-of-arms were granted in 1899 and were based upon a seal of the city dating back to 1847. The arms show a brig as a symbol for the importance of shipping to the city, Grimstad lies within the boundaries of the ancient parish of Fjære. It is reportedly first mentioned as a harbor in the 16th century, eight years after he was deposed, Christian II of Denmark–Norway attempted to recover his kingdoms. A tempest scattered his fleet off the Norwegian coast, and on 24 October 1531, on 1 July 1532, he surrendered to his rival, King Frederick I of Denmark, in exchange for a promise of safe conduct. King Frederick failed to honor his promise and imprisoned Christian until he died, an inn is recorded at Grimstad as early as 1607. In 1622, Grimstad became a recognized harbor, by 1747, Grimstad was identified as a sailing community and a recognized haunt of smugglers. During the Napoleonic Wars, England blockaded Norway, in 1811, an English brig entered the harbor to capture blockade runners, but was vigorously repulsed and did not return. John Frederik Classen, who owned the Frolands Værk, obtained concessions to export and import through Grimstad, Grimstad was awarded market town status in 1816. Grimstad is home to Drottningborg, a private Lutheran boarding preparatory school and it is also the location of the Bibelskolen in Grimstad, a private Lutheran bible school. The University of Agder has its faculty of engineering seated here, a student dorm called Grøm is also in Grimstad
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Neo-romanticism
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It has been used with reference to late-19th-century composers such as Richard Wagner particularly by Carl Dahlhaus who describes his music as a late flowering of romanticism in a positivist age. He regards it as synonymous with the age of Wagner, from about 1850 until 1890—the start of the era of modernism, whose leading early representatives were Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler. Neo-romanticism as well as Romanticism is considered in opposition to naturalism—indeed, so far as music is concerned, in the period following German unification in 1871, naturalism rejected Romantic literature as a misleading, idealistic distortion of reality. Naturalism in turn came to be regarded as incapable of filling the void of modern existence, neo-romanticism was proposed as an alternative label for the group of German composers identified with the short-lived Neue Einfachheit movement in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Along with other such as new tonality, this term has been criticised for lack of precision because of the diversity among these composers. In British art history, the term neo-romanticism is applied to an affiliated school of landscape painting that emerged around 1930. It was first labeled in March 1942 by the critic Raymond Mortimer in the New Statesman and this movement was motivated in part as a response to the threat of invasion during World War II. Artists particularly associated with the initiation of this movement included Paul Nash, John Piper, Henry Moore, Ivon Hitchens, a younger generation included John Minton, Michael Ayrton, John Craxton, Keith Vaughan, Robert Colquhoun, and Robert MacBryde. The aesthetic philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche has contributed greatly to neo-romantic thinking, Dictionary of Art,34 volumes, edited by Jane Turner. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press. Wie neu war die Neue Einfachheit, the Oxford Companion to Western Art, edited by Hugh Brigstocke. Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, in The Cambridge Companion to German Romanticism, edited by Nicholas Saul, 257–80. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press, the People’s Library, The Spirit of Prose Literature Versus Fascism. In The Culture of Japanese Fascism, edited by Alan Tansman, the Origins of the English Imagination. The Geographies of Englishness, Landscape and the National Past, 1880-1940, poets in the Landscape, The Romantic Spirit in British Art. Fantastic Illustration and Design in Great Britain, 1850–1930, paradise Lost, The Neo-Romantic Imagination in Britain, 1935–1955. Outcasts from Eden, Ideas of Landscape in British Poetry Since 1945, British Romantic Art and The Second World War. Civilisation and its Discontents, English Neo-Romanticism and the Transformation of Anti-Modernism in Twentieth-Century Western Culture and this Enchanted Isle, The Neo-Romantic Vision from William Blake to the New Visionaries
6.
Nobel Prize in Literature
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Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here work refers to an authors work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year, the academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the worlds most prestigious literature prize, many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has become seen as a political one - a peace prize in literary disguise, whose judges are prejudiced against authors with different political tastes to them. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for Swedish professors, as of 2016,16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, Nobels vague wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word translates as either idealistic or ideal. The Nobel Committees interpretation has varied over the years, in recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that the Storting approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, the Royal Swedish Academy was to award the Prize in Literature. Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature and it is not permitted to nominate oneself. Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and as of 2011 about 220 proposals are returned and these proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates, by May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature
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Marie Hamsun
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Marie Hamsun was a Norwegian actress and writer. Marie Andersen was born in Elverum, Hedmark, Norway and she was the eldest child in an affluent family. In 1897 the family moved to Christiania, where her father was involved in the property trade for twenty years until he bought the farm in Åneby in Nittedal and she attended Ragna Nielsens private school, where in 1901 she took final exams. Then she worked for three years as a governess and teacher, the Norwegian actor Society headed by Dore Lavik took her in as an actress. In the following years she toured around in Norway, until she was hired as a student at the National Theatre in 1907. In 1909, she became the wife of the noted author, Knut Hamsun, with whom she had four children, sons Tore and Arild and daughters Eleanor. She wrote two collections of poems and several childrens books, hamsuns work has been translated to several other languages, including Swedish, German, English, Latvian and Dutch. She also published two biographies about her life with Knut Hamsun, Regnbuen and Under gullregnen, marie Hamsun shared her husbands political views, and her support for the Third Reich and the German occupation forces during World War II exceeded that of her husband. She was a member of Vidkun Quislings Nazi party Nasjonal Samling, in 1947, she was sentenced to three years of hard labor for treason, but due to a general amnesty she was jailed for only 9 months
8.
Travel literature
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The genre of travel literature encompasses outdoor literature, guide books, nature writing, and travel memoirs. One early travel memoirist in Western literature was Pausanias, a Greek geographer of the 2nd century AD, in the early modern period, James Boswells Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides helped shape travel memoir as a genre. The travel genre was a common genre in medieval Arabic literature. Travel literature became popular during the Song Dynasty of medieval China, the genre was called travel record literature, and was often written in narrative, prose, essay and diary style. One of the earliest known records of taking pleasure in travel, of travelling for the sake of travel and he states that he went to the mountaintop for the pleasure of seeing the top of the famous height. His companions who stayed at the bottom he called frigida incuriositas and he then wrote about his climb, making allegorical comparisons between climbing the mountain and his own moral progress in life. Antoine de la Sale, author of Petit Jehan de Saintre, climbed to the crater of a volcano in the Lipari Islands in 1407, councils of mad youth were his stated reasons for going. In 1589, Richard Hakluyt published Voyages, a text of the travel literature genre. In the 18th Century, travel literature was commonly known as the book of travels, in 18th century Britain, almost every famous writer worked in the travel literature form. Captain James Cooks diaries were the equivalent of todays best sellers, Other later examples of travel literature include accounts of the Grand Tour. Aristocrats, clergy, and others with money and leisure time travelled Europe to learn about the art, a very popular subgenre of travel literature started to emerge in the form of narratives of exploration, a still unexplored source for colonial and postcolonial studies. Travel books range in style from the documentary to the evocative, from literary to journalistic and they are often associated with tourism and include guide books, meant to educate the reader about destinations, provide advice for visits, and inspire readers to travel. Travel writing may be found on web sites, in periodicals and it has been produced by a variety of writers, such as travelers, military officers, missionaries, explorers, scientists, pilgrims, social and physical scientists, educators, and migrants. Travel literature often intersects with essay writing, as in V. S. Naipauls India, A Wounded Civilization, whose trip became the occasion for extended observations on a nation and this is similarly the case in Rebecca Wests work on Yugoslavia, Black Lamb and Grey Falcon. Sometimes a writer will settle into a locality for an extended period, examples of such writings include Lawrence Durrells Bitter Lemons, Deborah Talls The Island of the White Cow, and Peter Mayles best-selling A Year in Provence and its sequels. Travel and nature writing merge in many of the works by Sally Carrighar, Gerald Durrell and these authors are naturalists, who write in support of their fields of study. Another naturalist, Charles Darwin, wrote his famous account of the journey of HMS Beagle at the intersection of science, natural history, a number of writers famous in another field have written about their travel experiences. H. Lawrences Twilight in Italy and Other Essays, Mornings in Mexico and Other Essays, Rebecca Wests Black Lamb and Grey Falcon, in the world of sailing Joshua Slocums Sailing Alone Around the World is a classic of outdoor adventure literature
9.
Essay
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An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the authors own argument — but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of an article, a pamphlet, and a short story. Essays have traditionally been sub-classified as formal and informal, Essays are commonly used as literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed essays, while brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas Malthuss An Essay on the Principle of Population are counterexamples. In some countries, essays have become a part of formal education. The concept of an essay has been extended to other mediums beyond writing, a film essay is a movie that often incorporates documentary filmmaking styles, and focuses more on the evolution of a theme or idea. A photographic essay covers a topic with a series of photographs that may have accompanying text or captions. An essay has been defined in a variety of ways, one definition is a prose composition with a focused subject of discussion or a long, systematic discourse. It is difficult to define the genre into which essays fall, aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject. He notes that the essay is a device for saying almost everything about almost anything, and adds that by tradition, almost by definition. Furthermore, Huxley argues that essays belong to a species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference. Their art consists of setting forth, passing judgment upon, the abstract-universal, In this pole we find those essayists who do their work in the world of high abstractions, who are never personal and who seldom mention the particular facts of experience. Huxley adds that the most satisfying essays. make the best not of one, the word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, to try or to attempt. In English essay first meant a trial or an attempt, for the rest of his life, he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones. Francis Bacons essays, published in form in 1597,1612. Ben Jonson first used the word essayist in English in 1609, English essayists included Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne. In France, Michel de Montaignes three volume Essais in the mid 1500s contain over 100 examples widely regarded as the predecessor of the modern essay, in Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay Il Libro del oregano. In the 17th century, the Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote about the theme of wisdom, in the 18th and 19th centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote essays for the general public. In the 20th century, a number of essayists tried to explain the new movements in art, whereas some essayists used essays for strident political themes, Robert Louis Stevenson and Willa Cather wrote lighter essays
10.
Naturalism (literature)
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Naturalism is a literary movement that emphasizes observation and the scientific method in the fictional portrayal of reality. Novelists writing in the naturalist mode include Émile Zola, Thomas Hardy, Theodore Dreiser, Stephen Crane, Naturalism began as a branch of literary realism, and realism had favored fact, logic, and impersonality over the imaginative, symbolic, and supernatural. Dreiser, Crane, and Norris were also journalists, and thus attempted to immerse themselves in the world of fact via the assumption of detached observation. Although they considered themselves realists, naturalistic authors selected particular parts of reality, misery, corruption, vice, disease, poverty, prostitution, racism and they were criticized for being pessimistic and for concentrating excessively on the darker aspects of life. The novel would be an experiment where the author could discover and analyze the forces, or scientific laws, that behavior, and these included emotion, heredity. The paradox of naturalism is that it holds two contrary or conflicting views, human behavior is the result of free will, and yet also determined by natural laws, Naturalism Naturalism Philosophical naturalism Sociological naturalism Naturalism in 19th-century French literature Realism in the visual arts
11.
Literary modernism
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Modernists experimented with literary form and expression, adhering to Ezra Pounds maxim to Make it new. This literary movement was driven by a desire to overturn traditional modes of representation. In the 1880s increased attention was given to the idea that it was necessary to push aside previous norms entirely, the theories of Sigmund Freud, and Ernst Mach influenced early Modernist literature. Mach argued that the mind had a structure, and that subjective experience was based on the interplay of parts of the mind in The Science of Mechanics. Freuds first major work was Studies on Hysteria, according to Freud, all subjective reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived. As a philosopher of science, Ernst Mach was an influence on logical positivism, and through his criticism of Isaac Newton. Another major precursor of modernism was Friedrich Nietzsche, especially his idea that psychological drives, specifically the will to power, were more important than facts, or things. Henri Bergson, on the hand, emphasized the difference between scientific clock time and the direct, subjective, human experience of time. Also important in Bergsons philosophy was the idea of élan vital, the life force and his philosophy also placed a high value on intuition, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect. These various thinkers were united by a distrust of Victorian positivism, Modernism as a literary movement can be seen also, as a reaction to industrialization, urbanization and new technologies. Initially, some modernists fostered a spirit, stimulated by innovations in anthropology, psychology, philosophy, political theory, physics. This idealism, however, ended, with the outbreak of World War I, many modernist writers also shared a mistrust of institutions of power such as government and religion, and rejected the notion of absolute truths. Modernist works such as T. S. Eliots The Waste Land were increasingly self-aware, introspective, and explored the darker aspects of human nature. The term modernism covers a number of related, and overlapping, artistic and literary movements, including Imagism, Symbolism, Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, Expressionism, and Dada. They also attempted to take into account changing ideas about reality developed by Darwin, Mach, Freud, Einstein, Nietzsche, Bergson, from this developed innovative literary techniques such as stream-of-consciousness, interior monologue, as well as the use of multiple points-of-view. This can reflect doubts about the basis of realism, or alternatively an expansion of our understanding of what is meant by realism. For example, the use of stream-of-consciousness or interior monologue reflects the need for psychological realism. But modernism was already stirring by 1902, with such as Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness, while Alfred Jarrys absurdist play, Ubu Roi appeared even earlier
12.
Hunger (Hamsun novel)
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Hunger is a novel by the Norwegian author Knut Hamsun published in 1890. Parts of it had published anonymously in the Danish magazine Ny Jord in 1888. The novel has been hailed as the opening of the 20th century. Hunger portrays the irrationality of the mind in an intriguing. Written after Hamsuns return from a tour of America, Hunger is loosely based on the authors own impoverished life before his breakthrough in 1890. While he vainly tries to maintain an outer shell of respectability, in many ways, the protagonist of the novel displays traits reminiscent of Raskolnikov, whose creator, Fyodor Dostoevsky, was one of Hamsuns main influences. The influence of naturalist authors such as Émile Zola is apparent in the novel, the novels first-person protagonist, an unnamed vagrant with intellectual leanings, probably in his late twenties, wanders the streets of Norways capital, Kristiania, in pursuit of nourishment. Over four episodes he meets a number of more or less mysterious persons, the most notable being Ylajali and he exhibits a self-created code of chivalry, giving money and clothes to needy children and vagrants, not eating food given to him, and turning himself in for stealing. Essentially self-destructive, he falls into traps of his own making. Overwhelmed by hunger, he scrounges for meals, at one point nearly eating his own pencil and his social, physical and mental states are in constant decline. However, he has no feelings towards society as such. He vows not to succumb to this order and remains a foreigner in life, haunted by nervousness and he experiences a major artistic and financial triumph when he sells a text to a newspaper, but despite this he finds writing increasingly difficult. At one point in the story, he asks to spend a night in a prison cell, in the morning he cannot bring himself to reveal his poverty or even partake in the free breakfast provided to the homeless. Finally, as the comes to close, when his existence is at an absolute ebb. Hunger has been translated into English several times, in 1899 by Mary Chavelita Dunne, in 1967 by Robert Bly, and in 1996 by Sverre Lyngstad, whose translation is considered definitive. He also states that Robert Blys translation misses the mixing of the present and past tenses of the original, suggestive of a febrile mind and this translation also confuses Oslos geography—streets and places. Hunger has been adapted into the films, Hunger, a Danish-Norwegian-Swedish film Hunger, an American film Boy Eating the Birds Food. The Roots of Modernist Narrative, Knut Hamsuns Novels Hunger, Mysteries, J. W. Cappelenes Forlag 1929, ISBN 82-02-04315-8,1979 edition
13.
Pan (novel)
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Pan is an 1894 novel by Norwegian author Knut Hamsun. Writing it while he lived in Paris and in Kristiansand, Norway and it remains one of his most famous works today. Lieutenant Thomas Glahn, a hunter and ex-military man, lives alone in a hut in the forest with his faithful dog Aesop. Upon meeting Edvarda, the daughter of a merchant in a nearby town, overwhelmed by the society of people where Edvarda lives, Glahn has a series of tragedies befall him before he leaves forever. The changing seasons are reflected in the plot, Edvarda and Glahn fall in love in spring, make love in the summer, the contradicting symbols of culture and nature are important in the novel, Glahn belongs to nature, while Edvarda belongs to culture. Much of what happens between Glahn and Edvarda is foreshadowed when Glahn dreams of two lovers, the lovers conversations also foretell the future. The Epilogue, Glahns Death is told from another persons perspective, in the main narrative of the book, which is told in first person by Glahn, he sees himself as awkward and unattractive. The Epilogue shows that is not the case, instead from an outsiders viewpoint Glahn is beautiful, the novel has been adapted for film four times. The first was a Norwegian silent film directed by Harald Schwenzen in 1922, in 1937, a German-made version was produced under the sponsorship of Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, who considered Hamsun one of his favorite authors. The next version, a production by the Swedish studio Sandrews, was directed by Bjarne Henning-Jensen. A Danish/Norwegian/German version, directed by Danish director Henning Carlsen, was released in 1995, the book is also the basis of Guy Maddins 1997 Canadian film Twilight of the Ice Nymphs and the primary inspiration for Ben Rivers 2011 docufiction Two Years at Sea. Romantikken vs Nyromantikken Pan Pan public domain audiobook at LibriVox
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Nordland
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The county was formerly known as Nordlandene amt. The county administration is in Bodø, the remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen has been administered from Nordland since 1995. In the southern part is Vega, listed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list, the county is divided into traditional districts. These are Helgeland in the south, Salten in the centre, in the northwest lie the archipelagoes of Lofoten and Vesterålen. Nordland is located along the northwestern coast of the Scandinavian peninsula in Northern Norway, due to the large distance to the densely populated parts of Europe, this is one of the least polluted areas in Europe. Nordland extends about 500 km from Nord-Trøndelag to Troms, the distance by road from Bindal in the far south of the county to Andenes on the northern tip is roughly 800 km. Nordland has a coastline, with many fjords. From south to north, the main fjords are Bindalsfjord, Vefsnfjord, Ranfjord, Saltfjord-Skjerstadfjord, Folda, Tysfjord, Ofotfjord and Andfjord, which is shared with Troms county. The best-known is perhaps the Vestfjorden, which is not really a fjord, the Raftsundet strait, with its famous branch Trollfjord, is the shortest waterway connecting Lofoten and Vesterålen. The continental shelf is very narrow west of Andenes, nowhere else in Norway is the ocean only a few kilometres from shore. Saltstraumen whirlpool is just southeast of Bodø, and Moskenstraumen is located in southern Lofoten, the southern part of Norways largest island, Hinnøya is in Nordland, as is the third largest island, Langøya. In the fjords, the brim is much less developed, There might be a more gradual slope, with hills, towards the mountains. There are often valleys at the head of fjords, usually with a river at the centre of the valley, Mo i Rana, Mosjøen and Rognan are situated in such valleys. Norways second largest glacier, Svartisen, the second largest lake, Røssvatnet, the largest river is Vefsna which forms the Laksforsen waterfall. The Saltfjellet mountain range forms a border between Helgeland and Salten, and is where the Arctic Circle cuts through the county. The interior of Nordland, towards the border with Sweden, is dominated by the Kjølen Mountains, the highest mountain in Nordland is Oksskolten in Okstindan range, the second highest is Suliskongen in Fauske, and the third is Storsteinfjellet in Narvik. Stetind in Tysfjord has been voted as Norways national mountain, There are many glaciers in the mountains, like Blåmannsisen, Okstindbreen, the Sulitjelma Glacier, and Frostisen -7 of the 15 largest glaciers in continental Norway are located in Nordland. This Cambrian - Silurian bedrock, much of it mica schist, is by far the largest area in Norway with soft bedrock rich in nutritions good for plant growth
15.
Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)
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In literary criticism, stream of consciousness is a narrative mode or device that depicts the multitudinous thoughts and feelings which pass through the mind. Pointed Roofs, the first work in Richardsons series of 13 semi-autobiographical novels titled Pilgrimage, is the first complete stream of consciousness novel published in English. Stream-of-consciousness writing is usually regarded as a form of interior monologue and is characterized by associative leaps in thought. In stream of consciousness the speakers thought processes are often depicted as overheard in the mind. The term Stream of Consciousness was coined by philosopher and psychologist William James in The Principles of Psychology, consciousness, then and it is nothing joined, it flows. A river or a stream are the metaphors by which it is most naturally described, in talking of it hereafter, lets call it the stream of thought, consciousness, or subjective life. In a psychological sense, stream of consciousness is the subject‐matter and it has been suggested that Edgar Allan Poes short story The Tell-Tale Heart foreshadows this literary technique in the nineteenth-century. The short story An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge by another American author, Ambrose Bierce, because of his renunciation of chronology in favor of free association, Édouard Dujardins Les Lauriers sont coupés is also an important precursor. Indeed, the possibility of an influence is evoqued by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. Henry James has also suggested as a significant precursor, in a work as early as Portrait of a Lady. However, it has suggested that Arthur Schnitzler, in his short story Leutnant Gustl, was in fact the first to make full use of the stream of consciousness technique. But it is only in the twentieth-century that this technique is developed by modernists. The term was first applied in a context in The Egoist, April 1918, by May Sinclair. Possibly the most famous use of the came in 1922 with the publication of James Joyces Ulysses. Prominent uses in the years that followed include Italo Svevo, La coscienza di Zeno, Virginia Woolf, Mrs Dalloway, To the Lighthouse, and William Faulkner in The Sound and the Fury. Samuel Beckett, a friend of James Joyce, uses interior monologue in novels like Molloy, Malone meurt and Linnommable. the technique continued to be used into the 1970s in a novel such as Robert Anton Wilson/Robert Shea collaborative Illuminatus. With regard to which The Fortean Times warns readers, to e prepared for streams of consciousness in which not only identity but time and space no longer confine the narrative. With regard to Salman Rushdie one critic comments, that ll Rushdies novels follow an Indian/Islamic storytelling style, other writers who use this narrative device include Sylvia Plath in The Bell Jar and Irvine Welsh in Trainspotting
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Thomas Mann
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Paul Thomas Mann was a German novelist, short story writer, social critic, philanthropist, essayist, and the 1929 Nobel Prize in Literature laureate. His highly symbolic and ironic epic novels and novellas are noted for their insight into the psychology of the artist and his analysis and critique of the European and German soul used modernized German and Biblical stories, as well as the ideas of Goethe, Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. Mann was a member of the Hanseatic Mann family and portrayed his family and class in his first novel and his older brother was the radical writer Heinrich Mann and three of his six children, Erika Mann, Klaus Mann and Golo Mann, also became important German writers. When Hitler came to power in 1933, Mann fled to Switzerland, when World War II broke out in 1939, he moved to the United States, returning to Switzerland in 1952. Thomas Mann is one of the exponents of the so-called Exilliteratur. Manns work influenced many authors, including Heinrich Böll, Joseph Heller, Yukio Mishima. Paul Thomas Mann was born to a family in Lübeck. His mother was Roman Catholic but Mann was baptised into his fathers Lutheran religion, Manns father died in 1891 and his trading firm was liquidated. The family subsequently moved to Munich, Mann lived in Munich from 1891 until 1933, with the exception of a year in Palestrina, Italy, with his novelist elder brother Heinrich. Thomas worked with the South German Fire Insurance Company in 1894-95 and his career as a writer began when he wrote for Simplicissimus. Manns first short story, Little Mr Friedemann, was published in 1898, in 1905, Mann married Katia Pringsheim, daughter of a wealthy, secular Jewish industrialist family. She later joined the Lutheran church, today the cottage is a cultural center dedicated to him, with a small memorial exhibition. In 1933, while traveling in the South of France, Mann heard from Klaus and Erika in Munich, the family emigrated to Küsnacht, near Zurich, Switzerland but received Czechoslovak citizenship and a passport in 1936. After Nazi Germany took over Czechoslovakia, he emigrated to the United States in 1939. In 1942, the Mann family moved to 1550 San Remo Drive in the Pacific Palisades suburb of Los Angeles, on 23 June 1944 Thomas Mann was naturalized as a citizen of the United States. The Manns lived in Los Angeles until 1952, the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939, prompted Mann to offer anti-Nazi speeches to the German people via the BBC. In October 1940 he began monthly broadcasts, recorded in the U. S. and flown to London, in these eight-minute addresses, Mann condemned Hitler and his paladins as crude philistines completely out of touch with European culture. In one noted speech he said, The war is horrible, Mann was one of the few publicly active opponents of Nazism among German expatriates in the U. S
17.
Franz Kafka
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Franz Kafka was a Prague German-language novelist and short story writer, widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His best known works include Die Verwandlung, Der Process, the term Kafkaesque has entered the English language to describe situations like those in his writing. Kafka was born into a middle-class, German-speaking Jewish family in Prague and he trained as a lawyer, and after completing his legal education he was employed with an insurance company, forcing him to relegate writing to his spare time. Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote hundreds of letters to family and close friends, including his father, with whom he had a strained and he became engaged to several women but never married. He died in 1924 at the age of 40 from tuberculosis and his work went on to influence a vast range of writers, critics, artists, and philosophers during the 20th century. Kafka was born near the Old Town Square in Prague, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and his family were middle-class Ashkenazi Jews. His father, Hermann Kafka, was the child of Jakob Kafka, a shochet or ritual slaughterer in Osek. Hermann brought the Kafka family to Prague, after working as a travelling sales representative, he eventually became a fancy goods and clothing retailer who employed up to 15 people and used the image of a jackdaw as his business logo. Kafkas mother, Julie, was the daughter of Jakob Löwy, a retail merchant in Poděbrady. Hermann and Julie had six children, of whom Franz was the eldest, franzs two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, died in infancy before Franz was seven, his three sisters were Gabriele, Valerie and Ottilie. They all died during the Holocaust of World War II, Valli was deported to the Łódź Ghetto in Poland in 1942, but that is the last documentation of her. On business days, both parents were absent from the home, with Julie Kafka working as many as 12 hours each day helping to manage the family business, consequently, Kafkas childhood was somewhat lonely, and the children were reared largely by a series of governesses and servants. The dominating figure of Kafkas father had a significant influence on Kafkas writing, the Kafka family had a servant girl living with them in a cramped apartment. In November 1913 the family moved into an apartment, although Ellie. In early August 1914, just after World War I began, both Ellie and Valli also had children. Franz at age 31 moved into Vallis former apartment, quiet by contrast, from 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the Deutsche Knabenschule German boys elementary school at the Masný trh/Fleischmarkt, now known as Masná Street. His Jewish education ended with his Bar Mitzvah celebration at the age of 13, Kafka never enjoyed attending the synagogue and went with his father only on four high holidays a year. German was the language of instruction, but Kafka also spoke and he studied the latter at the gymnasium for eight years, achieving good grades
18.
Maxim Gorky
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Alexei Maximovich Peshkov, primarily known as Maxim Gorky, was a Russian and Soviet writer, a founder of the socialist realism literary method and a political activist. He was also a nominee for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Around fifteen years before success as a writer, he changed jobs and roamed across the Russian Empire. Gorkys most famous works were The Lower Depths, Twenty-six Men and he had an association with fellow Russian writers Leo Tolstoy and Anton Chekhov, Gorky would later mention them in his memoirs. Gorky was active with the emerging Marxist social-democratic movement and he publicly opposed the Tsarist regime, and for a time closely associated himself with Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanovs Bolshevik wing of the party. For a significant part of his life, he was exiled from Russia, in 1932, he returned to Russia on Joseph Stalins personal invitation and died there in June 1936. Born as Alexei Maximovich Peshkov on 28 March 1868, in Nizhny Novgorod and he was brought up by his grandmother and ran away from home at the age of twelve in 1880. After an attempt at suicide in December 1887, he travelled on foot across the Russian Empire for five years, changing jobs, as a journalist working for provincial newspapers, he wrote under the pseudonym Иегудиил Хламида. He began using the pseudonym Gorky in 1892, while working in Tiflis for the newspaper Кавказ, the name reflected his simmering anger about life in Russia and a determination to speak the bitter truth. Gorkys first book Очерки и рассказы in 1898 enjoyed a sensational success, Gorky wrote incessantly, viewing literature less as an aesthetic practice than as a moral and political act that could change the world. He described the lives of people in the lowest strata and on the margins of society, revealing their hardships, humiliations, and brutalisation, but also their inward spark of humanity. Gorkys reputation grew as a literary voice from the bottom strata of society and as a fervent advocate of Russias social, political. By 1899, he was associating with the emerging Marxist social-democratic movement. At the heart of all his work was a belief in the inherent worth, in his writing, he counterposed individuals, aware of their natural dignity, and inspired by energy and will, with people who succumb to the degrading conditions of life around them. But if thou art for thyself alone, wherefore art thou and he publicly opposed the Tsarist regime and was arrested many times. Gorky befriended many revolutionaries and became a friend of Vladimir Lenin after they met in 1902. He exposed governmental control of the press, in 1902, Gorky was elected an honorary Academician of Literature, but Tsar Nicholas II ordered this annulled. In protest, Anton Chekhov and Vladimir Korolenko left the Academy, from 1900 to 1905, Gorkys writings became more optimistic
19.
Stefan Zweig
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Stefan Zweig was an Austrian novelist, playwright, journalist and biographer. At the height of his career, in the 1920s and 1930s. Zweig was born in Vienna, the son of Moritz Zweig, a wealthy Jewish textile manufacturer, and Ida Brettauer and he was related to the Czech writer Egon Hostovský, who described him as a very distant relative, some sources describe them as cousins. Zweig studied philosophy at the University of Vienna and in 1904 earned a degree with a thesis on The Philosophy of Hippolyte Taine. Religion did not play a role in his education. My mother and father were Jewish only through accident of birth, yet he did not renounce his Jewish faith and wrote repeatedly on Jews and Jewish themes, as in his story Buchmendel. Zweig believed in internationalism and in Europeanism, as The World of Yesterday, his autobiography, according to Amos Elon, Zweig called Herzls book Der Judenstaat an obtuse text, piece of nonsense. At the beginning of World War I, patriotic sentiment was widespread, Zweig served in the Archives of the Ministry of War and adopted a pacifist stand like his friend Romain Rolland, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature 1915. Zweig married Friderike Maria von Winternitz in 1920, they divorced in 1938, as Friderike Zweig she published a book on her former husband after his death. She later also published a book on Zweig. In the late summer of 1939, Zweig married his secretary Elisabet Charlotte Lotte Altmann at Bath, Zweigs secretary in Salzburg from November 1919 to March 1938 was Anna Meingast. In 1934, following Hitlers rise to power in Germany, Zweig left Austria for England, living first in London, then from 1939 in Bath. On August 22,1940, they moved again to Petrópolis, feeling more and more depressed by the growth of intolerance, authoritarianism, and Nazism, and feeling hopeless for the future for humanity, Zweig wrote a note about his feelings of desperation. Then, on February 23,1942, the Zweigs were found dead of an overdose in their house in the city of Petrópolis. He had been despairing at the future of Europe and its culture, I think it better to conclude in good time and in erect bearing a life in which intellectual labour meant the purest joy and personal freedom the highest good on Earth, he wrote. The Zweigs house in Brazil was later turned into a centre and is now known as Casa Stefan Zweig. Zweig was a prominent writer in the 1920s and 1930s, befriending Arthur Schnitzler and he was extremely popular in the United States, South America and Europe, and remains so in continental Europe, however, he was largely ignored by the British public. His fame in America had diminished until the 1990s, when began a effort on the part of several publishers to get Zweig back into print in English
20.
Henry Miller
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Henry Valentine Miller was an American writer. He also wrote memoirs and literary criticism, and painted watercolors. Miller was born at his familys home,450 East 85th Street, in the Yorkville section of Manhattan and he was the son of Lutheran German parents, Louise Marie and tailor Heinrich Miller. As a child, he lived for nine years at 662 Driggs Avenue in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, in 1900, his family moved to 1063 Decatur Street in the Bushwick section of Brooklyn. After finishing elementary school, although his family remained in Bushwick, as a young man, he was active with the Socialist Party of America. He attended the City College of New York for one semester, Miller married his first wife, Beatrice Sylvas Wickens, in 1917, their divorce was granted on December 21,1923. Together they had a daughter, Barbara, born in 1919 and they lived in an apartment at 244 6th Avenue in Park Slope, Brooklyn. At the time, Miller was working at Western Union, he worked there from 1920-24, in March 1922, during a three-week vacation, he wrote his first novel, Clipped Wings. It has never published, and only fragments remain, although parts of it were recycled in other works. A study of twelve Western Union messengers, Miller called Clipped Wings a long book and probably a very bad one. In 1923, while he was married to Beatrice, Miller met and became enamored of a mysterious dance hall dancer who was born Juliet Edith Smerth. They began an affair, and were married on June 1,1924, in 1924 Miller quit Western Union in order to dedicate himself to writing completely. Miller later describes this time – his struggles to become a writer, his escapades, failures, friends. Millers second novel, Moloch, or, This Gentile World, was written in 1927–28, a rich older admirer of June, Roland Freedman, paid her to write the novel, she would show him pages of Millers work each week, pretending it was hers. The book went unpublished until 1992,65 years after it was written and 12 years after Miller’s death, Moloch is based on Miller’s first marriage, to Beatrice, and his years working as a personnel manager at the Western Union office in Lower Manhattan. A third novel written around this time, Crazy Cock, also went unpublished until after Millers death, initially titled Lovely Lesbians, Crazy Cock told the story of Junes close relationship with the artist Marion, whom June had renamed Jean Kronski. Kronski lived with Miller and June from 1926 until 1927, when June and Kronski went to Paris together, leaving Miller behind, Miller suspected the pair of having a lesbian relationship. While in Paris, June and Kronski did not get along, in 1928, Miller spent several months in Paris with June, a trip which was financed by Freedman
21.
Hermann Hesse
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Hermann Karl Hesse was a German-born Swiss poet, novelist, and painter. His best-known works include Demian, Steppenwolf, Siddhartha, and The Glass Bead Game, each of which explores an individuals search for authenticity, self-knowledge, in 1946, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature. Hermann Karl Hesse was born on 2 July 1877 in the Black Forest town of Calw in Württemberg and his grandparents served in India at a mission under the auspices of the Basel Mission, a Protestant Christian missionary society. Hesses mother, Marie Gundert, was born at such a mission in India in 1842, in describing her own childhood, she said, A happy child I was not. As was usual among missionaries at the time, she was left behind in Europe at the age of four when her parents returned to India, Hesses father, Johannes Hesse, the son of a doctor, was born in 1847 in the Estonian town of Paide. Johannes Hesse belonged to the German minority in the Russian-ruled Baltic region, Hermann had five siblings, but two of them died in infancy. In 1873, the Hesse family moved to Calw, where Johannes worked for the Calwer Verlagsverein, maries father, Hermann Gundert, managed the publishing house at the time, and Johannes Hesse succeeded him in 1893. Hesse grew up in a Swabian Pietist household, with the Pietist tendency to insulate believers into small, furthermore, Hesse described his fathers Baltic German heritage as an important and potent fact of his developing identity. His father, Hesse stated, always seemed like a polite, very foreign, lonely. His fathers tales from Estonia instilled a sense of religion in young Hermann. An exceedingly cheerful, and, for all its Christianity, a merry world and we wished for nothing so longingly as to be allowed to see this Estonia. Where life was so paradisiacal, so colorful and happy, from childhood, Hesse appeared headstrong and hard for his family to handle. In a letter to her husband, Hermanns mother Marie wrote, The little fellow has a life in him, a strength, a powerful will, and, for his four years of age. How can he express all that, Hesse showed signs of serious depression as early as his first year at school. The fictional town of Gerbersau is pseudonymous for Calw, imitating the real name of the town of Hirsau. It is derived from the German words gerber, meaning tanner, Calw had a centuries-old leather-working industry, and during Hesses childhood the tanneries influence on the town was still very much in evidence. Hesses favorite place in Calw was the St. Nicholas-Bridge, which is why the Hesse monument was built there in 2002, all this instilled a sense in Hermann Hesse that he was a citizen of the world. His family background became, he noted, the basis of an isolation, young Hesse shared a love of music with his mother
22.
Ernest Hemingway
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Ernest Miller Hemingway was an American novelist, short story writer, and journalist. His economical and understated style had a influence on 20th-century fiction, while his life of adventure. Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s, and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 and he published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction works. Additional works, including three novels, four short story collections, and three works, were published posthumously. Many of his works are considered classics of American literature, Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After high school, he reported for a few months for The Kansas City Star, in 1918, he was seriously wounded and returned home. His wartime experiences formed the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms, in 1921, he married Hadley Richardson, the first of his four wives. The couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a correspondent and fell under the influence of the modernist writers. He published his novel, The Sun Also Rises, in 1926. Martha Gellhorn became his wife in 1940, they separated when he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II. He was present at the Normandy landings and the liberation of Paris, Hemingway maintained permanent residences in Key West, Florida, and Cuba, and in 1959, he bought a house in Ketchum, Idaho, where he killed himself in mid-1961. Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21,1899, in Oak Park, Illinois and his father, Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, was a physician, and his mother, Grace Hall Hemingway, was a musician. Both were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park, a community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said. For a short period after their marriage, Clarence and Grace Hemingway lived at first with Graces father, Ernest Hall, their first sons namesake. Later, Ernest Hemingway would say that he disliked his name, the family eventually moved into a seven-bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood with a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence. Hemingways mother frequently performed in concerts around the village, as an adult, Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm. The family spent summers at Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, from 1913 until 1917, Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School. He took part in a number of sports—boxing, track and field, water polo and he excelled in English classes, and with his sister Marcelline, performed in the school orchestra for two years
23.
Isaac Bashevis Singer
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Isaac Bashevis Singer was a Polish-born Jewish writer in Yiddish, awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1978. The Polish form of his name was Icek Hersz Zynger. He used his mothers first name in a literary pseudonym, Izaak Baszewis. He was a figure in the Yiddish literary movement, writing and publishing only in Yiddish. Isaac Bashevis Singer was born in 1902 in Leoncin village near Warsaw, Poland, a few years later, the family moved to a nearby Polish town of Radzymin, which is often and erroneously given as his birthplace. The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but most probably it was November 21,1902 and it is also consistent with the historical events he and his brother refer to in their childhood memoirs. The often-quoted birth date, July 14,1904 was made up by the author in his youth and his father was a Hasidic rabbi and his mother, Bathsheba, was the daughter of the rabbi of Biłgoraj. Singer later used her name in his pen name Bashevis, both his older siblings, sister Esther Kreitman and brother Israel Joshua Singer, became writers as well. Esther was the first of the family to write stories, the family moved to the court of the Rabbi of Radzymin in 1907, where his father became head of the Yeshiva. After the Yeshiva building burned down in 1908, the moved to a flat at ul. In the spring of 1914, the Singers moved to No.12, the street where Singer grew up was located in the impoverished, Yiddish-speaking Jewish quarter of Warsaw. There his father served as a rabbi, and was called on to be a judge, arbitrator, religious authority, in 1917, because of the hardships of World War I, the family split up. Singer moved with his mother and younger brother Moshe to his mothers hometown of Biłgoraj, a traditional shtetl, when his father became a village rabbi again in 1921, Singer returned to Warsaw. He entered the Tachkemoni Rabbinical Seminary and soon decided that neither the nor the profession suited him. He returned to Biłgoraj, where he tried to support himself by giving Hebrew lessons, in 1923 his older brother Israel Joshua arranged for him to move to Warsaw to work as a proofreader for the Jewish Literarische Bleter, of which the brother was an editor. In 1935, four years before the German invasion, Singer emigrated from Poland to the United States and he was fearful of the growing Nazi threat in neighboring Germany. The move separated the author from his common-law first wife Runia Pontsch and son Israel Zamir, they emigrated to Moscow, the three met again twenty years later in 1955. Singer settled in New York City, where he took up work as a journalist and columnist for The Jewish Daily Forward, after a promising start, he became despondent and for some years felt Lost in America
24.
Lyricism
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Lyricism is a quality that expresses deep feelings or emotions in an inspired work of art. Lyricism is when art is expressed in a beautiful or imaginative way, although the term lyricism is often used in conjunction with art composed of sound alone, it can also apply to all forms of art including performance, architecture, or film. The following are classic examples of lyricism, Poetry. Maya Angelous poetry has intrinsic lyricism, in Jazz, Charlie Parker is renowned for his lyricism. In Classical music, nearly all of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts work has been revered at one time or another for its lyricism, tchaikovskys Swan Lake, or The Sleeping Beauty exhibit classic lyricism. Lost, Lost, Lost has been described as an example of the mid-20th century lyricism movement in film, as well as The Art of Vision, the Nasir ol-Molk Mosque may be seen as an example, as well as the Taj Mahal, or the Sistine Chapel. Modern examples would be some of the works of Le Corbusier. The Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh can be considered the sine qua non of lyricism in the world of art, Art Beauty Emotion Imagination Western canon
25.
Knut Hamsun Centre
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The Knut Hamsun Centre is a museum and educational centre in Hamarøy in Northern Norway dedicated to the life and work of the writer Knut Hamsun. The architect Steven Holl was first contacted about designing a centre for Knut Hamsun in 1994 and he traveled to Hamarøy and made a watercolour of the centres design that looks quite similar to the building today. Holl was inspired by the Hamarøy nature and scenery, by Norwegian building tradition with stave churches and sod roofs and this concept is a quote from the 1974 translation of Hunger by Robert Bly. The buildings design has generated considerable attention and debate, and the Knut Hamsun Centre has received national and international architecture awards. The building process was delayed due to a struggle with local red tape. The newspaper Morgenbladet referred to it at one point as Norways most discussed non-existing building, the Knut Hamsun Centre was finished on August 4,2009, the 150th anniversary of Knut Hamsuns birth, and the exhibition about Hamsuns life and work opened for the public in June 2010. Administratively, the centre is subordinate to Nordland Museum, and the director is Bodil Børset. Official website Slide shows, Tilbakeviser Hamsunsenter-kritikk, – Vi har store ambisjoner, men er fortsatt en bleieunge
26.
Film
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
27.
Erasmus Zahl
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Erasmus Benedicter Kjerschow Zahl was a privileged trader and an island owner at Kjerringøy in Nordland, Norway. Erasmus Zahl was born in 1826 in Nordvika in Dønna, where his father Hans Hansen Zahl was a tradesman and his paternal grandparents were tradesman Hans Olsen Zahl and Anne Margrethe, née Zahl in Nordvika. His mother was Anne Sophie Samuelsdatter Budde, a daughter of priest Lord Samuel Jensen Budde, in 1840–50, Erasmus Zahl came to Kjerringøy, where he met and married tradesman Jens Nicolai Ellingsens widow, Anna Elisabeth née Sverdrup. Thereby, he became the owner of Kjerringøy and it was during Zahls time in Kjerringøy that the trade seat reached its ultimate wealth. Many economically good years, hereunder the herring fishery between 1865 and 1876, led to Zahl increasing his fortune with 156,000 speciedaler to 265,000 speciedaler. Anna Ellingsen Zahl died in 1879, after she, at the age of 78 years, as a widower, Zahl introduced several changes at the trade seat. All sale of alcohol was ended, and nor should alcohol be enjoyed together with meals, Zahl let todays church in Kjerringøy be built, finished in 1883. Erasmus Zahl died in 1900 of apoplectic stroke, in the late 1800s, Erasmus Zahl gave monetary support to Knut Hamsun as a young and poor author. Later,1920 Nobel Literature Prize laureate Hamsun used Zahl as a model for the character Mack appearing in many of his novels, among others Pan, Dreamers, the society in Nordland went through major changes during the late 1800s and the early 1900s. Traditions were challenged by ideas, and the social hierarchy, in which Zahl had a leading position. Hamsun was, as expressed in his literature, a defender of this old society, for example, in the double novel Benoni and Rosa, Hamsun describes the self-made man of the people Benoni Hartvigsen with ironical distance but at the same time also with considerable sympathy. Zahl Aristocracy of Norway NRK. no, Nordland fylkesleksikon, Zahl på Kjerringøy Store norske leksikon, Kjerringøy handelssted Norsk biografisk leksikon, Knut Hamsun – utdypning
28.
Oslo
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Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
29.
Pantheism
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Pantheism is the belief that all reality is identical with divinity, or that everything composes an all-encompassing, immanent god. Pantheists thus do not believe in a personal or anthropomorphic god. The term pantheism was not coined until after Spinozas death, and his work, Ethics, was the major source from which Western pantheism spread. Pantheistic concepts may date back thousands of years, and some religions in the East continue to contain pantheistic elements, Pantheism derives from the Greek πᾶν pan and θεός theos. There are a variety of definitions of pantheism, some consider it a theological and philosophical position concerning God. As a religious position, some describe pantheism as the polar opposite of atheism, from this standpoint, pantheism is the view that everything is part of an all-encompassing, immanent God. All forms of reality may then be considered either modes of that Being, some hold that pantheism is a non-religious philosophical position. To them, pantheism is the view that the Universe and God are identical, pantheistic tendencies existed in a number of early Gnostic groups, with pantheistic thought appearing throughout the Middle Ages. These included a section of Johannes Scotus Eriugenas 9th-century work De divisione naturae, the Roman Catholic Church has long regarded pantheistic ideas as heresy. Giordano Bruno, an Italian monk who evangelized about an immanent and he has since become known as a celebrated pantheist and martyr of science. Bruno influenced many later thinkers including Baruch Spinoza, in the West, pantheism was formalized as a separate theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza. Spinoza was a Dutch philosopher of Sephardi Portuguese origin, whose book Ethics was an answer to Descartes famous dualist theory that the body, Spinoza held the monist view that the two are the same, and monism is a fundamental part of his philosophy. He was described as a God-intoxicated man, and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance, although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate. His work, Ethics, was the source from which Western pantheism spread. The breadth and importance of Spinozas work was not fully realized until years after his death. Spinozas magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes mind–body dualism, has earned him recognition as one of Western philosophys most important thinkers, Hegel said, You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all. His philosophical accomplishments and moral character prompted 20th-century philosopher Gilles Deleuze to name him the prince of philosophers, Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible, the Jewish religious authorities issued a cherem against him, effectively excluding him from Jewish society at age 23
30.
1920 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1920. Reviewers hail the play and ONeill becomes famous, february 27 – Inaugural meeting of the Bloomsbury Groups Memoir Club arranged by Mary MacCarthy in London. March 26 – This Side of Paradise by F. Scott Fitzgerald is published and it is a sensation, immediately establishing Fitzgerald as a writer and celebrity, the initial print run of 3,000 copies sells out in 3 days. Though the books reputation will dim in later years, Dorothy Parker will recall that it was regarded as a work when it first appeared. April Hart Crane publishes his poem My Grandmothers Love Letters in The Dial, april 3 – F. Scott Fitzgerald marries Zelda Sayre in the rectory of St. Patricks Cathedral. K. November 1 – Eugene ONeills play, The Emperor Jones, is staged at the Playwrights Theater in New York City with Charles Sidney Gilpin in the title role. November 9 – D. H. Lawrences novel Women in Love is first published, december 23 – Arthur Schnitzlers play Reigen first receives an authorized performance, in Berlin, receiving strong criticism on moral and antisemitic grounds. Publication in Prague of Karel Čapeks drama R. U. R, Rossums Universal Robots, publication in Paris of the first volume of the Collection Budé, providing editions of Classical texts with parallel French translation, Platos Hippias Minor. Van Wyck Brooks publishes The Ordeal of Mark Twain, arguing that Twains genius was perverted by the conditions and this is the beginning of the reassessment of Mark Twain, who until this point had been regarded primarily as a humorous entertainer. The 1920s will force a reconsideration of many 19th-century writers, most importantly Herman Melville, goodyear – Forge of Foxenby Hugh Lofting – The Story of Doctor Dolittle Olive Beaupré Miller – In the Nursery S. Ansky – The Dybbuk Karel Čapek – R. U. R
31.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
32.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
33.
Joseph Goebbels
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Paul Joseph Goebbels was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. He advocated progressively harsher discrimination, including the extermination of the Jews in the Holocaust, Goebbels, who aspired to be an author, obtained a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Heidelberg in 1921. He joined the Nazi Party in 1924, and worked with Gregor Strasser in their northern branch and he was appointed as Gauleiter for Berlin in 1926, where he began to take an interest in the use of propaganda to promote the party and its programme. After the Nazi Seizure of Power in 1933, Goebbels Propaganda Ministry quickly gained and exerted controlling supervision over the media, arts. He was particularly adept at using the new media of radio. Topics for party propaganda included antisemitism, attacks on the Christian churches, as the war drew to a close and Nazi Germany faced defeat, Magda Goebbels and the Goebbels children joined him in Berlin. They moved into the underground Vorbunker, part of Hitlers underground bunker complex, Hitler committed suicide on 30 April. In accordance with Hitlers will, Goebbels succeeded him as Chancellor of Germany, the following day, Goebbels and his wife committed suicide, after poisoning their six children with cyanide. Paul Joseph Goebbels was born on 29 October 1897 in Rheydt, both of his parents were Catholics with modest family backgrounds. His father Fritz was a clerk, his mother Katharina was ethnically Dutch. Goebbels had five siblings, Konrad, Hans, Maria, Elisabeth, and Maria, in 1932, Goebbels published a pamphlet of his family tree to refute the rumors that his grandmother was of Jewish ancestry. During childhood, Goebbels suffered from ill health, which included a bout of inflammation of the lungs. He had a right foot that turned inwards, due to a congenital deformity. It was thicker and shorter than his left foot and he underwent a failed operation to correct it just prior to starting grammar school. Goebbels wore a metal brace and special shoe because of his shortened leg and he was rejected for military service in World War I due to his deformity. Goebbels was educated at a Christian Gymnasium, where he completed his Abitur in 1917 and he was the top student of his class and was given the traditional honor to speak at the awards ceremony. His parents initially hoped that he would become a Catholic priest and he studied literature and history at the universities of Bonn, Würzburg, Freiburg, and Munich, aided by a scholarship from the Albertus Magnus Society. By this time Goebbels had begun to distance himself from the church, historians, including Richard J. Evans and Roger Manvell, speculate that Goebbels lifelong pursuit of women may have been in compensation for his physical disabilities
34.
Norwegian krone
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The krone, plural kroner, is the currency of Norway and its dependent territories. It is subdivided into 100 øre, which exist only electronically since 2012, the name translates into English as crown. The krone was the thirteenth most traded currency in the world by value in April 2010, the krone was introduced in 1875, replacing the Norwegian speciedaler/spesidaler at a rate of 4 kroner =1 speciedaler. In doing so, Norway joined the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which had established in 1873. After its dissolution, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden all decided to keep the names of their respective, within the Scandinavian Monetary Union, the krone was on a gold standard of 2,480 kroner =1 kilogram of pure gold. This gold standard was restored between 1916 and 1920 and again in 1928 and it was suspended permanently in 1931, when a peg to the British pound of 19.9 kroner =1 pound was established. In 1939, Norway pegged the krone temporarily to the U. S. dollar at a rate of 4.4 kroner =1 dollar, nonetheless, Norway would continue to hold the Kingdoms gold reserves. During the German occupation in the Second World War, the krone was initially pegged to the Reichsmark at a rate of 1 krone =0.6 Reichsmark, after the war, a rate of 20 kroner =1 pound was established. The rate to the pound was maintained in 1949, when the pound devalued relative to the U. S. dollar, in 1875, coins were introduced in denominations of 10 and 50 øre and 1 and 10 kroner. These coins also bore the denomination in the currency, as 3,15. Between 1875 and 1878, the new coinage was introduced in full, in denominations of 1,2,5,10,25, and 50 øre and 1,2, and 10 kroner. The 1,2, and 5 øre were struck in bronze, the 10,25, and 50 øre and 1 and 2 kroner, in silver, the last gold coins were issued in 1910, silver was replaced by cupro-nickel from 1920. Between 1917 and 1921, iron replaced bronze. 1917 also saw the last issuance of 2 kroner coins, during the German occupation in the Second World War, zinc was used in place of cupro-nickel in 10,25, and 50 øre coins, and production of the 1 krone piece was suspended. In 1963,5 kroner coins were introduced, production of 1 and 2 øre coins ceased in 1972. The following year, the size of the 5 øre coin was reduced, production of the denomination ceased in 1982, ten-kroner coins were introduced in 1983. In 1992, the last 10 øre coins were minted, between 1994 and 1998, a new coinage was introduced, consisting of 50 øre,1,5,10, and 20 kroner. These are the coins which are currently legal tender, with the exception of the 50-øre coin which was withdrawn on 1 May 2012
35.
Fyodor Dostoyevsky
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Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, sometimes transliterated Dostoevsky, was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist, journalist and philosopher. He began writing in his 20s, and his first novel and his most acclaimed works include Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, Demons and The Brothers Karamazov. Dostoyevskys oeuvre consists of 11 novels, three novellas,17 short stories and numerous other works, many literary critics rate him as one of the greatest psychologists in world literature. His 1864 novella Notes from Underground is considered to be one of the first works of existentialist literature, born in Moscow in 1821, Dostoyevsky was introduced to literature at an early age through fairy tales and legends, and through books by Russian and foreign authors. His mother died in 1837 when he was 15, and around the time he left school to enter the Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute. After graduating, he worked as an engineer and briefly enjoyed a lavish lifestyle, in the mid-1840s he wrote his first novel, Poor Folk, which gained him entry into St. Petersburgs literary circles. Arrested in 1849 for belonging to a group that discussed banned books critical of Tsarist Russia, he was sentenced to death. He spent four years in a Siberian prison camp, followed by six years of military service in exile. In the following years, Dostoyevsky worked as a journalist, publishing and editing several magazines of his own and later A Writers Diary and he began to travel around western Europe and developed a gambling addiction, which led to financial hardship. For a time, he had to beg for money, but he became one of the most widely read. His books have been translated more than 170 languages. Dostoyevskys parents were part of a multi-ethnic and multi-denominational Lithuanian noble family from the Pinsk region, branches of the family included Russian Orthodox Christians, Roman Catholics and Eastern Catholics. Dostoyevskys immediate ancestors on his mothers side were merchants, the line on his fathers side were priests. His father, Mikhail, was expected to join the clergy but instead ran away from home, in 1809, the 20-year-old Mikhail Dostoyevsky enrolled in Moscows Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy. From there he was assigned to a Moscow hospital, where he served as military doctor, in 1819 he married Maria Nechayeva. The following year, he took up a post at the Mariinsky Hospital for the poor, Dostoyevskys parents subsequently had six more children, Varvara, Andrei, Lyubov, Vera, Nikolai and Aleksandra. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, born on 11 November 1821, was the child of Dr. Mikhail Dostoyevsky. He was raised in the home in the grounds of the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor
36.
Friedrich Nietzsche
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He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
37.
Arthur Koestler
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Arthur Koestler, CBE was a Hungarian-British author and journalist. Koestler was born in Budapest and, apart from his school years, was educated in Austria. In 1931 Koestler joined the Communist Party of Germany until, disillusioned by Stalinism, in 1940 he published his novel Darkness at Noon, an anti-totalitarian work that gained him international fame. Over the next 43 years, from his residence in Britain, Koestler espoused many political causes, in 1968 he was awarded the Sonning Prize for outstanding contribution to European culture and in 1972 he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. In 1976 he was diagnosed with Parkinsons disease and in 1979 with terminal leukaemia, in 1983 he and his wife killed themselves at their home in London. Koestler was born in Budapest to Henrik and Adele Koestler and his father Henrik Koestler, of Jewish Hungarian descent, had been born on 18 August 1869 in the town of Miskolc in northeastern Hungary. According to Koestlers authorized biography, Henriks father, Leopold Koestler, was a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian Army who Magyarised his name to Lipót, in 1861 he married Karolina Schon, the daughter of a prosperous timber merchant. Henrik left school at age 16 and took a job as a boy with a firm of drapers. He taught himself English, German and French, and eventually became a partner in the firm and he then set up his own business importing textiles into Hungary. Arthurs mother, Adele Koestler, was born on 25 June 1871 into a prominent Jewish family in Prague, among her ancestors was Mishel Loeb, a prominent 18th-century physician and essayist, whose son Judah became a well-known poet. Beethoven set some of his poems to music, Adeles father, Jacob Jeiteles, moved the family to Vienna, where she grew up in relative prosperity until about 1890. Faced with financial difficulties, her father abandoned his wife and daughter, Adele and her mother moved from Vienna to Budapest to stay with Adeles married sister. Henrik Koestler met Adele in 1898 and married her in 1900, Arthur, their only child, was born on 5 September 1905. The Koestlers lived in spacious, well-furnished, rented apartments in various predominantly Jewish districts of Budapest, during Arthurs early years they employed a cook/housekeeper as well as a foreign governess. His primary school started at an experimental private kindergarten founded by Laura Striker. Her daughter Eva Striker later became Koestlers lover, and they remained all his life. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 deprived Koestlers father of foreign suppliers, facing destitution, the family moved temporarily to a boarding house in Vienna. When the war ended the family returned to Budapest, as noted in Koestlers autobiography, he and his family were sympathetic to the short-lived Hungarian Bolshevik Revolution of 1919
