1.
Lithography
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
2.
Ernst Haeckel
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The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures. As a philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote Die Welträtsel, the genesis for the term world riddle, Ernst Haeckel was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam. In 1852, Haeckel completed studies at the Domgymnasium, the high school of Merseburg. He then studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg, particularly with Albert von Kölliker, Franz Leydig, Rudolf Virchow, together with Hermann Steudner he attended botany lectures in Würzburg. In 1857, Haeckel attained a doctorate in medicine, and afterwards he received a license to practice medicine, the occupation of physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel, after contact with suffering patients. Between 1859 and 1866, Haeckel worked on many phyla such radiolarians, poriferans, during a trip to the Mediterranean, Haeckel named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians. In 1867, he married Agnes Huschke and their son Walter was born in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873. In 1869, he traveled as a researcher to Norway, in 1871 to Croatia, and in 1873 to Egypt, Turkey, Haeckel retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he withdrew from the Evangelical church. Haeckels wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and Haeckel became substantially frailer, with a broken leg and he sold his Villa Medusa in Jena in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation, and it presently contains a historic library. Haeckel died on 9 August 1919, Haeckels political beliefs were influenced by his affinity for the German Romantic movement coupled with his acceptance of a form of Lamarckism. Rather than being a strict Darwinian, Haeckel believed that the characteristics of an organism were acquired through interactions with the environment and he believed the social sciences to be instances of applied biology, and that phrase was picked up and used for Nazi propaganda. In 1905, Haeckel founded a group called the Monist League to promote his religious and this group lasted until 1933 and included such notable members as Wilhelm Ostwald, Georg von Arco, Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur Berendsohn. Haeckel was the first person known to use the term First World War. Shortly after the start of the war Haeckel wrote, There is no doubt that the course, Haeckel was a zoologist, an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a professor of comparative anatomy. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never been found and he was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology. He also proposed the kingdom Protista in 1866 and his chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated Kunstformen der Natur. Haeckel did not support natural selection, rather believing in Lamarckism and it proposed a link between ontogeny and phylogeny, summed up by Haeckel in the phrase ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. His concept of recapitulation has been refuted in the form he gave it, the strong recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of the ancestors, while weak recapitulation means that what is repeated is the ancestral embryonic development process
3.
Engraving
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Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it. Wood engraving is a form of printing and is not covered in this article. Engraving was an important method of producing images on paper in artistic printmaking, in mapmaking. Other terms often used for printed engravings are copper engraving, copper-plate engraving or line engraving, hand engraving is a term sometimes used for engraving objects other than printing plates, to inscribe or decorate jewellery, firearms, trophies, knives and other fine metal goods. Traditional engravings in printmaking are also engraved, using just the same techniques to make the lines in the plate. Each graver is different and has its own use, engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin, or graver, to cut the design into the surface, most traditionally a copper plate. Modern professional engravers can engrave with a resolution of up to 40 lines per mm in high grade work creating game scenes, dies used in mass production of molded parts are sometimes hand engraved to add special touches or certain information such as part numbers. In addition to engraving, there are engraving machines that require less human finesse and are not directly controlled by hand. They are usually used for lettering, using a pantographic system, there are versions for the insides of rings and also the outsides of larger pieces. Such machines are used for inscriptions on rings, lockets. Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types, the burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges. The angle tint tool has a curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines incised into them, ring gravers are made with particular shapes that are used by jewelry engravers in order to cut inscriptions inside rings. Flat gravers are used for work on letters, as well as wriggle cuts on most musical instrument engraving work, remove background. Knife gravers are for line engraving and very deep cuts, round gravers, and flat gravers with a radius, are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts, as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel. Square or V-point gravers are typically square or elongated diamond-shaped and used for cutting straight lines, V-point can be anywhere from 60 to 130 degrees, depending on purpose and effect. These gravers have very small cutting points, other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulets and burnishers are used for texturing effects. Burnishing tools can also be used for stone setting techniques
4.
Sketch (drawing)
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A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not usually intended as a finished work. Sketches can be made in any drawing medium, the term is most often applied to graphic work executed in a dry medium such as silverpoint, graphite, pencil, charcoal or pastel. But it may apply to drawings executed in pen and ink, ballpoint pen, water colour. The latter two are referred to as water colour sketches and oil sketches. A sculptor might model three-dimensional sketches in clay, plasticine or wax, sketching is generally a prescribed part of the studies of art students. This generally includes making sketches from a model whose pose changes every few minutes. Underdrawing is drawing underneath the work, which may sometimes still be visible. Most visual artists use, to a greater or lesser degree, the term sketchbook refers to a book of blank paper on which an artist can, drawn sketches. The book might be purchased bound or might comprise loose leaves of sketches assembled or bound together, the ability to quickly record impressions through sketching has found varied purposes in todays culture. Courtroom sketches record scenes and individuals in law courts, Sketches drawn to help authorities find or identify wanted people are called composite sketches. Street artists in popular tourist areas sketch portraits within minutes, doodle Multi-Sketch Etch A Sketch, a toy Urban Sketchers This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Media related to Sketches at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Ostraciidae
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Ostraciidae is a family of squared, bony fish belonging to the order Tetraodontiformes, closely related to the pufferfishes and filefishes. Fish in the family are known variously as boxfishes, cofferfishes, cowfishes and trunkfishes and it contains about 23 extant species in 6 extant genera. Members of this occur in a variety of different colors. They swim in a rowing manner and their hexagonal plate-like scales are fused together into a solid, triangular or box-like carapace, from which the fins, tail, eyes and mouth protrude. Because of these heavy armoured scales, Ostraciidae are limited to slow movements, ostraciid boxfish of the genus Lactophrys also secrete poisons from their skin into the surrounding water, further protecting them from predation. Although the adults are in general quite square in shape, young Ostraciidae are more rounded, the young often exhibit brighter colors than the adults. The scrawled cowfish, Acanthostracion quadricornis, can grow up to 50 centimetres in length, the various members of this family are able to secrete cationic surfactants through their skin which can act as a chemical defense mechanism. Pahutoxin is a choline ester of 3-acetoxypalmitic acid that behaves similarly to steroidal saponins found in echinoderms. When this toxic mucus is released from the fish, it dissolves in the environment
6.
Ammonoidea
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Ammonoids are an extinct group of marine mollusc animals in the subclass Ammonoidea of the class Cephalopoda. These molluscs are more related to living coleoids than they are to shelled nautiloids such as the living Nautilus species. The earliest ammonites appear during the Devonian, and the last species died out during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, Ammonites are excellent index fossils, and it is often possible to link the rock layer in which a particular species or genus is found to specific geologic time periods. Their fossil shells usually take the form of planispirals, although there were some helically spiraled and nonspiraled forms, the name ammonite, from which the scientific term is derived, was inspired by the spiral shape of their fossilized shells, which somewhat resemble tightly coiled rams horns. Pliny the Elder called fossils of these animals ammonis cornua because the Egyptian god Ammon was typically depicted wearing rams horns, often the name of an ammonite genus ends in -ceras, which is Greek for horn. The topology of the septa, especially around the rim, results in the various suture patterns found, three major types of suture patterns are found in the Ammonoidea, Goniatitic - numerous undivided lobes and saddles, typically 8 lobes around the conch. This pattern is characteristic of the Paleozoic ammonoids, ceratitic - lobes have subdivided tips, giving them a saw-toothed appearance, and rounded undivided saddles. This suture pattern is characteristic of Triassic ammonoids and appears again in the Cretaceous pseudoceratites, ammonitic - lobes and saddles are much subdivided, subdivisions are usually rounded instead of saw-toothed. Ammonoids of this type are the most important species from a point of view. This suture type is characteristic of Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonoids, the siphuncle in most ammonoids by far is a narrow tubular structure that runs along the outer rim, known as the venter, connecting the chambers of the phragmocone to the body or living chamber. This distinguishes them from living nautiloides and typical Nautilida, the word siphuncle comes from the New Latin siphunculus, meaning little siphon. Originating from within the bactritoid nautiloids, the ammonoid cephalopods first appeared in the Devonian, while nearly all nautiloids show gently curving sutures, the ammonoid suture line is variably folded, forming saddles and lobes. In subsequent taxonomies, these are regarded as orders within the subclass Ammonoidea. Because ammonites and their relatives are extinct, little is known about their way of life. Their soft body parts are rarely preserved in any detail. Nonetheless, much has been worked out by examining ammonoid shells, synchrotron analysis of an aptychophoran ammonite revealed remains of isopod and mollusc larvae in its buccal cavity, indicating at least this kind of ammonite fed on plankton. They may have avoided predation by squirting ink, much like modern cephalopods, the soft body of the creature occupied the largest segments of the shell at the end of the coil. The smaller earlier segments were walled off and the animal could maintain its buoyancy by filling them with gas, thus, the smaller sections of the coil would have floated above the larger sections
7.
Microscope
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A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy, microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, the most common is the optical microscope, which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes are the microscope, the ultramicroscope. The earliest microscopes were single lens magnifying glasses with limited magnification which date at least as far back as the wide use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century. Compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image, the actual inventor of the compound microscope is unknown although many claims have been made over the years. These include what may be a claim by the son of Zacharias Janssen that his father invented the microscope and telescope as early as 1590. Historians note the compound microscope did not appear in the Netherlands until the 1620s, giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1625. The first detailed account of the construction of living tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in Giambattista Odiernas Locchio della mosca. It was not until the 1660s and 1670s that the microscope was used extensively for research in Italy, marcello Malpighi in Italy began the analysis of biological structures, beginning with the lungs. Robert Hookes Micrographia had an impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. A significant contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a single lens microscope. He sandwiched a very small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with a needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van Leeuwenhoek re-discovered red blood cells and spermatozoa, on 9 October 1676, he reported the discovery of micro-organisms. The performance of light microscopy depends as much on how the sample is illuminated as on how it is observed, early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed, and until electric lamps were available as light sources. In 1893 August Köhler developed a key principle of sample illumination, Köhler illumination and this method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. In the early 20th century a significant alternative to light microscopy was developed, ernst Ruska started development of the first electron microscope in 1931 which was the transmission electron microscope. The transmission electron microscope works on the principle as an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light
8.
Cnidaria
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Cnidaria is a phylum containing over 9,000 species of animals found exclusively in aquatic environments, they are predominantly marine species. Their distinguishing feature is cnidocytes, specialized cells that use mainly for capturing prey. Their bodies consist of mesoglea, a non-living jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of epithelium that are one cell thick. They have two basic forms, swimming medusae and sessile polyps, both of which are radially symmetrical with mouths surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. Both forms have a single orifice and body cavity that are used for digestion and respiration, many cnidarian species produce colonies that are single organisms composed of medusa-like or polyp-like zooids, or both. Cnidarians activities are coordinated by a nerve net and simple receptors. Several free-swimming species of Cubozoa and Scyphozoa possess balance-sensing statocysts, not all cnidarians reproduce sexually, with many species having complex life cycles of asexual polyp stages and sexual medusae. Some, however, omit either the polyp or the medusa stage, Cnidarians were formerly grouped with ctenophores in the phylum Coelenterata, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Staurozoa have recently been recognised as a class in their own rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa. Most cnidarians prey on organisms ranging in size from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves, but many obtain much of their nutrition from dinoflagellates, many are preyed on by other animals including starfish, sea slugs, fish and turtles. Many scleractinian corals—which form the foundation for coral reefs—possess polyps that are filled with zooxanthellae. While reef-forming corals are almost entirely restricted to warm and shallow waters, other cnidarians can be found at great depths, in polar regions. Recent phylogenetic analyses support monophyly of cnidarians, as well as the position of cnidarians as the group of bilaterians. Cnidarians form a phylum that are more complex than sponges, about as complex as ctenophores, and less complex than bilaterians. Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having cnidocytes that fire like harpoons and are used mainly to capture prey, in some species, cnidocytes can also be used as anchors. Hence, cnidarians and ctenophores have traditionally been labelled diploblastic, along with sponges, however, both cnidarians and ctenophores have a type of muscle that, in more complex animals, arises from the middle cell layer. As a result, some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic, adult cnidarians appear as either swimming medusae or sessile polyps, and many hydrozoan species are known to alternate between the two forms. Both are radially symmetrical, like a wheel and a tube respectively, since these animals have no heads, their ends are described as oral and aboral
9.
Sea anemone
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Sea anemones are a group of water-dwelling, predatory animals of the order Actiniaria. They are named for the anemone, a terrestrial flower, sea anemones are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia. Anthozoa often have large polyps that allow for digestion of larger prey, as cnidarians, sea anemones are related to corals, jellyfish, tube-dwelling anemones, and Hydra. Many sea anemones form symbiotic relationships with single-celled dinoflagellates, zooxanthellae or with green algae, zoochlorellae, that live within their cells. A sea anemone is a sessile polyp attached at the bottom to the surface beneath it by a foot, called a basal disc. Most are from 1.8 to 3 cm in diameter and they can have from a few tens to a few hundred tentacles. A few species are pelagic and are not attached to the bottom, instead, they have a gas chamber within the pedal disc, allowing them to float upside down in the water. The mouth, also the anus of the sea anemone, is in the middle of the oral disc surrounded by tentacles armed with many cnidocytes, cnidocytes contain stinging nematocysts, capsule-like organelles capable of everting suddenly, giving the phylum Cnidaria its name. Each nematocyst contains a small venom vesicle filled with actinotoxins, a filament. This gives the anemone its characteristic sticky feeling, the sea anemone eats small fish and shrimp. The venom is a mix of toxins, including neurotoxins, that paralyzes the prey so the anemone can move it to the mouth for digestion inside the gastrovascular cavity, actinotoxins are highly toxic to prey species of fish and crustaceans. However, Amphiprioninae, small banded fish in various colors, are not affected by their host anemones sting, several other species have similar adaptions and are also unaffected. Most sea anemones are harmless to humans, but a few highly toxic species have caused injuries and are potentially lethal. A gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach and possesses an opening to the outside. Waste and undigested matter is excreted through this opening, which can be described as an incomplete gut, the mouth is typically slit-like in shape, and bears a groove at one or both ends. The groove, termed a siphonophore, is ciliated, and helps to circulate water through the gastrovascular cavity, some anemones feed on small particles, which are caught with the aid of a mucus secretion and moving currents that are set up by the tentacles. Most sea anemones are predacious, immobilizing their prey with the aid of their nematocysts, the mouth opens into a flattened pharynx. This consists of an in-folding of the wall, and is therefore lined by the animals epidermis
10.
Siphonophorae
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The Siphonophorae or Siphonophora, the siphonophores, are an order of the Hydrozoa, a class of marine animals belonging to the phylum Cnidaria. Although a siphonophore appears to be an organism, each specimen is actually a colony composed of highly specialised individual animals called zooids. Most colonies are long, thin, transparent pelagic floaters, some siphonophores superficially resemble jellyfish, one example being the venomous Portuguese man o war. Another species of siphonophore, Praya dubia, is one of the longest animals in the world, the term originates from the Greek siphōn tube + pherein to bear. Siphonophores are of scientific interest because they are composed of medusoid and polypoid zooids that are morphologically and functionally specialized. Each zooid is an organism, but its integration with others is so strong that the colony attains the function of a larger organism. Indeed, most of the zooids are so specialized, they lack the ability to survive on their own, like other hydrozoans, certain siphonophores can emit light. A siphonophore of the genus Erenna has been discovered at a depth of around 1,600 m off the coast of Monterey, the individuals from these colonies are strung together like a feather boa. They prey on small animals using stinging cells, among the stinging cells are stalks with red glowing ends. The tips twitch back and forth, creating a twinkling effect, twinkling red lights are thought to attract the small fish eaten by these siphonophores. While many sea animals produce blue and green bioluminescence, this siphonophore was only the second lifeform found to produce a red light, due to their highly specialized colonies, siphonophores have long misled scientists. They were for a time believed to be a highly distinct group. Consequently, they are now united with these in a subclass Leptolinae, the Siphonophorae have long fascinated scientists due to their dramatic appearance, as well as the large size and dangerous sting of several species. Ernst Haeckel described a number of siphonophores, and several plates from his Kunstformen der Natur depict members of the taxon, Mapstone, nautilus Live, Explore the ocean LIVE with Dr. Robert Ballard and the Corps of Exploration
11.
Jellyfish
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Jellyfish or jellies are softbodied, free-swimming aquatic animals with a gelatinous umbrella-shaped bell and trailing tentacles. The bell can pulsate to acquire propulsion and locomotion, the tentacles may be utilized to capture prey or defend against predators by emitting toxins in a painful sting. Jellyfish species are classified in the subphylum Medusozoa which makes up a part of the phylum Cnidaria. Jellyfish are found in ocean, from the surface to the deep sea. Scyphozoans are exclusively marine, but some live in freshwater. Large, often colorful, jellyfish are common in coastal zones worldwide, Jellyfish have roamed the seas for at least 500 million years, and possibly 700 million years or more, making them the oldest multi-organ animal. The popular English name jellyfish has been in use since 1796 and it has traditionally also been applied to other animals sharing a superficial resemblance, for example ctenophores were included as jellyfishes. Even some scientists include the phylum ctenophora when they are referring to jellyfish, other scientists prefer to use the more all-encompassing term gelatinous zooplankton, when referring to these, together with other soft-bodied animals in the water column. As jellyfish are not true fish, which are vertebrates, the jellyfish is considered by some to be a misnomer. Public aquaria often use the terms jellies or sea jellies instead, the term jellies may have become more popular than jellyfish. In scientific literature, jelly and jellyfish are often used interchangeably, some sources may use the term jelly to refer to organisms in this taxon, as jellyfish may be considered inappropriate. Many textbooks and sources refer to only scyphozoans as true jellyfish, a group of jellyfish is sometimes called a bloom or a swarm. Bloom is usually used for a group of jellyfish that gather in a small area. Another collective name for a group of jellyfish is a smack, using swarm usually implies some kind of active ability to stay together, which a few species such as Aurelia, the moon jelly, demonstrate. Medusa jellyfish may be classified as scyphomedusae, stauromedusae, cubomedusae, or hydromedusae, the term medusa was coined by Linnaeus in 1752, alluding to the tentacled head of Medusa in Greek mythology. This term refers exclusively to the non-polyp life-stage which occurs in many cnidarians, all medusa-producing species belong to the sub-phylum Medusozoa. In biology, a medusa is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shaped like an umbrella, medusae vary from bell-shaped to the shape of a thin disk, scarcely convex above and only slightly concave below. The digestive cavity consists of the cavity and radiating canals which extend toward the margin, these canals may be simple or branching
