1.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
2.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
3.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
4.
Kalinga Prize
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The Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science is an award given by UNESCO for exceptional skill in presenting scientific ideas to lay people. It was created in 1952, following a donation from Biju Patnaik, many past prize winners have been scientists, while others have been trained in journalism or have been educators or writers. Applications from individuals are not accepted, the laureate is selected by the Director-General of UNESCO upon the recommendation of a four-member jury designated by him. The Kalinga Prize is awarded during the Celebration of the World Science Day in odd years and in New Delhi, India, under the terms of the Prize, the recipient receives twenty thousand dollars and a UNESCO Albert Einstein Silver Medal. The recipient is awarded the Ruchi Ram Sahni Chair, introduced by the Government of India in 2001 to mark the 50th anniversary of the Kalinga Prize. As holder of the Ruchi Ram Sahni Chair, the travels to India for a period of two to four weeks as the guest of the Government of India. The Chair also comprises a token honorarium of USD2,000, in the years when the award ceremony take place during the celebration of the World Science Day, the recipient travels to the city where the science day is being celebrated as the guest of UNESCO. In the years when it is awarded in New Delhi, the recipient is invited, as the guest of the Kalinga Foundation Trust, for this reason, it is preferable that the recipient be proficient in English. The Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science is administered by the Science Analysis, by 2015 the prize had been awarded to 67 people from 23 countries,61 laureates had been men and five, less than 8%, have been women. Public awareness of science Popularization of science Science journalism Physics Outreach Kalinga Foundation Trust, List of Kalinga Prize Laureates, UNESCO Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science
5.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
6.
Ethology
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Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour throughout history, Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to some other disciplines such as neuroanatomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology. Ethologists are typically interested in a process rather than in a particular animal group. Ethology is a growing field. New fields, such as neuroethology, have developed, understanding ethology or animal behaviour can be important in animal training. Considering the natural behaviours of different species or breeds enables the trainer to select the individuals best suited to perform the required task and it also enables the trainer to encourage the performance of naturally occurring behaviours and also the discontinuance of undesirable behaviours. The term ethology derives from the Greek language, ἦθος, ethos meaning character and -λογία, the term was first popularized by American myrmecologist William Morton Wheeler in 1902. An earlier, slightly different sense of the term was proposed by John Stuart Mill in his 1843 System of Logic. He recommended the development of a new science, ethology, the purpose of which would be explanation of individual and national differences in character and this use of the word was never adopted. Comparative psychology also studies animal behaviour, but, as opposed to ethology, is construed as a sub-topic of psychology rather than as one of biology. The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do result in different perspectives, in addition, for most of the twentieth century, comparative psychology developed most strongly in North America, while ethology was stronger in Europe. From a practical standpoint, early comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few species, ethologists were more interested in understanding behaviour across a wide range of species to facilitate principled comparisons across taxonomic groups. Ethologists have made more use of such cross-species comparisons than comparative psychologists have. See also, Great Chain of Being Until the 19th century, jean-Baptiste Lamarck was the first biologist to describe a complex theory of evolution. The second statement is that living organism, humans included. When Charles Darwin went to the Galapagos Islands, he was aware of Lamarcks theories and was influenced by them. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book The Expression of the Emotions in Man, other early ethologists, such as Charles O. Their beginning for studying the behaviour of a new species was to construct an ethogram and this provided an objective, cumulative data-base of behaviour, which subsequent researchers could check and supplement
7.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
8.
Zoology
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The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i. e. animal and λόγος, logos, i. e. knowledge, study. The history of zoology traces the study of the kingdom from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the Renaissance and early period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur. Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a biological theory. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences, the similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems and it focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are related, and can be categorized under structural studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the function as a whole. The theme of structure to function is central to biology, for example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of physiology to non-human species
9.
Ornithology
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Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds. The word ornithology derives from the ancient Greek ὄρνις ornis and λόγος logos, several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds. Most marked among these is the extent of studies undertaken by amateurs working within the parameters of strict scientific methodology, most modern biological theories apply across taxonomic groups and the number of professional scientists who identify themselves as ornithologists has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology, the origins of the word ornithology come from the Greek ornithologos and late 17th-century Latin ornithologia meaning bird science. Trends include the move from mere descriptions to the identification of patterns, Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since prehistory, with some stone age drawings being amongst the oldest indications of an interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as a source, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. Waterbird and seabird remains have also found in shell mounds on the island of Oronsay off the coast of Scotland. Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds, traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of the behaviour, with many names being onomatopoeic, many still in use. Traditional knowledge may also involve the use of birds in folk medicine, hunting of wild birds as well as their domestication would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. Poultry farming and falconry were practised from early times in many parts of the world, artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China around 246 BC and around at least 400 BC in Egypt. The Egyptians also made use of birds in their scripts, many of which. Early written records provide information on the past distributions of species. For instance Xenophon records the abundance of the ostrich in Assyria, other old writings such as the Vedas demonstrate the careful observation of avian life histories and includes the earliest reference to the habit of brood parasitism by the Asian koel. Like writing, the art of China, Japan, Persia and India also demonstrate knowledge. Aristotle in 350 BC in his Historia Animalium noted the habit of migration, moulting, egg laying and life spans. Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of barnacle geese, around 77 AD, Pliny the Elder described birds, among other creatures, in his Historia Naturalis. The origins of falconry have been traced to Mesopotamia and the earliest record comes from the reign of Sargon II, falconry made its entry to Europe only after AD400, brought in from the East after invasions by the Huns and Allans. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen learned about Arabian falconry during wars in the region and he had this work translated into Latin and also conducted experiments on birds in his menagerie
10.
Nikolaas Tinbergen
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In 1951, he published The Study of Instinct, an influential book on animal behaviour. Born in The Hague, Netherlands, he was one of five children of Dirk Cornelis Tinbergen and his brother, Jan Tinbergen, won the first Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel in 1969. Another brother, Luuk Tinbergen was also a noted biologist, Tinbergens interest in nature manifested itself when he was young. He studied biology at Leiden University and was a prisoner of war during World War II, Tinbergens experience as a prisoner of the Nazis led to some friction with longtime intellectual collaborator Konrad Lorenz, and it was several years before the two reconciled. After the war, Tinbergen moved to England, where he taught at the University of Oxford and was a fellow first at Merton College, Oxford and later at Wolfson College, Oxford. Several of his Oxford graduate students went on to become prominent biologists, these include Richard Dawkins, Marian Dawkins, Desmond Morris, in 1951 Tinbergen’s The Study of Instinct was published. Behavioural ecologists and evolutionary biologists still recognize the contribution this book offered the field of science studies. The Study of Instinct summarises Tinbergens ideas on innate behavioural reactions in animals, by behaviour, he means the total movements made by the intact animal, innate behaviour is that which is not changed by the learning process. The major question of the book is the role of internal and external stimuli in controlling the expression of behaviour and he explains how behaviour can be considered a combination of these spontaneous behaviour patterns and as set series of reactions to particular stimuli. Behaviour is a reaction in that to an extent it is reliant on external stimuli. His model for how certain behavioural reactions are provoked was based on work by Konrad Lorenz, Lorenz postulated that for each instinctive act there is a specific energy which builds up in a reservoir in the brain. Tinbergen added complexity to this model, a model now known as Tinbergen’s hierarchical model and he suggested that motivational impulses build up in nervous centres in the brain which are held in check by blocks. The blocks are removed by an innate releasing mechanism that allows the energy to flow to the centre in a cascade until the behaviour is expressed. Tinbergen’s model shows multiple levels of complexity and that related behaviours are grouped, an example is in his experiments with foraging honey bees. He showed that honey bees show curiosity for yellow and blue paper models of flowers, however, the bees rarely landed on the model flowers unless the proper odour was also applied. In this case, the stimuli of the odor allowed the next link in the chain to be released. The final step was for the bee to insert its mouthparts into the flower, Tinbergen envisioned this as concluding the reaction set for honey bee feeding behaviour. The award recognized their studies on genetically programmed behaviour patterns, their origins, maturation, Tinbergen stated that their revival of the watching and wondering approach to studying behaviour could indeed contribute to the relief of human suffering
11.
Karl von Frisch
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Karl Ritter von Frisch, ForMemRS was an Austrian ethologist who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973, along with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz. His work centered on investigations of the perceptions of the honey bee. His theory, described in his 1927 book Aus dem Leben der Bienen, was disputed by other scientists, only much later was it shown to be an accurate theoretical analysis. Karl von Frisch was the son of the surgeon and urologist Anton von Frisch and he was the youngest of four sons, all of whom became university professors. He studied in Vienna under Hans Leo Przibram and in Munich under Richard von Hertwig, initially in the field of medicine and he received his doctorate in 1910 and in the same year started work as an assistant in the zoology department of the University of Munich. In 1912 he became a lecturer in zoology and comparative anatomy there and his research on honeybees was continued by his student Ingeborg Beling. In 1921 he went to Rostock University as a professor of zoology, in 1923 he accepted the offer of a chair at Breslau University, returning in 1925 to Munich University, where he became the head of the institute of zoology. In 1933 the Nazi regime passed the Civil Service Law, requiring all public servants to provide proof of Aryan ancestry. Frisch was unable to account for the ancestry of one of his grandparents, and was classified as a mischling of 1/8th Jewish ancestry. However groups of students and lecturers worked to have him dismissed from the university, Frisch also attracted negative attention for employing Jewish assistants, including many women, and for practicing Jewish science. Frisch also worked actively to help Polish scientists who had singled out for internment by the Gestapo. He retired in 1958 but continued his research, karl von Frisch married Margarete, née Mohr, who died in 1964. Their son, Otto von Frisch, was director of the Brunswick natural history museum between 1977 and 1995, Frisch studied aspects of animal behaviour, including animal navigation, in the Carniolan honey bee, a subspecies of the European honey bee. Sense of smell, Frisch discovered that bees can distinguish various blossoming plants by their scent, surprisingly, their sensitivity to a sweet taste is only slightly stronger than in humans. He thought it possible that a spatial sense of smell arises from the firm coupling of its olfactory sense with its tactile sense. Optical perception, Frisch was the first to demonstrate that honey bees had color vision and he trained bees to feed on a dish of sugar water set on a colored card. He then set the colored card in the middle of a set of gray-toned cards. If the bees see the card as a shade of gray, then they will confuse the blue card with at least one of the gray-toned cards
12.
Instinct
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Instinct or innate behavior is the inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behavior. Any behavior is if it is performed without being based upon prior experience. Sea turtles, newly hatched on a beach, will move toward the ocean. A kangaroo climbs into its mothers pouch upon being born, honeybees communicate by dancing in the direction of a food source without formal instruction. Other examples include animal fighting, animal behavior, internal escape functions. The absence of volitional capacity must not be confused with an inability to modify fixed action patterns, the role of instincts in determining the behavior of animals varies from species to species. The more complex the system of an animal, the greater is the role of the cerebral cortex and social learning. A comparison between a crocodile and an elephant illustrates how mammals for example are heavily dependent on social learning, lionesses and chimpanzees raised in zoos away from their birth mothers most often reject their own offspring because they have not been taught the skills of mothering. Such is not the case with species such as reptiles. In everyday speech, the instinct is often used to refer to intuition or even clairvoyance. Jean Henri Fabre, an entomologist, considered instinct to be any behavior which did not require cognition or consciousness to perform, Fabres inspiration was his intense study of insects, some of whose behaviors he wrongly considered fixed and not subject to environmental influence. Instinct as a concept fell out of favor in the 1920s with the rise of behaviorism and such thinkers as B. F. Skinner, which held that most significant behavior is learned. These beliefs, like Fabres belief that most behaviors were simply reflexive, an interest in innate behaviors arose again in the 1950s with Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen, who made the distinction between instinct and learned behaviors. Our modern understanding of behavior in animals owes much to their work. For instance, there exists a sensitive period for a bird in which it learns the identity of its mother, Konrad Lorenz famously had a goose imprint on his boots. Thereafter the goose would follow whoever wore the boots, the identity of the gooses mother was learned, but the gooses behavior towards the boots was instinctive. The term instinct in psychology was first used in the 1870s by Wilhelm Wundt, by the close of the 19th century, most repeated behavior was considered instinctual. In a survey of the literature at that time, one researcher chronicled 4,000 human instincts, as research became more rigorous and terms better defined, instinct as an explanation for human behavior became less common
13.
Greylag goose
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The greylag goose is a large species of goose in the waterfowl family Anatidae. It has mottled and barred grey and white plumage and an orange beak, a large bird, it measures between 74 and 91 centimetres in length, with an average weight of 3.3 kilograms. Its distribution is widespread, with birds from the north of its range in Europe and it is the type species of the genus Anser and is the ancestor of the domestic goose, having been domesticated at least as early as 1360 BC. The genus name is from anser, the Latin for goose, Greylag geese travel to their northerly breeding grounds in spring, nesting on moorlands, in marshes, around lakes and on coastal islands. They normally mate for life and nest on the ground among vegetation, a clutch of three to five eggs is laid, the female incubates the eggs and both parents defend and rear the young. The birds stay together as a group, migrating southwards in autumn as part of a flock. During the winter they occupy semi-aquatic habitats, estuaries, marshes and flooded fields, feeding on grass, Anser anser, the greylag goose, is a member of the waterfowl family Anatidae. The two subspecies intergrade where their ranges meet, the greylag goose sometimes hybridises with other species of goose including the barnacle goose and the Canada goose, and occasionally with the mute swan. The greylag goose was one of the first animals to be domesticated, this happened at least 3000 years ago in Ancient Egypt, the domestic breed being known as A. a. domesticus. As the domestic goose is a subspecies of the greylag goose they are able to interbreed, the greylag is the largest and bulkiest of the grey geese of the genus Anser, but is more lightly built and agile than its domestic relative. It has a rotund, bulky body, a thick and long neck, and it has pink legs and feet, and an orange or pink bill with a white or brown nail. It is 74 to 91 centimetres long with a length of 41.2 to 48 centimetres. It has a tail 6.2 to 6.9 centimetres, a bill of 6.4 to 6.9 centimetres long, and it weighs 2.16 to 4.56 kilograms, with a mean weight of around 3.3 kilograms. The wingspan is 147 to 180 centimetres, males are generally larger than females, with the sexual dimorphism more pronounced in the eastern subspecies rubirostris, which is larger than the nominate subspecies on average. The plumage of the goose is greyish-brown, with a darker head and paler breast. It has a pale grey fore-wing and rump which are noticeable when the bird is in flight or stretches its wings on the ground and it has a white line bordering its upper flanks, and its wing coverts are light-coloured, contrasting with its darker flight feathers. Its plumage is patterned by the pale fringes of the feathers, juveniles differ mostly in their lack of black-speckling on the breast and belly and by their greyish legs. Adults have a distinctive pattern of folds in the feathers on their necks
14.
Western jackdaw
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The western jackdaw, also known as the Eurasian jackdaw, European jackdaw, or simply jackdaw, is a passerine bird in the crow family. Found across Europe, western Asia and North Africa, it is mostly resident, four subspecies are recognised, which mainly differ in the colouration of the plumage on the head and nape. Linnaeus first described it formally, giving it the name Corvus monedula, the common name derives from the word jack, meaning small, and daw, the native English name for the bird. Measuring 34–39 centimetres in length, the jackdaw is a black-plumaged bird with a grey nape. It is gregarious and vocal, living in groups with a complex social structure in farmland, open woodland, on coastal cliffs. Like its relatives, Jackdaws are intelligent birds, and have been observed using tools, an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder, it eats a wide variety of plant material and invertebrates, as well as food waste from urban areas. Western jackdaws are monogamous and build nests of sticks in cavities in trees, cliffs. About five pale blue or blue-green eggs with brown speckles are laid, the young fledge in four to five weeks. The western jackdaw was one of the species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. Jackdaws are sometimes placed in the genus Coloeus, from the Ancient Greek κολοιός for jackdaw, formerly, western jackdaws were simply called daws. The metallic chyak call may be the origin of the part of the common name. Names in English dialects are numerous, scottish and north English dialects have included ka or kae since the 14th century. The Midlands form of this word was co or coo, caddow is potentially a compound of ka and dow, a variant of daw. Other dialectal or obsolete names include caddesse, cawdaw, caddy, chauk, college-bird, jackerdaw, jacko, ka-wattie, chimney-sweep bird and it was also frequently known quasi-nominally as Jack. An archaic collective noun for a group of jackdaws is a clattering, another name for a flock is a train. A study in 2000 found that the distance between jackdaws and the other members of Corvus was greater than that within the rest of the genus. A study of corvid phylogeny undertaken in 2007 compared DNA sequences in the control region of several corvids. It found that the western jackdaw, and the closely related Daurian jackdaw of eastern Russia, the names Coloeus monedula and Coloeus dauuricus have since been adopted by the International Ornithological Congress in their official list
15.
Imprinting (psychology)
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In psychology and ethology, imprinting is any kind of phase-sensitive learning that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, Imprinting is hypothesized to have a critical period. The best-known form of imprinting is filial imprinting, in which a young animal acquires several of its characteristics from its parent. It is most obvious in nidifugous birds, which imprint on their parents and it was first reported in domestic chickens, by the 19th-century amateur biologist Douglas Spalding. It was rediscovered by the early ethologist Oskar Heinroth, and studied extensively, Lorenz demonstrated how incubator-hatched geese would imprint on the first suitable moving stimulus they saw within what he called a critical period between 13–16 hours shortly after hatching. For example, the goslings would imprint on Lorenz himself, Lorenz also found that the geese could imprint on inanimate objects. In one experiment, they followed a box placed on a train in circles around the track. Filial imprinting is not restricted to animals that are able to follow their parents. The filial imprinting of birds was a technique used to create the movie Winged Migration. The birds imprinted on handlers, who wore yellow jackets and honked horns constantly, the birds were then trained to fly along with a variety of aircraft, primarily ultralights. The Italian hang-glider pilot Angelo dArrigo extended this technique and he used this fact to enable the re-introduction into the wild of threatened species of raptors. Birds that are hatched in captivity have no mentor birds to teach them their migratory routes. DArrigo had one solution to this problem, the chicks hatched under the wing of his glider, and imprinted on him. Then, he taught the fledglings to fly and to hunt, the young birds followed him not only on the ground but also in the air as he took the path of various migratory routes. He flew across the Sahara and over the Mediterranean Sea to Sicily with eagles, from Siberia to Iran with a flock of Siberian cranes, in 2006, he worked with a condor in South America. In a similar project, orphaned Canada geese were trained to their migration route by the Canadian ultralight enthusiast Bill Lishman. Chicks of domestic chickens prefer to be large groups of objects that they have imprinted on. This behaviour was used to determine that very young chicks of a few days old have rudimentary counting skills, in a series of experiments, they were made to imprint on plastic balls and could figure out which of two groups of balls hidden behind screens had the most balls
16.
Review of General Psychology
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Review of General Psychology is the quarterly scientific journal of the American Psychological Association Division 1, The Society for General Psychology. Review of General Psychology publishes cross-disciplinary psychological articles that are conceptual, theoretical, other aspects of the journal include the evaluation and integration of research literature and the providing of historical analysis. The first issue of the Review appeared in 1997, the current editor is Gerianne M. Alexander of Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
17.
On Aggression
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On Aggression is a 1963 book by the ethologist Konrad Lorenz, it was translated into English in 1966. As he writes in the prologue, the subject of book is aggression. According to Lorenz, animals, particularly males, are programmed to fight over resources. This behavior must be considered part of selection, as aggression leading to death or serious injury may eventually lead to extinction unless it has such a role. However, Lorenz does not state that aggressive behaviors are in any way more powerful, prevalent, rather, he negates the categorization of aggression as contrary to positive instincts like love, depicting it as a founding basis of other instincts and its role in animal communication. In Lorenzs words, Thus while the message of inciting in ruddy shelduck and Egyptian geese could be expressed in the words Drive him off, in diving ducks it simply means, I love you. In several groups, midway between two extremes, as for example in the gadwall and widgeon, an intermediate meaning may be found. Psychoanalyst Erich Fromm criticized On Aggression in his book The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, biologist E. O. Wilson argues in his book On Human Nature that both Lorenz and Fromm are essentially wrong. He lists a variety of categories, each separately subject to natural selection. He maintains that aggression is a used to gain control over necessary resources. Anthropologist Donald Symons, writing in The Evolution of Human Sexuality, accused Lorenz of inadequately documenting his major thesis
18.
The Wonderful Adventures of Nils
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The Wonderful Adventures of Nils is a work of fiction by the Swedish author Selma Lagerlöf. It was published in two books, The Wonderful Adventures of Nils in 1906 and Further Adventures of Nils in 1907 and these two are usually combined into a single book called The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, although that name could also describe the first book only. The background for publication was a commission from the National Teachers Association in 1902 to write a geography reader for the public schools and she devoted three years to Nature study and to familiarizing herself with animal and bird life. She has sought out hitherto unpublished folklore and legends of the different provinces and these she has ingeniously woven into her story. Selma Lagerlöf, like many leading Swedish intellectuals of her time, was an advocate of Swedish spelling reform, when published in 1906, this book was one of the first to adopt the new spelling mandated by a government resolution on April 7,1906. The book is about a young lad, Nils Holgersson, whose chief delight was to eat and sleep and he takes great delight in hurting the animals in his family farm. Nils captures a tomte in a net while his family is at church and have left him home to memorize chapters from the Bible, the tomte proposes to Nils that if Nils frees him, the tomte will give him a huge gold coin. While this is happening, wild geese are flying over the farm on one of their migrations, in an attempt to salvage something before his family returns, Nils holds on to the birds neck as it successfully takes off and joins the wild birds. During the trip, Nils learns that if he proves he has changed for the better, the book also includes various subplots, concerning people whose lives are touched in one way or another by Nils and the wild geese. The book was criticized for the fact that the goose and boy dont make any stop in the province Halland, in chapter 53 they fly over Halland on the way back to Scania, but they arent impressed by the sight and they dont stop. However, such a chapter has been added to some translations of the book, in depictions Nils is usually wearing a red cap, although this is erroneous as he is described in the original Swedish edition as wearing a white cap. The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, Illustrated by Harold Heartt Foley, New York, Grosset & Dunlap,1907. The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, translated by Velma Swanston Howard, garden City, New York, Doubleday, Page & Company,1922. The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, Illustrated by H. Baumhauer, a Soviet traditionally animated feature film called The Enchanted Boy was released in 1955. It was directed by Vladimir Polkovnikov and Aleksandra Snezhko-Blotskaya and produced at the Soyuzmultfilm studio in Moscow, Adventures of Nils Holgersson was released in 1962. It was shot primarily from helicopters, simplifying and downplaying the drama of the plot and it was directed by Kenne Fant. An anime adaptation consisting of fifty-two 25-minute episodes was broadcast on NHK from January 8, the anime was the very first production by Studio Pierrot. The anime was mostly fairly true to the original, apart from the appearance of Nils pet hamster, german TV broadcaster ARD premiered a live-action two-part adaptation starring Justus Kammerer as Nils and directed by Dirk Regel on Christmas 2011
19.
Adolf Lorenz
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Adolf Lorenz was an Austrian orthopedic surgeon who was a native of Weidenau, Austrian Silesia. He studied medicine at the University of Vienna and subsequently worked as an assistant to surgeon Eduard Albert in Vienna, in 1901 he was one of the founders of the German Society of Orthopaedic Surgery. He was the father of famed behavioralist Konrad Lorenz, Adolf Lorenz is remembered for his work with bone deformities. As a young surgeon during the 1880s, he developed an allergic skin reaction to carbolic acid. Although the condition prevented him from performing traditional surgical operations, he continued in the profession as a dry surgeon. Subsequently, he was given the nickname The Bloodless Surgeon of Vienna and his techniques became known as bloodless surgery, reflecting his noninvasive techniques. He was renowned for his treatment of congenital dislocation of the hip in children and his technique involved putting the patient under light anesthesia, placing the child in a plaster spica cast in abduction, then using external rotation as the child matured. Also, he added a specialized walking frame to give the patient a measure of mobility and he created a manipulative treatment for club feet, a process that involved stretching or breaking the tendons, ligaments, and epiphyseal plates until the foot was properly aligned. Once alignment was achieved, he applied a cast so that the foot healed in the corrected position, through the use of traction and pulleys, Lorenz developed a mechanism for treatment of scoliosis. Due to his fame in orthopedics, he acquainted with several dignitaries. Pub Med Central The Legacy of Professor Adolf Lorenz, the surgeon of Vienna. Website of the Adolf and Albert Lorenz Association
20.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
21.
University of Vienna
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The University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is one of the oldest universities in the German-speaking world. With its long and rich history, the University of Vienna has developed one of the biggest universities in Europe. It is associated with 15 Nobel prize winners and has been the home of a large number of figures both of historical and academic importance. The University was founded on 12 March 1365 by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, the University of Vienna was modelled after the University of Paris. However, Pope Urban V did not ratify the deed of foundation that had been sanctioned by Rudolf IV and this was presumably due to pressure exerted by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who wished to avoid competition for the Charles University in Prague. Approval was finally received from the Pope in 1384 and the University of Vienna was granted the status of a full university, the first university building opened in 1385. It grew into the biggest university of the Holy Roman Empire, in its early years, the university had a partly hierarchical, partly cooperative structure, in which the Rector was at the top, while the students had little say and were settled at the bottom. The Magister and Doctors constituted the four faculties and elected the academic officials from amidst their ranks, the students, but also all other Supposita, were divided into four Academic Nations. Their elected board members, mostly graduates themselves, had the right to elect the Rector and he presided over the Consistory which included procurators of each of the nations and the faculty deans, as well as over the University Assembly, in which all university teachers participated. Complaints or appeals against decisions of faculty by the students had to be brought forward by a Magister or Doctor, being considered a Papal Institution, the university suffered quite a setback during the Reformation. In addition, the first Siege of Vienna by Ottoman forces had devastating effects on the city, leading to a sharp decline, with only 30 students enrolled at the lowest point. For King Ferdinand I, this meant that the university should be tied to the church to a stronger degree. It was only in the Mid-18th century that Empress Maria Theresa forced the university back under control of the monarchy. Her successor Joseph II helped in the reform of the university. Big changes were instituted in the wake of the Revolution in 1848, with the Philosophical Faculty being upgraded into equal status as Theology, Law and Medicine. Led by the reforms of Leopold, Count von Thun und Hohenstein, the current main building on the Ringstraße was built between 1877 and 1884 by Heinrich von Ferstel. The previous main building was located close to the Stuben Gate on Iganz Seipel Square, current home of the old University Church, women were admitted as full students from 1897, although their studies were limited to Philosophy
22.
Menagerie
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A menagerie is a collection of captive animals, frequently exotic, kept for display, or the place where such a collection is kept, a precursor to the modern zoological garden. The term was first used in seventeenth century France in reference to the management of household or domestic stock, later, it came to be used primarily in reference to aristocratic or royal animal collections. The French-language Methodical Encyclopaedia of 1782 defines a menagerie as an establishment of luxury, later on, the term referred also to travelling animal collections that exhibited wild animals at fairs across Europe and the Americas. A menagerie was mostly connected with an aristocratic or royal court and was situated within a garden or park of a palace. These aristocrats wanted to illustrate their power and wealth, because animals, alive and active, were less common, more difficult to acquire. During the Middle Ages, several sovereigns across Europe maintained menageries at their royal courts, an early example is that of the Emperor Charlemagne in the 8th century. Charlemagne received exotic animals for his collection as gifts from rulers of Africa, in 797, the caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented Charlemagne with an Asian elephant named Abul-Abbas. The pachyderm arrived on July 1,802 to the Emperors residence in Aachen, William the Conqueror had a small royal menagerie. At his manor, Woodstock, he began a collection of exotic animals, around the year 1100 his son, Henry I, enclosed Woodstock and enlarged the collection. The most prominent animal collection in medieval England was the Tower Menagerie in London that began as early as 1204 and it was established by King John, who reigned in England from 1199–1216, and is known to have held lions and bears. Henry III received a gift in 1235 of three leopards from Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. The most spectacular arrivals in the years were a white bear. In 1264, the animals were moved to the Bulwark, which was renamed the Lion Tower and this building was constituted by rows of cages with arched entrances, enclosed behind grilles. They were set in two storeys, and it appears that the animals used the upper cages during the day and were moved to the lower storey at night, the menagerie was opened to the public during the reign of Elizabeth I in the 16th century. During the 18th century, the price of admission was three half-pence, or the supply of a cat or dog to be fed to the lions, animals recorded here at the end of the 18th century included lions, tigers, hyaenas and bears. Most of the animals were transferred in 1831 to the newly opened London Zoo at Regents Park, the Tower Menagerie was finally closed in 1835, on the orders of the Duke of Wellington. The Tower Menagerie in London can be considered to have been the royal menagerie of England for six centuries. In the first half of the century, Emperor Frederick II had three permanent menageries in Italy, at Melfi in Basilicata, at Lucera in Apulia and at Palermo in Sicily
23.
Capuchin monkey
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The capuchin monkeys are New World monkeys of the subfamily Cebinae. They are readily identified as the monkey, and have been used in several movies. The range of capuchin monkeys includes Central America and South America as far south as northern Argentina, in Central America, they usually occupy the wet lowland forests on Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama and deciduous dry forest on the Pacific coast. The word capuchin derives from a group of friars named the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, an offshoot from the Franciscans, who wear brown robes with large hoods. When explorers reached the Americas in the 15th century, they found small monkeys whose coloring resembled these friars, especially when in their robes with hoods down, when the scientists described a specimen they noted that, his muzzle of a tanned color. With the lighter color around his eyes that melts into the white at the front, give him the looks that involuntarily reminds us of the appearance that historically in our country represents ignorance, laziness, and sensuality. The scientific name of the genus, Cebus comes from the Greek word kêbos, the species-level taxonomy of this genus remains highly controversial, and alternative treatments than the one listed below have been suggested. In 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al proposed that the robust capuchins be placed in a genus, Sapajus. Other primatologists, such as Paul Garber, have begun using this classification, according to genetic studies led by Lynch Alfaro in 2011, the gracile and robust capuchins diverged approximately 6.2 million years ago. Gracile capuchins have longer limbs relative to their size than robust capuchins. Gracile capuchins have rounder skulls, whereas robust capuchins have jaws better adapted for opening hard nuts, robust capuchins have crests and the males have beards. Capuchins are black, brown, buff or whitish, but their exact color and they reach a length of 30 to 56 cm, with tails that are just as long as the body. Like most New World monkeys, capuchins are diurnal and arboreal, with the exception of a midday nap, they spend their entire day searching for food. At night, they sleep in the trees, wedged between branches and they are undemanding regarding their habitat and can thus be found in many differing areas. The capuchin monkey feeds on a vast range of food types, capuchins have been observed to also be particularly good at catching frogs. Capuchins living near water will also eat crabs and shellfish by cracking their shells with stones, Capuchin monkeys inhabit a large range of Brazil and other parts of Latin and Central America. Capuchin monkeys often live in groups of 10 to 35 individuals within the forest. Usually, a male will dominate the group, and they have primary rights to mate with the females of their group
24.
Goose
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Geese are waterfowl belonging to the tribe Anserini of the family Anatidae. This tribe comprises the genera Anser, Branta and Chen, some other birds, mostly related to the shelducks, have goose as part of their names. More distantly related members of the family Anatidae are swans, most of which are larger than true geese, and ducks, the word goose is a direct descendent of Proto-Indo-European root, *ghans-. In Germanic languages, the root gave Old English gōs with the plural gēs and gandres, Frisian goes, gies and guoske, New High German Gans, Gänse, and Ganter, and Old Norse gās. The term goose applies to the female in particular, while applies to the male in particular. Young birds before fledging are called goslings, the collective noun for a group of geese on the ground is a gaggle, when in flight, they are called a skein, a team, or a wedge, when flying close together, they are called a plump. The three living genera of true geese are, Anser, grey geese, including the goose, and domestic geese, Chen, white geese. Either these or, more probably, the goose-like Coscoroba swan is the closest living relative of the true geese, the aptly named Anser atavus from some 12 million years ago had even more plesiomorphies in common with swans. In addition, some birds are known from subfossil remains found on the Hawaiian Islands. Geese are monogamous, living in permanent pairs throughout the year, however, unlike most other permanently monogamous animals, paired geese are more dominant and feed more, two factors that result in more young. Some mainly Southern Hemisphere birds are called geese, most of which belong to the shelduck subfamily Tadorninae, the blue-winged goose, Cyanochen cyanopterus, and the Cape Barren goose, Cereopsis novaehollandiae, have disputed affinities. They belong to separate ancient lineages that may ally either to the Tadorninae, Anserinae, the three species of small waterfowl in the genus Nettapus are named pygmy geese. They seem to represent another ancient lineage, with affinities to the Cape Barren goose or the spur-winged goose. A genus of prehistorically extinct seaducks, Chendytes, is sometimes called diving-geese due to their large size, the unusual magpie goose is in a family of its own, the Anseranatidae. The northern gannet, a seabird, is known as the Solan goose, although it is a bird unrelated to the true geese. Well-known sayings about geese include, To have a gander is to something in detail. Whats sauce for the goose is sauce for the means that what is appropriate treatment for one person is equally appropriate for someone else. Saying that someones goose is cooked means that they have suffered, or are about to suffer, a wild goose chase is a useless, futile waste of time and effort
25.
Domestic goose
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Domestic geese are domesticated grey geese kept as poultry for their meat, eggs, and down feathers since ancient times. In Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia, the domesticated geese are derived from the greylag goose Anser anser. In eastern Asia, the domesticated geese are derived from the swan goose Anser cygnoides. Both have been introduced in more recent times, and modern flocks in both areas may consist of either species, and/or hybrids between them. Chinese geese may be distinguished from European geese by the large knob at the base of the bill. The domestication, as Charles Darwin remarks, is of ancient date. Although their heavy weight affects their ability to fly, most breeds of domestic geese are capable of flight, Geese have also been strongly selected for fecundity, with females laying up to 50 eggs per year, compared to 5–12 eggs for a wild goose. As most domestic geese display little sexual dimorphism, sexing is based primarily on physical characteristics, males are typically taller and larger than females, and have longer necks. In addition, males can be distinguished by the protective behaviour they exhibit towards their mate, changes to the plumage are variable, many have been selected to lose dark brown tones of the wild bird. The result is a marked, or completely covered in white feathers. Others retain plumage close to the natural, some, such as the modern Toulouse goose look almost identical to the greylag in plumage, white geese are often preferred as they look better plucked and dressed, with any small down feathers remaining being less conspicuous. From the time of the Romans, white geese have been held in great esteem, Geese produce large edible eggs, weighing 120–170 grams. They can be used in cooking just like chickens eggs, though they have more yolk. The taste is much the same as that of a chicken egg, like their wild ancestors, domestic geese are very protective of their offspring and other members of the flock. The gander will normally place himself between any perceived threat and his family, owing to their highly aggressive nature, loud call and sensitivity to unusual movements, geese can contribute towards the security of a property. In late 1950s South Vietnam, the VNAF used flocks of geese to guard their parked aircraft at night due to the noise they would make at intruders, when Aphrodite first came ashore she was welcomed by the Charites, whose chariot was drawn by geese. There are Mother Goose tales, such as a farmwife might have told, there is the goose that laid the golden eggs. The geese in the temple of Juno on the Capitoline Hill were said by Livy to have saved Rome from the Gauls around 390 BC when they were disturbed in a night attack
26.
Gamebird hybrids
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Gamebird hybrids are the result of crossing species of game birds, including ducks, with each other and with domestic poultry. These hybrid species may occur naturally in the wild or more commonly through the deliberate or inadvertent intervention of humans. Utterly sterile male hybrids from the pheasant and the act in the same manner, their delight being to watch when the hens leave their nests. Mr. Hewitt gives it as a rule with fowls. Hybrids have been obtained between the species of pheasants e. g. Lady Amhersts, silver and Reevess pheasants. In her book Bird Hybrids, A. P. Gray lists numerous crosses between chickens and other types of fowl, domestic fowl can be crossed, and produce fertile offspring, with silver pheasants, red junglefowl and green junglefowl. They have also produced hybrids with peafowl, chachalacas, capercaillie, grouse, quail, curassows, pheasants, domestic fowl have been crossed with guineafowl and also with common pheasant. Domestic fowl/pheasant hybrids have also occurred naturally, domestic chickens and Japanese quail have been hybridised using artificial insemination. The peafowl from Asia and the common guineafowl from Africa have been crossed, there have been attempted crosses between domestic turkeys and chickens. According to Gray in 12 studies no hybrids hatched, other reports found only a few fertile eggs were produced and very few resulted in advance embryos. According to Olsen,23 hybrids were obtained from 302 embryos which resulted from 2132 eggs, dark Cornish cockerels and Rhode Island Red cockerels successfully fertilised turkey eggs. Harada & Buss reported hybridisation experiments between Beltsville Small White Turkeys and two strains of chickens, when male chickens inseminated female turkeys, both male and female embryos form, but the males are much less viable and usually die in the early stages of development. When male turkeys inseminated female chickens, no hybrids resulted although the unfertilised chicken eggs began to divide, according to Olson turkey-chicken crosses produced all males. A supposed turkey × pheasant hybrid was reported by Edwards in 1761, garnett observed that his hybrids were wild, and exhibited migratory propensities of which there is not a vestige in the common or musk duck. Hybrids between mallard ducks and Aylesbury ducks are seen in British parks where the two types are present. The hybrids often resemble a dark coloured mallard with a white breast, mallard ducks also hybridise with the Muscovy duck producing pied offspring. Hybrids between the ruddy duck and white-headed duck are undesirable in parts of Europe where the introduced ruddy duck has bred with native white-headed ducks, the increasing number of ruddy ducks and hybrids threatens the existence of the white-headed ducks, resulting in shooting campaigns to remove the introduced species. This is controversial as some believe that nature should be allowed to take its course, Hybrid ducks of the genus Aythya, include birds which are a mixture of tufted duck, greater scaup, pochard, ferruginous duck and ring-necked duck
27.
Nazi eugenics
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Eugenics research in Germany before and during the Nazi period was similar to that in the United States, by which it had been partly inspired. However, its prominence rose sharply under Adolf Hitlers leadership when wealthy Nazi supporters started heavily investing in it, the programs were subsequently shaped to complement Nazi racial policies. More than 400,000 people were sterilized against their will, while more than 70,000 were killed under Action T4, the early German eugenics movement was led by Wilhelm Schallmayer and Alfred Ploetz. Unlike the American movement, one publication and one society, the German Society for Racial Hygiene represented all eugenicists, edwin Black wrote that after the eugenics movement was well established in the United States, it was spread to Germany. California eugenicists began producing literature promoting eugenics and sterilization and sending it overseas to German scientists, by 1933, California had subjected more people to forceful sterilization than all other U. S. states combined. The forced sterilization program engineered by the Nazis was partly inspired by Californias, German professor of medicine, anthropology and eugenics, Eugen Fischer, was the director of this organization, a man whose work helped provide the scientific basis for the Nazis eugenic policies. The Rockefeller Foundation even funded some of the conducted by Josef Mengele before he went to Auschwitz. Upon returning from Germany in 1934, where more than 5,000 people per month were being forcibly sterilized, everywhere I sensed that their opinions have been tremendously stimulated by American thought. I want you, my friend, to carry this thought with you for the rest of your life. Eugenics researcher Harry H. Laughlin often bragged that his Model Eugenic Sterilization laws had been implemented in the 1935 Nuremberg racial hygiene laws. In 1936, Laughlin was invited to a ceremony at Heidelberg University in Germany. Due to financial limitations, Laughlin was unable to attend the ceremony and had to pick it up from the Rockefeller Institute. Afterwards, he shared the award with his colleagues, remarking that he felt that it symbolized the common understanding of German and American scientists of the nature of eugenics. Adolf Hitler read about racial hygiene during his imprisonment in Landsberg Prison, Hitler believed the nation had become weak, corrupted by dysgenics, the infusion of degenerate elements into its bloodstream. The racialism and idea of competition, termed social Darwinism in 1944, were discussed by European scientists, where Hitler picked up the ideas is uncertain. The theory of evolution had been accepted in Germany at the time. In his Second Book, which was unpublished during the Nazi era, Hitler praised Sparta and he endorsed what he perceived to be an early eugenics treatment of deformed children, Sparta must be regarded as the first Völkisch State. In organizing their eugenics program the Nazis were inspired by the United States programs of forced sterilization, Physicians could be fined for failing to comply
28.
German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union
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Approximately three million German prisoners of war were captured by the Soviet Union during World War II, most of them during the great advances of the Red Army in the last year of the war. The POWs were employed as forced labor in the Soviet wartime economy, by 1950 almost all had been released. In 1956 the last surviving German POW returned home from the USSR, According to Soviet records 381,067 German Wehrmacht POWs died in NKVD camps. German historian Rüdiger Overmans maintains that it seems plausible, while not provable. He also believes there were men who actually died as POWs amongst those as listed as missing-in-action. In the first months of the Soviet-German war, few Germans were captured by Soviet forces, after the Battle of Moscow and the retreat of the German forces the number of prisoners in the Soviet prisoner of war camps rose to 120,000 by early 1942. The German 6th Army surrendered in the Battle of Stalingrad,91,000 of the survivors became prisoners of war raising the number to 170,000 in early 1943. As the desperate situation in the Soviet Union eased in 1943. At the same time POWs became an important source of labor for the Soviet economy deprived of manpower, with the formation of the National Committee Free Germany and the League of German Officers, pro-communist POWs got more privileges and better rations. As a result of Operation Bagration and the collapse on the part of the Eastern front. In the first months of 1945 the Red Army advanced to the Oder river, again the number of POWs rose - to 2,000,000 in April 1945. A total of 2.8 million German Wehrmacht personnel were held as POWs by the Soviet Union at the end of the war according to Soviet records. A large number of German POWs had been released by the end of 1946, with the creation of a pro-Soviet German state in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany - the German Democratic Republic - in October 1949, all but 85,000 POWs had been released and repatriated. Most of those still held had been convicted as war criminals and it was not until 1956 that the last of these Kriegsverurteilte were repatriated, following the intervention of West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer in Moscow. According to Richard Overy 356,000 out of 2,880,000 German prisoners of war died in Soviet POW camps, the figures cited by Overy are based on Russian sources. The Soviet era sources are disputed by historians in the west who estimate 3.0 million German POW were taken by the USSR, waitman Wade Beorn, maintains that 35, 8% of German POWs died in Soviet custody, which is supported by other academic works. According to Edward Peterson, the U. S. chose to hand over several hundred thousand German prisoners to the Soviet Union in May 1945 as a gesture of friendship. Niall Ferguson maintains that it is clear that many German units sought to surrender to the Americans in preference to other Allied forces, and particularly the Red Army
29.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
30.
Wehrmacht
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The Wehrmacht was the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1946. It consisted of the Heer, the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe, after the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, one of Adolf Hitler’s most overt and audacious moves was to establish the Wehrmacht, a modern armed forces fully capable of offensive use. In December 1941, Hitler designated himself as commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht, the Wehrmacht formed the heart of Germany’s politico-military power. In the early part of World War II, Hitlers generals employed the Wehrmacht through innovative combined arms tactics to devastating effect in what was called a Blitzkrieg, the Wehrmachts new military structure, unique combat techniques, newly developed weapons, and unprecedented speed and brutality crushed their opponents. Closely cooperating with the SS, the German armed forces committed war crimes and atrocities. By the time the war ended in Europe in May 1945, only a few of the Wehrmacht’s upper leadership were tried for war crimes, despite evidence suggesting that more were involved in illegal actions. The German term Wehrmacht generically describes any nations armed forces, for example, the Frankfurt Constitution of 1848 designated all German military forces as the German Wehrmacht, consisting of the Seemacht and the Landmacht. In 1919, the term Wehrmacht also appears in Article 47 of the Weimar Constitution, establishing that, from 1919, Germanys national defense force was known as the Reichswehr, a name that was dropped in favor of Wehrmacht on 21 May 1935. In January 1919, after World War I ended with the signing of the armistice of 11 November 1918, in March 1919, the national assembly passed a law founding a 420, 000-strong preliminary army, the Vorläufige Reichswehr. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were announced in May, the army was limited to one hundred thousand men with an additional fifteen thousand in the navy. The fleet was to consist of at most six battleships, six cruisers, submarines, tanks and heavy artillery were forbidden and the air-force was dissolved. A new post-war military, the Reichswehr, was established on 23 March 1921, General conscription was abolished under another mandate of the Versailles treaty. The Reichswehr was limited to 115,000 men, and thus the armed forces, under the leadership of Hans von Seeckt, though Seeckt retired in 1926, the army that went to war in 1939 was largely his creation. Germany was forbidden to have an air-force by the Versailles treaty, nonetheless and these officers saw the role of an air-force as winning air-superiority, tactical and strategic bombing and providing ground support. That the Luftwaffe did not develop a strategic bombing force in the 1930s was not due to a lack of interest, but because of economic limitations. The leadership of the Navy led by Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, officers who believed in submarine warfare led by Admiral Karl Dönitz were in a minority before 1939. By 1922, Germany had begun covertly circumventing the conditions of the Versailles Treaty, a secret collaboration with the Soviet Union began after the treaty of Rapallo. Major-General Otto Hasse traveled to Moscow in 1923 to further negotiate the terms, Germany helped the Soviet Union with industrialization and Soviet officers were to be trained in Germany
31.
Internment
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Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people, commonly in large groups, without trial. The term is used for the confinement of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects. Thus, while it can simply mean imprisonment, it tends to refer to preventive confinement, use of these terms is subject to debate and political sensitivities. Interned persons may be held in prisons or in known as internment camps. In certain contexts, these may also be known either officially or pejoratively, internment also refers to a neutral countrys practice of detaining belligerent armed forces and equipment on its territory during times of war under the Hague Convention of 1907. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights restricts the use of internment, article 9 states that No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. The United States set up camps for Cherokee and other Native Americans in the 1830s. From 1863 to 1868, the U. S, military persecuted and imprisoned 9,500 Navajo and 500 Mescalero Apache. Living under armed guards, more than 3,500 Navajo and Mescalero Apache men, women, the term concentration camp saw wider use during the Second Boer War, when the British operated such camps in South Africa for interning Boers. They built 45 tented camps for Boer internees and 64 for black Africans, of the 28,000 Boer men captured as prisoners of war, the British sent 25,630 overseas. The vast majority of Boers remaining in the camps were women and children. Some of them managed to go into exile or went off to join the armies of the Allies in order to fight against the Axis powers, while others ended up in Nazi concentration camps. During the 20th century, the internment of civilians by the state reached its most notorious excesses with the establishment of the Nazi concentration camps. The Nazi concentration camp system was notable for its size, with as many as 15,000 camps. Moreover, Nazi Germany established six camps, specifically designed to kill millions
32.
Eastern Front (World War II)
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The battles on the Eastern Front constituted the largest military confrontation in history. They were characterized by unprecedented ferocity, wholesale destruction, mass deportations, and immense loss of life due to combat, starvation, exposure, disease, and massacres. The Eastern Front, as the site of nearly all extermination camps, death marches, ghettos, of the estimated 70 million deaths attributed to World War II, over 30 million, many of them civilian, occurred on the Eastern Front. The Eastern Front was decisive in determining the outcome of the European portion of World War II and it resulted in the destruction of the Third Reich, the partition of Germany for nearly half a century and the rise of the Soviet Union as a military and industrial superpower. The two principal belligerent powers were Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, along with their respective allies. Though never engaged in action in the Eastern Front, the United Kingdom. The joint German–Finnish operations across the northernmost Finnish–Soviet border and in the Murmansk region are considered part of the Eastern Front, in addition, the Soviet–Finnish Continuation War may also be considered the northern flank of the Eastern Front. Despite their ideological antipathy, both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union shared a dislike for the outcome of World War I. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact signed in August 1939 was an agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. It contained a secret protocol aiming to return Central Europe to the pre–World War I status quo by dividing it between Germany and the Soviet Union, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania would return to Soviet control, while Poland and Romania would be divided. I need the Ukraine so that they cant starve us out, the two powers invaded and partitioned Poland in 1939. The annexations were never recognized by most Western states, the annexed Romanian territory was divided between the Ukrainian and Moldavian Soviet republics. Adolf Hitler had argued in his autobiography Mein Kampf for the necessity of Lebensraum, acquiring new territory for Germans in Eastern Europe, Wehrmacht officers told their troops to target people who were described as Jewish Bolshevik subhumans, the Mongol hordes, the Asiatic flood and the red beast. The vast majority of German soldiers viewed the war in Nazi terms, Hitler referred to the war in unique terms, calling it a war of annihilation which was both an ideological and racial war. In addition, the Nazis also sought to wipe out the large Jewish population of Central, after Germanys initial success at the Battle of Kiev in 1941, Hitler saw the Soviet Union as militarily weak and ripe for immediate conquest. On 3 October 1941, he announced, We have only to kick in the door, thus, Germany expected another short Blitzkrieg and made no serious preparations for prolonged warfare. Throughout the 1930s the Soviet Union underwent massive industrialization and economic growth under the leadership of Joseph Stalin, Stalins central tenet, Socialism in one country, manifested itself as a series of nationwide centralized Five-Year Plans from 1929 onwards. It served as a testing ground for both the Wehrmacht and the Red Army to experiment with equipment and tactics that they would later employ on a wider scale in the Second World War
33.
Starling
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Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Sturnidae. The name Sturnidae comes from the Latin word for starling, sturnus, many Asian species, particularly the larger ones, are called mynas, and many African species are known as glossy starlings because of their iridescent plumage. Starlings are native to Europe, Asia and Africa, as well as northern Australia, the starling species familiar to most people in Europe and North America is the common starling, and throughout much of Asia and the Pacific, the common myna is indeed common. Starlings have strong feet, their flight is strong and direct and their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit. Several species live around human habitation and are effectively omnivores, plumage of many species is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Most species nest in holes and lay blue or white eggs, starlings have diverse and complex vocalizations and have been known to embed sounds from their surroundings into their own calls, including car alarms and human speech patterns. The birds can recognize individuals by their calls and are currently the subject of research into the evolution of human language. The shortest-bodied species is Kenricks starling, at 15 centimetres, but the species is Abbotts starling. The largest starling, going on standard measurements and perhaps weight, is the Nias hill myna and this species can measure up to 36 cm and, in domestication they can weigh up to 400 g. Rivalling the prior species in bulk if not dimensions, the mynas of the genus Mino are also large, especially the yellow-faced and long-tailed mynas. The longest species in the family is the white-necked myna, which can measure up to 50 cm, there is less sexual dimorphism in plumage, however, with only 25 species showing such differences between the two sexes. The plumage of the starling is often brightly coloured due to iridescence, some species of Asian starling have crests or erectile feathers on the crest. Other ornamentation includes elongated tail feathers and brightly coloured bare areas on the face and these colours can be derived from pigments, or, as in the Bali starling, structural colour, caused by light scattering off parallel collagen fibres. The irises of many species are red and yellow, although those of birds are much darker. Starlings inhabit a range of habitats from the Arctic Circle to the Equator. In fact the only habitat they do not typically occupy is the driest sandy deserts, the family is naturally absent from the Americas and from large parts of Australia but is present over the majority of Europe, Africa and Asia. The genus Aplonis has also spread widely across the islands of the Pacific reaching Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia and it is also a species of this genus that is the only starling found in northern Australia. Asian species are most common in forests,39 species found in Asia are predominantly forest birds as opposed to 24 found in more open or human modified environments
34.
Max Planck Society
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The society is funded by the federal and state governments of Germany as well as other sources. According to its goal, the Max Planck Society supports fundamental research in the natural, life and social sciences. The society has a staff of approximately 17,000 permanent employees, including 5,470 scientists. Society budget for 2015 was about €1.7 billion, the Max Planck Institutes focus on excellence in research. In 2013, the Nature Publishing Index placed the Max Planck institutes fifth worldwide in terms of published in Nature journals. In terms of total volume, the Max Planck Society is only outranked by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The Max Planck Society and its predecessor Kaiser Wilhelm Society hosted several renowned scientists in their fields, including such as Otto Hahn, Werner Heisenberg. The organization was established in 1911 as the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, or Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, the KWG was one of the worlds leading research organisations, its board of directors included scientists like Walther Bothe, Peter Debye, Albert Einstein, and Fritz Haber. In 1946, Otto Hahn assumed the position of President of KWG, and in 1948, the society was renamed the Max Planck Society after its former President Max Planck, the Max Planck Society has a world-leading reputation as a science and technology research organization. The domain mpg. de attracted at least 1.7 million visitors annually by 2008 according to a Compete. com study. Since 2004, the Max Planck Research Award is conferred annually to two internationally renowned scientists, one of works in Germany and one in another country. Calls for nominations for the award are invited on a rotating basis in specific sub-areas of the natural sciences and engineering, the life sciences. Adolf von Harnack Max Planck Carl Bosch Albert Vögler Max Planck Otto Hahn Adolf Butenandt Reimar Lüst Heinz Staab Hans F, the society has its registered seat in Berlin, while the administrative headquarters are located in Munich. In 2002 the cell biologist Peter Gruss became the MPG president, funding is provided predominantly from federal and state sources, but also from research and licence fees and donations. One of the donations was the castle Schloss Ringberg near Kreuth in Bavaria. It passed to the Society after the duke died in 1973, the Max Planck Society consists of over 80 research institutes. In addition, the society funds a number of Max Planck Research Groups, the purpose of establishing independent research groups at various universities is to strengthen the required networking between universities and institutes of the Max Planck Society. The research units are located across Europe, in 2007 the Society established its first non-European centre, with an institute on the Jupiter campus of Florida Atlantic University focusing on neuroscience
35.
Buldern
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Dülmen is a town in the district of Coesfeld, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Dülmen is situated in the part of the Münsterland area. South of Dülmen the Ruhr area is located, Merfeld was first mentioned in 890. It became a part of Dülmen in 1975 and it is known for its herd of Dülmen Ponies. Rorup was first mentioned in 1050 and became a district of Dülmen in 1975, the place was first mentioned as Dulmenni in 889, as a property of Werden Abbey. Dülmen received town privileges in 1311 and it joined the Hanseatic League in 1470. It was part of the Prince-Bishopric of Münster until it was mediatised in 1803, after a short period in the hands of the House of Croÿ, it was taken by the French in 1811. After the defeat of Napoleon, it part of the Prussian Province of Westphalia. The Dülmen oil plant was a target of the Oil Campaign of World War II, 90% of the city was destroyed, in 1973, the population reached 20,000. In 1975, Rorup, Merfeld, Hiddingsel, Buldern, Hausdülmen, Dülmen can accessed by the A43. The nearest airports are the Münster-Osnabrück Airport in Greven and the Düsseldorf Airport
36.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
37.
Sir Julian Huxley
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Sir Julian Sorell Huxley FRS was a British evolutionary biologist, eugenicist, and internationalist. He was a proponent of natural selection, and a figure in the mid-twentieth century modern evolutionary synthesis. He was secretary of the Zoological Society of London, the first Director of UNESCO, a member of the World Wildlife Fund. Huxley was well known for his presentation of science in books and articles and he directed an Oscar-winning wildlife film. He was awarded UNESCOs Kalinga Prize for the popularisation of science in 1953, the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society in 1956, and the Darwin–Wallace Medal of the Linnaean Society in 1958. He was also knighted in that year,1958, a hundred years after Charles Darwin. In 1959 he received a Special Award of the Lasker Foundation in the category Planned Parenthood – World Population, Huxley was a prominent member of the British Eugenics Society and its president from 1959–1962. There is a house named after Sir Julian in Selsdon, Surrey. Huxley came from the distinguished Huxley family and his maternal grandfather was the academic Tom Arnold, his great-uncle was poet Matthew Arnold and his great-grandfather was Thomas Arnold of Rugby School. Huxley was born on 22 June 1887, at the London house of his aunt, Huxley grew up at the family home in Surrey, England, where he showed an early interest in nature, as he was given lessons by his grandfather, Thomas Henry Huxley. When he heard his grandfather talking at dinner about the lack of care in fish, Julian piped up with What about the stickleback. Also, according to Julian himself, his grandfather took him to visit J. D. Hooker at Kew, at Eton he developed an interest in ornithology, guided by science master W. D. Piggy Hill. Piggy was a genius as a teacher… I have always been grateful to him, in 1905 Huxley won a scholarship in Zoology to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1906, after a summer in Germany, Huxley took his place in Oxford, in the autumn term of his final year,1908, his mother died from cancer at only 46, a terrible blow for her husband, three sons, and eight-year-old daughter Margaret. That same year he won the Newdigate Prize for his poem Holyrood, in 1909 he graduated with first class honours, and spent that July at the international gathering for the centenary of Darwins birth, held at the University of Cambridge. Also, it was the anniversary of the publication of the Origin of species. Huxley was awarded a scholarship to spend a year at the Naples Marine Biological Station where he developed his interest in biology by investigating sea squirts. Bird watching in childhood had given Huxley his interest in ornithology and his particular interest was bird behaviour, especially the courtship of water birds
