1.
Lithography
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
2.
Halftone
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Halftone is the reprographic technique that simulates continuous tone imagery through the use of dots, varying either in size or in spacing, thus generating a gradient-like effect. Halftone can also be used to specifically to the image that is produced by this process. This reproduction relies on an optical illusion, the tiny halftone dots are blended into smooth tones by the human eye. At a microscopic level, developed black-and-white photographic film also consists of two colors, and not an infinite range of continuous tones. The semi-opaque property of ink allows halftone dots of different colors to create another optical effect—full-color imagery, william Fox Talbot is credited with the idea of halftone printing. In a 1852 patent he suggested using photographic screens or veils in connection with an intaglio process. Several different kinds of screens were proposed during the following decades, one of the well known attempts was by Stephen H. Horgan while working for the New York Daily Graphic. The first printed photograph was an image of Steinway Hall in Manhattan published on December 2,1873, the Graphic then published the first reproduction of a photograph with a full tonal range in a newspaper on March 4,1880 with a crude halftone screen. The first truly successful commercial method was patented by Frederic Ives of Philadelphia in 1881, although he found a way of breaking up the image into dots of varying sizes, he did not make use of a screen. In 1882, the German Georg Meisenbach patented a process in England. His invention was based on the ideas of Berchtold and Swan. He used single lined screens which were turned during exposure to produce cross-lined effects and he was the first to achieve any commercial success with relief halftones. Shortly afterwards, Ives, this time in collaboration with Louis and Max Levy, improved the process further with the invention, the relief halftone process proved almost immediately to be a success. The use of blocks in popular journals became regular during the early 1890s. The development of printing methods for lithography appears to have followed a largely independent path. In the 1860s, A. Hoen & Co. focused on methods allowing artists to manipulate the tones of hand-worked printing stones, by the 1880s, Hoen was working on halftone methods that could be used in conjunction with either hand-worked or photolithographic stones. The most common method of creating screens—amplitude modulation—produces a regular grid of dots that vary in size, the other method of creating screens—frequency modulation—is used in a process also known as stochastic screening. Both modulation methods are named by analogy with the use of the terms in telecommunications, the resolution of a halftone screen is measured in lines per inch
3.
Ernst Haeckel
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The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures. As a philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote Die Welträtsel, the genesis for the term world riddle, Ernst Haeckel was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam. In 1852, Haeckel completed studies at the Domgymnasium, the high school of Merseburg. He then studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg, particularly with Albert von Kölliker, Franz Leydig, Rudolf Virchow, together with Hermann Steudner he attended botany lectures in Würzburg. In 1857, Haeckel attained a doctorate in medicine, and afterwards he received a license to practice medicine, the occupation of physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel, after contact with suffering patients. Between 1859 and 1866, Haeckel worked on many phyla such radiolarians, poriferans, during a trip to the Mediterranean, Haeckel named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians. In 1867, he married Agnes Huschke and their son Walter was born in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873. In 1869, he traveled as a researcher to Norway, in 1871 to Croatia, and in 1873 to Egypt, Turkey, Haeckel retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he withdrew from the Evangelical church. Haeckels wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and Haeckel became substantially frailer, with a broken leg and he sold his Villa Medusa in Jena in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation, and it presently contains a historic library. Haeckel died on 9 August 1919, Haeckels political beliefs were influenced by his affinity for the German Romantic movement coupled with his acceptance of a form of Lamarckism. Rather than being a strict Darwinian, Haeckel believed that the characteristics of an organism were acquired through interactions with the environment and he believed the social sciences to be instances of applied biology, and that phrase was picked up and used for Nazi propaganda. In 1905, Haeckel founded a group called the Monist League to promote his religious and this group lasted until 1933 and included such notable members as Wilhelm Ostwald, Georg von Arco, Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur Berendsohn. Haeckel was the first person known to use the term First World War. Shortly after the start of the war Haeckel wrote, There is no doubt that the course, Haeckel was a zoologist, an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a professor of comparative anatomy. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never been found and he was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology. He also proposed the kingdom Protista in 1866 and his chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated Kunstformen der Natur. Haeckel did not support natural selection, rather believing in Lamarckism and it proposed a link between ontogeny and phylogeny, summed up by Haeckel in the phrase ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. His concept of recapitulation has been refuted in the form he gave it, the strong recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of the ancestors, while weak recapitulation means that what is repeated is the ancestral embryonic development process
4.
Engraving
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Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it. Wood engraving is a form of printing and is not covered in this article. Engraving was an important method of producing images on paper in artistic printmaking, in mapmaking. Other terms often used for printed engravings are copper engraving, copper-plate engraving or line engraving, hand engraving is a term sometimes used for engraving objects other than printing plates, to inscribe or decorate jewellery, firearms, trophies, knives and other fine metal goods. Traditional engravings in printmaking are also engraved, using just the same techniques to make the lines in the plate. Each graver is different and has its own use, engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin, or graver, to cut the design into the surface, most traditionally a copper plate. Modern professional engravers can engrave with a resolution of up to 40 lines per mm in high grade work creating game scenes, dies used in mass production of molded parts are sometimes hand engraved to add special touches or certain information such as part numbers. In addition to engraving, there are engraving machines that require less human finesse and are not directly controlled by hand. They are usually used for lettering, using a pantographic system, there are versions for the insides of rings and also the outsides of larger pieces. Such machines are used for inscriptions on rings, lockets. Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types, the burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges. The angle tint tool has a curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines incised into them, ring gravers are made with particular shapes that are used by jewelry engravers in order to cut inscriptions inside rings. Flat gravers are used for work on letters, as well as wriggle cuts on most musical instrument engraving work, remove background. Knife gravers are for line engraving and very deep cuts, round gravers, and flat gravers with a radius, are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts, as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel. Square or V-point gravers are typically square or elongated diamond-shaped and used for cutting straight lines, V-point can be anywhere from 60 to 130 degrees, depending on purpose and effect. These gravers have very small cutting points, other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulets and burnishers are used for texturing effects. Burnishing tools can also be used for stone setting techniques
5.
Sketch (drawing)
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A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not usually intended as a finished work. Sketches can be made in any drawing medium, the term is most often applied to graphic work executed in a dry medium such as silverpoint, graphite, pencil, charcoal or pastel. But it may apply to drawings executed in pen and ink, ballpoint pen, water colour. The latter two are referred to as water colour sketches and oil sketches. A sculptor might model three-dimensional sketches in clay, plasticine or wax, sketching is generally a prescribed part of the studies of art students. This generally includes making sketches from a model whose pose changes every few minutes. Underdrawing is drawing underneath the work, which may sometimes still be visible. Most visual artists use, to a greater or lesser degree, the term sketchbook refers to a book of blank paper on which an artist can, drawn sketches. The book might be purchased bound or might comprise loose leaves of sketches assembled or bound together, the ability to quickly record impressions through sketching has found varied purposes in todays culture. Courtroom sketches record scenes and individuals in law courts, Sketches drawn to help authorities find or identify wanted people are called composite sketches. Street artists in popular tourist areas sketch portraits within minutes, doodle Multi-Sketch Etch A Sketch, a toy Urban Sketchers This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Media related to Sketches at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Watercolor
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Watercolor or watercolour, also aquarelle, a diminutive of the Latin for water, is a painting method in which the paints are made of pigments suspended in a water-based solution. Watercolor refers to both the medium and the resulting artwork, the traditional and most common support—material to which the paint is applied—for watercolor paintings is paper. Other supports include papyrus, bark papers, plastics, vellum, leather, fabric, wood, Watercolor paper is often made entirely or partially with cotton, which gives a good texture and minimizes distortion when wet. Watercolors are usually translucent, and appear luminous because the pigments are laid down in a form with few fillers obscuring the pigment colors. Watercolors can also be made opaque by adding Chinese white, in East Asia, watercolor painting with inks is referred to as brush painting or scroll painting. In Chinese, Korean and Japanese painting it has been the dominant medium, india, Ethiopia and other countries have long watercolor painting traditions as well. Fingerpainting with watercolor paints originated in mainland China, however, its continuous history as an art medium begins with the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer, who painted several fine botanical, wildlife, an important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by Hans Bol as part of the Dürer Renaissance. Despite this early start, watercolors were used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or cartoons. Notable early practitioners of watercolor painting were Van Dyck, Claude Lorrain, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, however, botanical illustration and wildlife illustration perhaps form the oldest and most important traditions in watercolor painting. Botanical illustrations became popular during the Renaissance, both as hand-tinted woodblock illustrations in books or broadsheets and as tinted ink drawings on vellum or paper. Wildlife illustration reached its peak in the 19th century with such as John James Audubon. Several factors contributed to the spread of watercolor painting during the 18th century, Watercolor artists were commonly brought with the geological or archaeological expeditions, funded by the Society of Dilettanti, to document discoveries in the Mediterranean, Asia, and the New World. This example popularized watercolors as a form of personal tourist journal, the confluence of these cultural, engineering, scientific, tourist, and amateur interests culminated in the celebration and promotion of watercolor as a distinctly English national art. William Blake published several books of hand-tinted engraved poetry, provided illustrations to Dantes Inferno, from the late 18th century through the 19th century, the market for printed books and domestic art contributed substantially to the growth of the medium. Satirical broadsides by Thomas Rowlandson, many published by Rudolph Ackermann, were extremely popular. Among the important and highly talented contemporaries of Turner and Girtin, were John Varley, John Sell Cotman, Anthony Copley Fielding, Samuel Palmer, William Havell, the Swiss painter Louis Ducros was also widely known for his large format, romantic paintings in watercolor. These societies provided annual exhibitions and buyer referrals for many artists, in particular, the graceful, lapidary, and atmospheric watercolors by Richard Parkes Bonington created an international fad for watercolor painting, especially in England and France in the 1820s
7.
Symmetry in biology
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Symmetry in biology is the balanced distribution of duplicate body parts or shapes within the body of an organism. In nature and biology, symmetry is always approximate, for example plant leaves, while considered symmetrical, symmetry creates a class of patterns in nature, where the near-repetition of the pattern element is by reflection or rotation. The body plans of most multicellular organisms exhibit some form of symmetry, whether radial, bilateral, a small minority, notably among the sponges, exhibit no symmetry. Radially symmetric organisms resemble a pie where several cutting planes produce roughly identical pieces, such an organism exhibits no left or right sides. They have a top and a surface only. Most radially symmetric animals are symmetrical about an axis extending from the center of the oral surface, radial symmetry is especially suitable for sessile animals such as the sea anemone, floating animals such as jellyfish, and slow moving organisms such as starfish. Animals in the phyla cnidaria and echinodermata are radially symmetric, although many sea anemones and some corals have bilateral symmetry defined by a single structure, many flowers are radially symmetric or actinomorphic. Roughly identical flower parts – petals, sepals, and stamens occur at intervals around the axis of the flower. Many viruses have radial symmetries, their coats being composed of a small number of protein molecules arranged in a regular pattern to form polyhedrons, spheres. Tetramerism is a variant of radial symmetry found in jellyfish, which have four canals in an otherwise radial body plan, pentamerism, another variant of radial symmetry, means the organism is in five parts around a central axis, 72° apart. Among animals, only the echinoderms such as sea stars, sea urchins, being bilaterian animals, however, they initially develop with mirror symmetry as larvae, then gain pentaradial symmetry later. Flowering plants show fivefold symmetry in many flowers and in various fruits and this is well seen in the arrangement of the five carpels in an apple cut transversely. Hexamerism is found in the corals and sea anemones which are divided into two based on their symmetry. The most common corals in the subclass Hexacorallia have a body plan, their polyps have sixfold internal symmetry. Octamerism is found in corals of the subclass Octocorallia and these have polyps with eight tentacles and octameric radial symmetry. The octopus, however, has symmetry, despite its eight arms. Spherical symmetry occurs in an if it is able to be cut into two identical halves through any cut that runs through the organisms center. Organisms which show approximate spherical symmetry include the green alga Volvox
8.
Evolution of biological complexity
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The evolution of biological complexity is one important outcome of the process of evolution. Some used to believe that evolution was progressive and had a direction that led towards so-called higher organisms, nonetheless, the Last Universal Common Ancestor is the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth. LUCA should not be assumed to be the first living organism on Earth, the LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago. The composition of the LUCA is not directly accessible as a fossil, by this means, a 2016 study identified a set of 355 genes inferred to have been present in the LUCA. Usually organisms that reproduce more quickly and plentifully than their competitors have an evolutionary advantage, consequently, organisms can evolve to become simpler and thus multiply faster and produce more offspring, as they require fewer resources to reproduce. A lineage can also dispense with complexity when a particular complex trait merely provides no advantage in a particular environment. Loss of this trait need not necessarily confer a selective advantage, for example, a parasitic organism may dispense with the synthetic pathway of a metabolite where it can readily scavenge that metabolite from its host. Mutations causing loss of a complex trait occur more often than mutations causing gain of a complex trait, with selection, evolution can also produce more complex organisms. This tremendous complexity allows the parasite to constantly change its surface and this trend may be reinforced by the fact that ecosystems themselves tend to become more complex over time, as species diversity increases, together with the linkages or dependencies between species. If evolution possessed an active trend toward complexity, then we would expect to see an increase over time in the most common value of complexity among organisms, indeed, some computer models have suggested that the generation of complex organisms is an inescapable feature of evolution. This is sometimes referred to as evolutionary self-organization, self-organization is the spontaneous internal organization of a system. This process is accompanied by an increase in complexity, resulting in an emergent property that is distinctly different from any of the constituent parts. However, the idea of increasing production of complexity in evolution can also be explained through a passive process, assuming unbiased random changes of complexity and the existence of a minimum complexity leads to an increase over time of the average complexity of the biosphere. As shown on the left, this involves an increase in variance, the trend towards higher complexity over time exists, but also involves increasingly smaller portions of biological life. Consequently, in view, microscopic life dominates Earth. In the 19th century, some such as Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. This belief may reflect then-current ideas of Hegel and of Herbert Spencer which envisaged the universe gradually evolving to a higher and this view regarded the evolution of parasites from independent organisms to a parasitic species as devolution or degeneration, and contrary to nature. Social theorists and propagandists have sometimes interpreted this approach metaphorically to decry certain categories of people as degenerate parasites, later scientists regard biological devolution as nonsense, rather, lineages will become simpler or more complicated according to whatever forms have a selective advantage
9.
Ostraciidae
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Ostraciidae is a family of squared, bony fish belonging to the order Tetraodontiformes, closely related to the pufferfishes and filefishes. Fish in the family are known variously as boxfishes, cofferfishes, cowfishes and trunkfishes and it contains about 23 extant species in 6 extant genera. Members of this occur in a variety of different colors. They swim in a rowing manner and their hexagonal plate-like scales are fused together into a solid, triangular or box-like carapace, from which the fins, tail, eyes and mouth protrude. Because of these heavy armoured scales, Ostraciidae are limited to slow movements, ostraciid boxfish of the genus Lactophrys also secrete poisons from their skin into the surrounding water, further protecting them from predation. Although the adults are in general quite square in shape, young Ostraciidae are more rounded, the young often exhibit brighter colors than the adults. The scrawled cowfish, Acanthostracion quadricornis, can grow up to 50 centimetres in length, the various members of this family are able to secrete cationic surfactants through their skin which can act as a chemical defense mechanism. Pahutoxin is a choline ester of 3-acetoxypalmitic acid that behaves similarly to steroidal saponins found in echinoderms. When this toxic mucus is released from the fish, it dissolves in the environment
10.
Ammonoidea
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Ammonoids are an extinct group of marine mollusc animals in the subclass Ammonoidea of the class Cephalopoda. These molluscs are more related to living coleoids than they are to shelled nautiloids such as the living Nautilus species. The earliest ammonites appear during the Devonian, and the last species died out during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, Ammonites are excellent index fossils, and it is often possible to link the rock layer in which a particular species or genus is found to specific geologic time periods. Their fossil shells usually take the form of planispirals, although there were some helically spiraled and nonspiraled forms, the name ammonite, from which the scientific term is derived, was inspired by the spiral shape of their fossilized shells, which somewhat resemble tightly coiled rams horns. Pliny the Elder called fossils of these animals ammonis cornua because the Egyptian god Ammon was typically depicted wearing rams horns, often the name of an ammonite genus ends in -ceras, which is Greek for horn. The topology of the septa, especially around the rim, results in the various suture patterns found, three major types of suture patterns are found in the Ammonoidea, Goniatitic - numerous undivided lobes and saddles, typically 8 lobes around the conch. This pattern is characteristic of the Paleozoic ammonoids, ceratitic - lobes have subdivided tips, giving them a saw-toothed appearance, and rounded undivided saddles. This suture pattern is characteristic of Triassic ammonoids and appears again in the Cretaceous pseudoceratites, ammonitic - lobes and saddles are much subdivided, subdivisions are usually rounded instead of saw-toothed. Ammonoids of this type are the most important species from a point of view. This suture type is characteristic of Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonoids, the siphuncle in most ammonoids by far is a narrow tubular structure that runs along the outer rim, known as the venter, connecting the chambers of the phragmocone to the body or living chamber. This distinguishes them from living nautiloides and typical Nautilida, the word siphuncle comes from the New Latin siphunculus, meaning little siphon. Originating from within the bactritoid nautiloids, the ammonoid cephalopods first appeared in the Devonian, while nearly all nautiloids show gently curving sutures, the ammonoid suture line is variably folded, forming saddles and lobes. In subsequent taxonomies, these are regarded as orders within the subclass Ammonoidea. Because ammonites and their relatives are extinct, little is known about their way of life. Their soft body parts are rarely preserved in any detail. Nonetheless, much has been worked out by examining ammonoid shells, synchrotron analysis of an aptychophoran ammonite revealed remains of isopod and mollusc larvae in its buccal cavity, indicating at least this kind of ammonite fed on plankton. They may have avoided predation by squirting ink, much like modern cephalopods, the soft body of the creature occupied the largest segments of the shell at the end of the coil. The smaller earlier segments were walled off and the animal could maintain its buoyancy by filling them with gas, thus, the smaller sections of the coil would have floated above the larger sections
11.
Radiolaria
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They are found as zooplankton throughout the ocean, and their skeletal remains make up a large part of the cover of the ocean floor as siliceous ooze. Due to their rapid turn-over of species, they represent an important diagnostic fossil found from the Cambrian onwards, some common radiolarian fossils include Actinomma, Heliosphaera and Hexadoridium. Radiolarians have many needle-like pseudopodia supported by bundles of microtubules, which aid in the radiolarians buoyancy, the cell nucleus and most other organelles are in the endoplasm, while the ectoplasm is filled with frothy vacuoles and lipid droplets, keeping them buoyant. The radiolarian can often contain symbiotic algae, especially zooxanthellae, which provide most of the cells energy, some of this organization is found among the heliozoa, but those lack central capsules and only produce simple scales and spines. Some radiolarians are known for their resemblance to regular polyhedra, such as the icosahedron-shaped Circogonia icosahedra pictured to the left, the radiolarians belong to the supergroup Rhizaria together with Cercozoa and Foraminifera. Traditionally the radiolarians have been divided into four groups—Acantharea, Nassellaria, Spumellaria and Phaeodaria, Phaeodaria is however now considered to be a Cercozoan. Nassellaria and Spumellaria both produce siliceous skeletons and were grouped together in the group Polycystina. Despite some initial suggestions to the contrary, this is supported by molecular phylogenies. The Acantharea produce skeletons of strontium sulfate and is related to a peculiar genus, Sticholonche. The Radiolaria can therefore be divided into two lineages, Polycystina and Spasmaria. There are several groups that have been detected in molecular analyses of environmental data. Particularly, groups related to Acantharia and Spumellaria and these groups are so far completely unknown in terms of morphology and physiology and the radiolarian diversity is therefore likely to be much higher than what is currently known. The relationship between the Foraminifera and Radiolaria is also debated, molecular trees supports their close relationship—a grouping termed Retaria. But whether they are sister lineages or if the Foraminifera should be included within the Radiolaria is not known. The earliest known radiolaria date to the start of the Cambrian period. They have significant differences from later radiolaria, with a different silica lattice structure and few, if any, ninety percent of radiolarian species are extinct. The skeletons, or tests, of ancient radiolarians are used in dating, including for oil exploration and determination of ancient climates. This is linked to periods of heightened volcanic activity, proteus, A Nineteenth Century Vision, written and directed by David Lebrun, is an animated documentary focusing on Radiolaria, making extensive use of Haeckels drawings
12.
Microscope
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A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy, microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, the most common is the optical microscope, which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes are the microscope, the ultramicroscope. The earliest microscopes were single lens magnifying glasses with limited magnification which date at least as far back as the wide use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century. Compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image, the actual inventor of the compound microscope is unknown although many claims have been made over the years. These include what may be a claim by the son of Zacharias Janssen that his father invented the microscope and telescope as early as 1590. Historians note the compound microscope did not appear in the Netherlands until the 1620s, giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1625. The first detailed account of the construction of living tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in Giambattista Odiernas Locchio della mosca. It was not until the 1660s and 1670s that the microscope was used extensively for research in Italy, marcello Malpighi in Italy began the analysis of biological structures, beginning with the lungs. Robert Hookes Micrographia had an impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. A significant contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a single lens microscope. He sandwiched a very small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with a needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van Leeuwenhoek re-discovered red blood cells and spermatozoa, on 9 October 1676, he reported the discovery of micro-organisms. The performance of light microscopy depends as much on how the sample is illuminated as on how it is observed, early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed, and until electric lamps were available as light sources. In 1893 August Köhler developed a key principle of sample illumination, Köhler illumination and this method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. In the early 20th century a significant alternative to light microscopy was developed, ernst Ruska started development of the first electron microscope in 1931 which was the transmission electron microscope. The transmission electron microscope works on the principle as an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light
13.
Cnidaria
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Cnidaria is a phylum containing over 9,000 species of animals found exclusively in aquatic environments, they are predominantly marine species. Their distinguishing feature is cnidocytes, specialized cells that use mainly for capturing prey. Their bodies consist of mesoglea, a non-living jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of epithelium that are one cell thick. They have two basic forms, swimming medusae and sessile polyps, both of which are radially symmetrical with mouths surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. Both forms have a single orifice and body cavity that are used for digestion and respiration, many cnidarian species produce colonies that are single organisms composed of medusa-like or polyp-like zooids, or both. Cnidarians activities are coordinated by a nerve net and simple receptors. Several free-swimming species of Cubozoa and Scyphozoa possess balance-sensing statocysts, not all cnidarians reproduce sexually, with many species having complex life cycles of asexual polyp stages and sexual medusae. Some, however, omit either the polyp or the medusa stage, Cnidarians were formerly grouped with ctenophores in the phylum Coelenterata, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Staurozoa have recently been recognised as a class in their own rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa. Most cnidarians prey on organisms ranging in size from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves, but many obtain much of their nutrition from dinoflagellates, many are preyed on by other animals including starfish, sea slugs, fish and turtles. Many scleractinian corals—which form the foundation for coral reefs—possess polyps that are filled with zooxanthellae. While reef-forming corals are almost entirely restricted to warm and shallow waters, other cnidarians can be found at great depths, in polar regions. Recent phylogenetic analyses support monophyly of cnidarians, as well as the position of cnidarians as the group of bilaterians. Cnidarians form a phylum that are more complex than sponges, about as complex as ctenophores, and less complex than bilaterians. Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having cnidocytes that fire like harpoons and are used mainly to capture prey, in some species, cnidocytes can also be used as anchors. Hence, cnidarians and ctenophores have traditionally been labelled diploblastic, along with sponges, however, both cnidarians and ctenophores have a type of muscle that, in more complex animals, arises from the middle cell layer. As a result, some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic, adult cnidarians appear as either swimming medusae or sessile polyps, and many hydrozoan species are known to alternate between the two forms. Both are radially symmetrical, like a wheel and a tube respectively, since these animals have no heads, their ends are described as oral and aboral
14.
Sea anemone
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Sea anemones are a group of water-dwelling, predatory animals of the order Actiniaria. They are named for the anemone, a terrestrial flower, sea anemones are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia. Anthozoa often have large polyps that allow for digestion of larger prey, as cnidarians, sea anemones are related to corals, jellyfish, tube-dwelling anemones, and Hydra. Many sea anemones form symbiotic relationships with single-celled dinoflagellates, zooxanthellae or with green algae, zoochlorellae, that live within their cells. A sea anemone is a sessile polyp attached at the bottom to the surface beneath it by a foot, called a basal disc. Most are from 1.8 to 3 cm in diameter and they can have from a few tens to a few hundred tentacles. A few species are pelagic and are not attached to the bottom, instead, they have a gas chamber within the pedal disc, allowing them to float upside down in the water. The mouth, also the anus of the sea anemone, is in the middle of the oral disc surrounded by tentacles armed with many cnidocytes, cnidocytes contain stinging nematocysts, capsule-like organelles capable of everting suddenly, giving the phylum Cnidaria its name. Each nematocyst contains a small venom vesicle filled with actinotoxins, a filament. This gives the anemone its characteristic sticky feeling, the sea anemone eats small fish and shrimp. The venom is a mix of toxins, including neurotoxins, that paralyzes the prey so the anemone can move it to the mouth for digestion inside the gastrovascular cavity, actinotoxins are highly toxic to prey species of fish and crustaceans. However, Amphiprioninae, small banded fish in various colors, are not affected by their host anemones sting, several other species have similar adaptions and are also unaffected. Most sea anemones are harmless to humans, but a few highly toxic species have caused injuries and are potentially lethal. A gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach and possesses an opening to the outside. Waste and undigested matter is excreted through this opening, which can be described as an incomplete gut, the mouth is typically slit-like in shape, and bears a groove at one or both ends. The groove, termed a siphonophore, is ciliated, and helps to circulate water through the gastrovascular cavity, some anemones feed on small particles, which are caught with the aid of a mucus secretion and moving currents that are set up by the tentacles. Most sea anemones are predacious, immobilizing their prey with the aid of their nematocysts, the mouth opens into a flattened pharynx. This consists of an in-folding of the wall, and is therefore lined by the animals epidermis
15.
Siphonophorae
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The Siphonophorae or Siphonophora, the siphonophores, are an order of the Hydrozoa, a class of marine animals belonging to the phylum Cnidaria. Although a siphonophore appears to be an organism, each specimen is actually a colony composed of highly specialised individual animals called zooids. Most colonies are long, thin, transparent pelagic floaters, some siphonophores superficially resemble jellyfish, one example being the venomous Portuguese man o war. Another species of siphonophore, Praya dubia, is one of the longest animals in the world, the term originates from the Greek siphōn tube + pherein to bear. Siphonophores are of scientific interest because they are composed of medusoid and polypoid zooids that are morphologically and functionally specialized. Each zooid is an organism, but its integration with others is so strong that the colony attains the function of a larger organism. Indeed, most of the zooids are so specialized, they lack the ability to survive on their own, like other hydrozoans, certain siphonophores can emit light. A siphonophore of the genus Erenna has been discovered at a depth of around 1,600 m off the coast of Monterey, the individuals from these colonies are strung together like a feather boa. They prey on small animals using stinging cells, among the stinging cells are stalks with red glowing ends. The tips twitch back and forth, creating a twinkling effect, twinkling red lights are thought to attract the small fish eaten by these siphonophores. While many sea animals produce blue and green bioluminescence, this siphonophore was only the second lifeform found to produce a red light, due to their highly specialized colonies, siphonophores have long misled scientists. They were for a time believed to be a highly distinct group. Consequently, they are now united with these in a subclass Leptolinae, the Siphonophorae have long fascinated scientists due to their dramatic appearance, as well as the large size and dangerous sting of several species. Ernst Haeckel described a number of siphonophores, and several plates from his Kunstformen der Natur depict members of the taxon, Mapstone, nautilus Live, Explore the ocean LIVE with Dr. Robert Ballard and the Corps of Exploration
16.
Semaeostomeae
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The Semaeostomeae are an order of large jellyfish characterized by four long, frilly oral arms flanking their quadrate mouths. The umbrella is domed with scalloped margins, and the system consists of four unbranched pouches radiating outwards from the central stomach. They usually possess eight tentacles, four are per-radical and four are inter-radical, the order consists of five families. Three genera are in this family, ruppert, Edward E. and Fox, Richard S. Seashore Animals of the Southeast, University of South Carolina Press,273. Hayward, Peter J. and Ryland, John S. Handbook of the Marine Fauna of North-West Europe, new family of allomorphic jellyfishes, Drymonematidae, emphasizes evolution in the functional morphology and trophic ecology of gelatinous zooplankton
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Jellyfish
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Jellyfish or jellies are softbodied, free-swimming aquatic animals with a gelatinous umbrella-shaped bell and trailing tentacles. The bell can pulsate to acquire propulsion and locomotion, the tentacles may be utilized to capture prey or defend against predators by emitting toxins in a painful sting. Jellyfish species are classified in the subphylum Medusozoa which makes up a part of the phylum Cnidaria. Jellyfish are found in ocean, from the surface to the deep sea. Scyphozoans are exclusively marine, but some live in freshwater. Large, often colorful, jellyfish are common in coastal zones worldwide, Jellyfish have roamed the seas for at least 500 million years, and possibly 700 million years or more, making them the oldest multi-organ animal. The popular English name jellyfish has been in use since 1796 and it has traditionally also been applied to other animals sharing a superficial resemblance, for example ctenophores were included as jellyfishes. Even some scientists include the phylum ctenophora when they are referring to jellyfish, other scientists prefer to use the more all-encompassing term gelatinous zooplankton, when referring to these, together with other soft-bodied animals in the water column. As jellyfish are not true fish, which are vertebrates, the jellyfish is considered by some to be a misnomer. Public aquaria often use the terms jellies or sea jellies instead, the term jellies may have become more popular than jellyfish. In scientific literature, jelly and jellyfish are often used interchangeably, some sources may use the term jelly to refer to organisms in this taxon, as jellyfish may be considered inappropriate. Many textbooks and sources refer to only scyphozoans as true jellyfish, a group of jellyfish is sometimes called a bloom or a swarm. Bloom is usually used for a group of jellyfish that gather in a small area. Another collective name for a group of jellyfish is a smack, using swarm usually implies some kind of active ability to stay together, which a few species such as Aurelia, the moon jelly, demonstrate. Medusa jellyfish may be classified as scyphomedusae, stauromedusae, cubomedusae, or hydromedusae, the term medusa was coined by Linnaeus in 1752, alluding to the tentacled head of Medusa in Greek mythology. This term refers exclusively to the non-polyp life-stage which occurs in many cnidarians, all medusa-producing species belong to the sub-phylum Medusozoa. In biology, a medusa is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shaped like an umbrella, medusae vary from bell-shaped to the shape of a thin disk, scarcely convex above and only slightly concave below. The digestive cavity consists of the cavity and radiating canals which extend toward the margin, these canals may be simple or branching
18.
Cyanea (jellyfish)
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Cyanea is a cosmopolitan genus of stinging jellyfish, primarily found in northern waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The same genus name has given to a genus of plants of the Hawaiian lobelioids. The taxonomy of Cyanea species is not fully agreed upon, some zoologists have suggested that all species within the genus should be treated as one. However, in the North Sea at least, the lions mane jellyfish, Cyanea may be a species complex of recently diverged species
19.
Art Nouveau
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Art Nouveau is an international style of art, architecture and applied art, especially the decorative arts, that was most popular between 1890 and 1910. A reaction to the art of the 19th century, it was inspired by natural forms and structures, particularly the curved lines of plants. English uses the French name Art Nouveau, according to the philosophy of the style, art should be a way of life. For many well-off Europeans, it was possible to live in an art nouveau-inspired house with art nouveau furniture, silverware, fabrics, ceramics including tableware, jewellery, cigarette cases, artists desired to combine the fine arts and applied arts, even for utilitarian objects. By 1910, Art Nouveau was already out of style and it was replaced as the dominant European architectural and decorative style first by Art Deco and then by Modernism. Art Nouveau took its name from the Maison de lArt Nouveau, in France, Art Nouveau was also sometimes called by the British term Modern Style due to its roots in the Arts and Crafts Movement, Style moderne, or Style 1900. It was also sometimes called Style Jules Verne, Le Style Métro, Art Belle Époque, in Belgium, where the architectural movement began, it was sometimes termed Style nouille or Style coup de fouet. In Britain, it was known as the Modern Style, or, because of the arts and crafts movement led by Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, as the Glasgow style. In Italy, because of the popularity in Italy of designs from Londons Liberty & Co department store, in the United States, due to its association with Louis Comfort Tiffany, it was often called the Tiffany style. In Germany and Scandinavia, a style emerged at about the same time, it was called Jugendstil. In Catalonia the related style was known as Modernisme, in Spain as Modernismo, Arte joven, in Russia, it was called Modern, and Jugendstil, and Nieuwe Kunst in the Netherlands. Some names refer specifically to the forms that were popular with the Art Nouveau artists, Stile Floreal in France, Paling Stijl in the Netherlands. The new art movement had its roots in Britain, in the designs of William Morris. Early prototypes of the include the Red House of Morris. In France, the style combined several different tendencies, in architecture, it was influenced by the architectural theorist and historian Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, a declared enemy of the historical Beaux-Arts architectural style. For each function its material, for each material its form and this book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, and Antoni Gaudí. The French painters Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard and Édouard Vuillard played an important part in integrating fine arts painting with decoration, I believe that before everything a painting must decorate, Denis wrote in 1891. The choice of subjects or scenes is nothing and it is by the value of tones, the colored surface and the harmony of lines that I can reach the spirit and wake up the emotions
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Karl Blossfeldt
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Karl Blossfeldt was a German photographer, sculptor, teacher, and artist who worked in Berlin, Germany. He is best known for his photographs of plants and living things, published in 1929 as. He was inspired, as was his father, by nature and he believed that the plant must be valued as a totally artistic and architectural structure. Among his students at the Berlin Arts and Crafts School was Heinz Warneke, from 1924, he was professor at the Vereinigte Staatsschulen für freie und angewandete Kunst in Berlin, Germany. Blossfeldt made many of his photographs with a camera that could magnify the subject up to thirty times its size. Appointed for a teaching post at the Institute of Royal Arts Museum in 1898, Blossfeldt never received formal training in photography. Blossfeldt developed a series of cameras that allowed him to photograph plant surfaces in unprecedented magnified detail. This reflected his enduring interest in the patterns found in natures textures. His contemporaries were impressed by the shapes and structures in nature that he revealed. He compared him to Maholy-Nagy and the pioneers of New Objectivity, the Surrealists also championed him, and George Bataille included his images in the periodical Documents in 1929. In 2001 Urformen der Kunst was included in The Book of 101 Books as one of the seminal books of the twentieth century. Website Karl-Blossfeldt-Archiv The Portfolio Blossfeldts Urformen der Kunst Masters of Photography article Fine Rare Prints Antique Prints
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Beurs van Berlage
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The Beurs van Berlage is a building on the Damrak, in the centre of Amsterdam. It was designed as a commodity exchange by architect Hendrik Petrus Berlage and it influenced many modernist architects, in particular functionalists and the Amsterdam School. It is now used as a venue for concerts, exhibitions, the building is constructed of red brick, with an iron and glass roof and stone piers, lintels and corbels. Its entrance is under a 40-metre high clock tower, while inside lie three large multi-storey halls formerly used as trading floors, with offices and communal facilities grouped around them. The aim of the architect was to modify the styles of the past by emphasizing sweeping planes, true to its nineteenth-century roots, it maintains the use of ornament in a civic structure. On 2 February 2002 the civil ceremony of the wedding of King Willem-Alexander, the Beurs van Berlage has a café located on the Beursplein side and the tower is also open to the public. Official website Beurs van Berlage Tower Panorama – AmsterdamTips. com Netherlands, Amsterdam, Damrak - Beurs van Berlage, VR panoramas by Tolomeus
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Hendrik Petrus Berlage
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Hendrik Petrus Berlage was a prominent Dutch architect. He studied architecture at the Zurich Institute of Technology between 1875 and 1878 after which he traveled extensively for 3 years through Europe, in the 1880s he formed a partnership in the Netherlands with Theodore Sanders which produced a mixture of practical and utopian projects. A published author, Berlage held memberships in various architectural societies including CIAM I and this influence is visible in his design for the Amsterdam Commodities Exchange, for which he would also draw on the ideas of Viollet-le-Duc. The load-bearing bare brick walls and the notion of the primacy of space, a visit Berlage made to the U. S. in 1911 greatly affected his architecture. From then on the architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright would be a significant influence. Lectures he gave when returned to Europe would help to disseminate Wrights thoughts in Germany, a notable overseas commission was the 1916 Holland House, built as offices for a Dutch shipping company in Bury Street in the City of London. He received the British RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1932, Berlage died at The Hague in 1934. In 1970, the IAU named the lunar crater Berlage after him. P, Berlage, Schriften zur Architektur, Birkhäuser Basel, ISBN 3-7643-2587-9 Singelenberg, Pieter, H. P
23.
Anthomedusae
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Anthomedusae or Anthomedusa, the athecate hydroids, are an order of the Hydrozoa, a class of marine invertebrates belonging to the phylum Cnidaria. A profusion of alternate scientific names exists for this long-known, heavily discussed and it has also been called Gymnoblastea and Anthoathecata, Athecata, Hydromedusa, and Stylasterina. There are about 1,200 species worldwide and these hydrozoans always have a polyp stage. Their hydranths grow either solitary or in colonies, there is no firm perisarc around the polyp body. The medusae, or jellyfish, are animals, with tentacles arising from the bell margin, lacking statocysts. Their gonads are on the manubrium, except in Eudendriidae and Laingiidae, prey can be captured by discharging harpoon-like structures from chambers in specialized cells on the tentacles. In hydrozoans, these are nearly always adhesive and entrapping, rather than puncturing and their close relationship to the Leptomedusae has been long known, but it was formerly believed that these two were also close to the Limnomedusae. Some uncertainty existed regarding the internal taxonomy, the Porpitidae, for example, are highly aberrant group, and were at one time even considered a separate order Chondrophora. However, they are considered to be derived from Zancleida. Although not all Anthomedusae have been placed in the phylogeny. The family Clathrozoellidae is placed with the Filifera here, in others it is placed in the Leptomedusae, by contrast, the supposed filiferan genus Anthohydra is in fact the leptomedusan Eugymnanthea, similarly, Gammaria is also a leptomedusan and properly spelled Grammaria. The supposed athecate family Monobrachiidae is apparently a relative of the Olindiasidae. Halammohydridae and Otohydridae, sometimes placed here, appear to be trachyline hydrozoans of the order Actinulidae, buecher, E. Goy, J. & Gibbons, M. J.2005. North East Atlantic Taxa Family, genus and species list A page about Hydromedusae
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Antelope
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An antelope is a member of a number of even-toed ungulate species indigenous to various regions in Africa and Eurasia. Antelopes comprise a wastebasket taxon within the family Bovidae, encompassing those Old World species that are not cattle, sheep, buffalo, bison, a group of antelope is called a herd. It perhaps derives from Greek anthos and ops, perhaps meaning beautiful eye or alluding to the animals long eyelashes and this, however, may be a later folk etymology. The word talopus and calopus, from Latin, came to be used in heraldry, in 1607, it was first used for living, cervine animals. The 91 species, most of which are native to Africa, the classification of tribes or subfamilies within Bovidae is still a matter of debate, with several alternative systems proposed. Antelope are not a cladistic or taxonomically defined group, the term is used to describe all members of the family Bovidae that do not fall under the category of sheep, cattle, or goats. Usually, all species of the Alcelaphinae, Antilopinae, Hippotraginae, Reduncinae, Cephalophinae, many Bovinae, the grey rhebok, and the impala are called antelopes. No antelope species is native to Australasia or Antarctica, nor do any extant species occur in the Americas, North America is currently home to the native pronghorn, which taxonomists do not consider a member of the antelope group, but which is locally referred to as such. More species of antelope are native to Africa than to any other continent, almost exclusively in savannahs, other species occur in Asia, the Arabian Peninsula is home to the Arabian oryx and Dorcas gazelle. India is home to the nilgai, chinkara, blackbuck, Tibetan antelope, and four-horned antelope, while Russia and Central Asia have the Tibetan antelope, many species of antelopes have been imported to other parts of the world, especially the United States, for exotic game hunting. With some species possessing spectacular leaping and evasive skills, individuals may escape, Texas in particular has many game ranches, as well as habitats and climates, that are very hospitable to African and Asian plains antelope species. Accordingly, wild populations of antelope, gemsbok, and nilgai may be found in Texas. Antelope live in a range of habitats. Numerically, most live in the African savannahs, species living in forests, woodland, or bush tend to be sedentary, but many of the plains species undertake long migrations. These enable grass-eating species to follow the rains and thereby their food supply, the gnus and gazelles of East Africa perform some of the most impressive mass migratory circuits of all mammals. For example, a male common eland can measure 178 cm at the shoulder and weigh almost 950 kg, whereas an adult royal antelope may stand only 24 cm at the shoulder and weigh a mere 1.5 kg. Not surprisingly for animals with long, slender yet powerful legs, many antelopes have long strides, some are also adapted to inhabiting rock koppies and crags. Both dibatags and gerenuks habitually stand on their two legs to reach acacia and other tree foliage
25.
Arachnid
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Arachnids are a class of joint-legged invertebrate animals, in the subphylum Chelicerata. The term is derived from the Greek word ἀράχνη, meaning spider, spiders are the largest order in the class. Almost all extant arachnids are terrestrial, living mainly on land, however, some inhabit freshwater environments and, with the exception of the pelagic zone, marine environments as well. They comprise over 100,000 named species, including spiders, scorpions, harvestmen, ticks, mites, almost all adult arachnids have eight legs, and arachnids may be easily distinguished from insects by this fact, since insects have six legs. However, arachnids also have two pairs of appendages that have become adapted for feeding, defense, and sensory perception. The first pair, the chelicerae, serve in feeding and defense, the next pair of appendages, the pedipalps, have been adapted for feeding, locomotion, and/or reproductive functions. In Solifugae, the palps are quite leg-like, so that animals appear to have ten legs. The larvae of mites and Ricinulei have only six legs, a fourth pair usually appears when they moult into nymphs, however, mites are variable, as well as eight, there are adult mites with six or even four legs. Arachnids are further distinguished from insects by the fact they do not have antennae or wings and their body is organized into two tagmata, called the prosoma, or cephalothorax, and the opisthosoma, or abdomen. The cephalothorax is derived from the fusion of the cephalon and the thorax, the abdomen is segmented in the more primitive forms, but varying degrees of fusion between the segments occur in many groups. It is typically divided into a preabdomen and postabdomen, although this is clearly visible in scorpions, and in some orders, such as the Acari. A telson is present in scorpions, where it has modified to a stinger. Like all arthropods, arachnids have an exoskeleton, and they also have a structure of cartilage-like tissue, called the endosternite. The endosternite is even calcified in some Opiliones, most arachnids lack extensor muscles in the distal joints of their appendages. Spiders and whipscorpions extend their limbs hydraulically using the pressure of their hemolymph, solifuges and some harvestmen extend their knees by the use of highly elastic thickenings in the joint cuticle. Scorpions, pseudoscorpions and some harvestmen have evolved muscles that extend two leg joints at once, the equivalent joints of the pedipalps of scorpions though, are extended by elastic recoil. This type of system has almost certainly evolved from the book lungs. The excretory glands of arachnids include up to four pairs of coxal glands along the side of the prosoma, many arachnids have only one or the other type of excretory gland, although several do have both
26.
Ascidiacea
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Ascidiacea is a paraphyletic class in the subphylum Tunicata of sac-like marine invertebrate filter feeders. Ascidians are characterized by an outer tunic made of the polysaccharide cellulose. Ascidians are found all over the world, usually in water with salinities over 2. 5%. While members of the Thaliacea and Larvacea swim freely like plankton, sea squirts are sessile animals, they remain attached to their substratum, such as rocks. Sea squirts feed by taking in water through a tube, the oral siphon, the water enters the mouth and pharynx, flows through mucus-covered gill slits into a water chamber called the atrium, then exits through the atrial siphon. Sea squirts are rounded or cylindrical animals ranging from about 0.5 to 10 cm in size, one end of the body is always firmly fixed to rock, coral, or some similar solid surface. The lower surface is pitted or ridged, and in some species has root-like extensions that help the animal grip onto the surface, the body wall is covered by a smooth thick tunic, which is often quite rigid. The tunic consists of cellulose along with proteins and calcium salts, unlike the shells of molluscs, the tunic is composed of living tissue, and often has its own blood supply. In some colonial species, the tunics of adjacent individuals are fused into a single structure, the upper surface of the animal, opposite to the part gripping the substratum, has two openings, or siphons. When removed from the water, the animal often violently expels water from these siphons, the body itself can be divided into up to three regions, although these are not clearly distinct in most species. The pharyngeal region contains the pharynx, while the abdomen contains most of the bodily organs. In many sea squirts, the postabdomen, or even the entire abdomen, are absent, as its name implies, the pharyngeal region is occupied mainly by the pharynx. The large buccal siphon opens into the pharynx, acting like a mouth, the pharynx itself is ciliated and contains numerous perforations, or stigmata, arranged in a grid-like pattern around its circumference. The beating of the cilia sucks water through the siphon, a long ciliated groove, or endostyle, runs along one side of the pharynx, and a projecting ridge along the other. The endostyle may be homologous with the gland of vertebrates. The pharynx is surrounded by an atrium, through water is expelled through a second, usually smaller. Cords of connective tissue cross the atrium to maintain the shape of the body. The outer body wall consists of connective tissue, muscle fibres, the pharynx forms the first part of the digestive system
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Frog
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A frog is any member of a diverse and largely carnivorous group of short-bodied, tailless amphibians composing the order Anura. The oldest fossil proto-frog appeared in the early Triassic of Madagascar, Frogs are widely distributed, ranging from the tropics to subarctic regions, but the greatest concentration of species diversity is in tropical rainforests. There are approximately 4,800 recorded species, accounting for over 85% of extant amphibian species and they are also one of the five most diverse vertebrate orders. The body plan of a frog is generally characterized by a stout body, protruding eyes, cleft tongue, limbs folded underneath. Besides living in water and on dry land, the adults of some species are adapted for living underground or in trees. The skin of the frog is glandular, with secretions ranging from distasteful to toxic, Frogs skins vary in colour from well-camouflaged dappled brown, grey and green to vivid patterns of bright red or yellow and black to advertise toxicity and warn off predators. Frogs typically lay their eggs in water, the eggs hatch into aquatic larvae called tadpoles that have tails and internal gills. They have highly specialized rasping mouth parts suitable for herbivorous, omnivorous or planktivorous diets, the life cycle is completed when they metamorphose into adults. A few species deposit eggs on land or bypass the tadpole stage, adult frogs generally have a carnivorous diet consisting of small invertebrates, but omnivorous species exist and a few feed on fruit. Frogs are extremely efficient at converting what they eat into body mass and they are an important food source for predators and part of the food web dynamics of many of the worlds ecosystems. The skin is semi-permeable, making them susceptible to dehydration, so they live in moist places or have special adaptations to deal with dry habitats. Frogs are valued as food by humans and also have many roles in literature, symbolism. Frog populations have declined significantly since the 1950s, more than one third of species are considered to be threatened with extinction and over one hundred and twenty are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s. The number of malformations among frogs is on the rise and a fungal disease. Conservation biologists are working to understand the causes of these problems, the name frog derives from Old English frogga, abbreviated to frox, forsc, and frosc, probably deriving from Proto-Indo-European preu = to jump. About 88% of amphibian species are classified in the order Anura and these include around 4,810 species in 33 families, of which the Leptodactylidae, Hylidae and Ranidae are the richest in species. The use of the common frog and toad has no taxonomic justification. From a classification perspective, all members of the order Anura are frogs, there are numerous exceptions to this rule
28.
Bryozoa
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Bryozoa, are a phylum of aquatic invertebrate animals. Typically about 0.5 millimetres long, they are filter feeders that sieve food particles out of the using a retractable lophophore. Most marine species live in tropical waters, but a few occur in oceanic trenches, one class lives only in a variety of freshwater environments, and a few members of a mostly marine class prefer brackish water. Over 4,000 living species are known, one genus is solitary and the rest are colonial. The phylum was originally called Polyzoa, but this term was superseded by Bryozoa in 1831, another group of animals discovered subsequently, whose filtering mechanism looked similar, was also included in Bryozoa until 1869, when the two groups were noted to be very different internally. The more recently discovered group was given the name Entoprocta, while the original Bryozoa were called Ectoprocta, however, Bryozoa has remained the more widely used term for the latter group. Individuals in bryozoan colonies are called zooids, since they are not fully independent animals, all colonies contain autozooids, which are responsible for feeding and excretion. Colonies of some classes have various types of non-feeding specialist zooids, some of which are hatcheries for fertilized eggs, the class Cheilostomata have the largest number of species, possibly because they have the widest range of specialist zooids. A few species can creep very slowly by using spiny defensive zooids as legs, autozooids supply nutrients to non-feeding zooids by channels that vary between classes. Zooids have no special excretory organs, and the polypides of autozooids are scrapped when the polypides become overloaded by waste products, in autozooids the gut is U-shaped, with the mouth inside the crown of tentacles and the anus outside it. Colonies take a variety of forms, including fans, bushes, the Cheilostomata produce mineralized exoskeletons and form single-layered sheets which encrust over surfaces. Zooids of all the species are simultaneous hermaphrodites. Although those of marine species function first as males and then as females. All species emit sperm into the water, some also release ova into the water, while others capture sperm via their tentacles to fertilize their ova internally. In some species the larvae have large yolks, go to feed, others produce larvae that have little yolk but swim and feed for a few days before settling. After settling, all larvae undergo a metamorphosis that destroys. Freshwater species also produce statoblasts that lie dormant until conditions are favorable, predators of marine bryozoans include nudibranchs, fish, sea urchins, pycnogonids, crustaceans, mites and starfish. Freshwater bryozoans are preyed on by snails, insects, and fish, in Thailand, many populations of one freshwater species have been wiped out by an introduced species of snail
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Turtle
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Turtles are reptiles of the order Testudines characterised by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs and acting as a shield. Turtle may refer to the order as a whole or to fresh-water, the order Testudines includes both extant and extinct species. The earliest known members of this date from 157 million years ago, making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups. Of the 327 known species alive today, some are highly endangered, turtles are ectotherms—animals commonly called cold-blooded—meaning that their internal temperature varies according to the ambient environment. However, because of their metabolic rate, leatherback sea turtles have a body temperature that is noticeably higher than that of the surrounding water. Turtles are classified as amniotes, along with reptiles, birds. Like other amniotes, turtles breathe air and do not lay eggs underwater, Chelonia is based on the Greek word χελώνη chelone tortoise, turtle, also denoting armor or interlocking shields, testudines, on the other hand, is based on the Latin word testudo tortoise. Turtle may either refer to the order as a whole, or to particular turtles that make up a form taxon that is not monophyletic, the meaning of the word turtle differs from region to region. In North America, all chelonians are commonly called turtles, including terrapins, in Great Britain, the word turtle is used for sea-dwelling species, but not for tortoises. The term tortoise usually refers to any land-dwelling, non-swimming chelonian, most land-dwelling chelonians are in the Testudinidae family, only one of the 14 extant turtle families. Terrapin is used to describe several species of small, edible, hard-shell turtles, typically found in brackish waters. Some languages do not have this distinction, as all of these are referred to by the same name, for example, in Spanish, the word tortuga is used for turtles, tortoises, and terrapins. A sea-dwelling turtle is tortuga marina, a freshwater species tortuga de río, the largest living chelonian is the leatherback sea turtle, which reaches a shell length of 200 cm and can reach a weight of over 900 kg. Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but with the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii, a few individuals have been reported up to 200 cm. This dwarfs even the better-known alligator snapping turtle, the largest chelonian in North America and they became extinct at the same time as the appearance of man, and it is assumed humans hunted them for food. The only surviving giant tortoises are on the Seychelles and Galápagos Islands and can grow to over 130 cm in length, the largest ever chelonian was Archelon ischyros, a Late Cretaceous sea turtle known to have been up to 4.6 m long. The smallest turtle is the speckled padloper tortoise of South Africa and it measures no more than 8 cm in length and weighs about 140 g. Two other species of turtles are the American mud turtles
30.
Ciliate
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Cilia occur in all members of the group and are variously used in swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation. All behavioral patterns are coordinated by signaling processes, ciliates are an important group of protists, common almost everywhere there is water — in lakes, ponds, oceans, rivers, and soils. About 3,500 species have been described, and the number of extant species is estimated at 30,000. Included in this number are many ectosymbiotic and endosymbiotic species, as well as some obligate, ciliate species range in size from as little as 10 µm to as much as 4 mm in length, and include some of the most morphologically complex protozoans. In most systems of taxonomy, Ciliophora is ranked as a phylum, in some systems of classification, ciliated protozoa are placed within the class Ciliata. In the taxonomic scheme proposed by the International Society of Protistologists, unlike most other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different sorts of nuclei, a tiny, diploid micronucleus, and a large, polyploid macronucleus. The latter is generated from the micronucleus by amplification of the genome, the micronucleus serves as the germ line nucleus, but does not express its genes. The macronucleus provides the nuclear RNA for vegetative growth, division of the macronucleus occurs by amitosis, and the segregation of the chromosomes occurs by a process whose mechanism is unknown. This process is not perfect, and after about 200 generations the cell shows signs of aging, periodically the macronuclei must be regenerated from the micronuclei. In most, this occurs during conjugation, here two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis, some of the haploid daughters are exchanged and then fuse to form new micronuclei and macronuclei. Anything left in the vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct is discharged by exocytosis. Most ciliates also have one or more prominent contractile vacuoles, which water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure. In some genera, such as Paramecium, these have a star shape. Cilia are arranged in rows called kineties, in some forms there are also body polykinetids, for instance, among the spirotrichs where they generally form bristles called cirri. More often body cilia are arranged in mono- and dikinetids, which include one. These are arranged into rows called kineties, which run from the anterior to posterior of the cell, the infraciliature is one of the main components of the cell cortex. Others are the alveoli, small vesicles under the membrane that are packed against it to form a pellicle maintaining the cells shape. Numerous mitochondria and extrusomes are also generally present, the presence of alveoli, the structure of the cilia, the form of mitosis and various other details indicate a close relationship between the ciliates, Apicomplexa, and dinoflagellates
31.
Annelid
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The annelids, also known as the ringed worms or segmented worms, are a large phylum, with over 17,000 extant species including ragworms, earthworms, and leeches. The annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms and they also have parapodia for locomotion. Most textbooks still use the division into polychaetes, oligochaetes. Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes, in addition, the Pogonophora, Echiura and Sipuncula, previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes. Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa, a super-phylum of protostomes that also includes molluscs, brachiopods, flatworms, the basic annelid form consists of multiple segments. Each segment has the same sets of organs and, in most polychates, has a pair of parapodia that many use for locomotion. Septa separate the segments of many species, but are defined or absent in others. The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments, although many species can reproduce asexually and use similar mechanisms to regenerate after severe injuries, sexual reproduction is the normal method in species whose reproduction has been studied. The minority of living polychaetes whose reproduction and lifecycles are known produce trochophore larvae, Oligochaetes are full hermaphrodites and produce a ring-like cocoon around their bodies, in which the eggs and hatchlings are nourished until they are ready to emerge. Earthworms are Oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil, in addition to improving soil fertility, annelids serve humans as food and as bait. Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water, although blood-letting is no longer in favor with doctors, some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over-harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries. Ragworms jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer a combination of lightness. Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare – mostly jaws, although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids, the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period. Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous, there are over 22,000 living annelid species, ranging in size from microscopic to the Australian giant Gippsland earthworm and Amynthas mekongianus, which can both grow up to 3 metres long. As their name suggests, they have multiple chetae per segment, polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, and nuchal organs that are thought to be chemosensors. Most are marine animals, although a few live in fresh water. These have few or no chetae per segment, and no nuchal organs or parapodia, the clitellates are sub-divided into, Oligochaetes, which includes earthworms. Oligochaetes have a pad in the roof of the mouth
32.
Bat
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Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera whose forelimbs form webbed wings, making them the only mammals naturally capable of true and sustained flight. By contrast, other mammals said to fly, such as flying squirrels, gliding possums, Bats do not flap their entire forelimbs, as birds do, but instead flap their spread-out digits, which are very long and covered with a thin membrane or patagium. About 70% of bat species are insectivores, most of the rest are frugivores, or fruit eaters. A few species, such as the bat, feed from animals other than insects, with the vampire bats being hematophagous. Bats are present throughout most of the world, with the exception of cold regions. They perform the vital roles of pollinating flowers and dispersing fruit seeds. Bats are economically important, as they consume insect pests, reducing the need for pesticides, the smallest bat is the Kittis hog-nosed bat, measuring 29–34 mm in length,15 cm across the wings and 2–2.6 g in mass. It is also arguably the smallest extant species of mammal, with the Etruscan shrew being the other contender. The largest species of bat are a few species of Pteropus, the Mexican free-tailed bat is the fastest flying animal in horizontal flight. An older English name for bats is flittermouse, which matches their name in other Germanic languages, middle English had bakke, most likely cognate with Old Swedish natbakka, which may have undergone a shift from -k- to -t- influenced by Latin blatta, moth, nocturnal insect. They were formerly grouped in the superorder Archonta, along with the treeshrews, colugos, genetic studies have now placed bats in the superorder Laurasiatheria, along with carnivorans, pangolins, odd-toed ungulates, even-toed ungulates, and cetaceans. A recent study by Zhang et al. places Chiroptera as a taxon to the clade Perissodactyla. The phylogenetic relationships of the different groups of bats have been the subject of much debate and this hypothesis recognized differences between microbats and megabats and acknowledged that flight has only evolved once in mammals. Most molecular biological evidence supports the view that bats form a single or monophyletic group, in the 1980s, a hypothesis based on morphological evidence was offered that stated the Megachiroptera evolved flight separately from the Microchiroptera. The so-called flying primate hypothesis proposes that, when adaptations to flight are removed, one example is that the brains of megabats show a number of advanced characteristics that link them to primates. Although recent genetic studies support the monophyly of bats, debate continues as to the meaning of available genetic. Genetic evidence indicates that megabats originated during the early Eocene and should be placed within the four lines of microbats. Consequently, two new suborders based on molecular data have been proposed and these two new suborders are strongly supported by statistical tests
33.
Conifer
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The Pinophyta, also known as Coniferophyta or Coniferae, or commonly as conifers, are a division of vascular land plants containing a single class, Pinopsida. They are gymnosperms, cone-bearing seed plants, all extant conifers are perennial woody plants with secondary growth. The great majority are trees, though a few are shrubs, examples include cedars, Douglas firs, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauri, larches, pines, hemlocks, redwoods, spruces, and yews. As of 1998, the division Pinophyta was estimated to contain eight families,68 genera, although the total number of species is relatively small, conifers are ecologically important. They are the dominant plants over large areas of land, most notably the taiga of the Northern Hemisphere, boreal conifers have many wintertime adaptations. The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, many of them seasonally alter their biochemistry to make them more resistant to freezing. While tropical rainforests have more biodiversity and turnover, the conifer forests of the world represent the largest terrestrial carbon sink. Conifers are of economic value for softwood lumber and paper production. The earliest conifers in the record date to the late Carboniferous period, possibly arising from Cordaites. Pinophytes, Cycadophytes, and Ginkgophytes all developed at this time, an important adaptation of these gymnosperms was allowing plants to live without being so dependent on water. Other adaptations are pollen and the seed, which allows the embryo to be transported and developed elsewhere, Conifers appear to be one of the taxa that benefited from the Permian–Triassic extinction event, and were the dominant land plants of the Mesozoic. They were overtaken by the plants, which first appeared in the Cretaceous. They were the food of herbivorous dinosaurs, and their resins and poisons would have given protection against herbivores. Reproductive features of modern conifers had evolved by the end of the Mesozoic era, Conifer is a Latin word, a compound of conus and ferre, meaning the one that bears cone. A descriptive name in use for the conifers is Coniferae. Alternatively, descriptive botanical names may also be used at any rank above family and this means that if conifers are considered a division, they may be called Pinophyta or Coniferae. As a class they may be called Pinopsida or Coniferae, as an order they may be called Pinales or Coniferae or Coniferales. Conifers are the largest and economically most important component group of the gymnosperms, the division Pinophyta consists of just one class, Pinopsida, which includes both living and fossil taxa
34.
Copepod
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Copepods are a group of small crustaceans found in the sea and nearly every freshwater habitat. Many live underground in marine and freshwater caves, sinkholes, or stream beds, copepods are sometimes used as biodiversity indicators. As with other crustaceans, copepods have a larval form, for copepods, the egg hatches into a nauplius form, with a head and a tail but no true thorax or abdomen. The larva molts several times until it resembles the adult and then, after more molts, the nauplius form is so different from the adult form that it was once thought to be a separate species. Copepods form a subclass belonging to the subphylum Crustacea, they are divided into ten orders, some 13,000 species of copepods are known, and 2,800 of them live in fresh water. Copepods vary considerably, but can typically be 1 to 2 mm long, with a teardrop-shaped body, like other crustaceans, they have an armoured exoskeleton but they are so small that in most species this thin armour and the entire body, is almost totally transparent. Some polar copepods reach 1 cm, most copepods have a single median compound eye, usually bright red and in the centre of the transparent head, subterranean species may be eyeless. Like other crustaceans copepods possess two pairs of antennae, the first pair is long and conspicuous. Copepods typically have a short, cylindrical body, with a rounded or beaked head, the head is fused with the first one or two thoracic segments, while the remainder of the thorax has three to five segments, each with limbs. The first pair of appendages is modified to form maxillipeds. The abdomen is narrower than the thorax, and contains five segments without any appendages. Because of their size, copepods have no need of any heart or circulatory system. Instead, they absorb oxygen directly into their bodies and their excretory system consists of maxillary glands. The second pair of appendages in free-living copepods is usually the main time-averaged source of propulsion. Many species have neurons surrounded by myelin, which is rare among invertebrates. Even rarer, the myelin is highly organized, resembling the well-organized wrapping found in vertebrates, finding a mate in the three-dimensional space of open water is challenging. Some copepod females solve the problem by emitting pheromones, which leave a trail in the water that the male can follow, copepods feed directly on phytoplankton, catching cells singly. Some of the species are predators of their smaller relatives
35.
Box jellyfish
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Box jellyfish are cnidarian invertebrates distinguished by their cube-shaped medusae. Some species of box jellyfish produce extremely potent venom, Chironex fleckeri, Carukia barnesi, stings from these and a few other species in the class are extremely painful and can be fatal to humans. Box jellyfish and sea wasp are common names for the highly venomous Chironex fleckeri, however, these terms are ambiguous, as sea wasp and marine stinger are sometimes used to refer to other jellyfish. The medusa form of a box jellyfish has a squarish, box-like bell, from each of the four lower corners of this hangs a short pedalium or stalk which bears one or more long, slender, hollow tentacles. The rim of the bell is folded inwards to form a shelf known as a velarium which restricts the bells aperture, as a result, box jellyfish can move more rapidly than other jellyfish, speeds of up to six meters per minute have been recorded. In the center of the underside of the bell is an appendage called the manubrium which somewhat resembles an elephants trunk. The interior of the bell is known as the gastrovascular cavity and it is divided by four equidistant septa into a central stomach and four gastric pockets. The eight gonads are located in pairs on either side of the four septa, the margins of the septa bear bundles of small gastric filaments which house nematocysts and digestive glands and help to subdue prey. Each septum is extended into a funnel that opens onto the oral surface and facilitates the flow of fluid into. The box jellyfishs nervous system is more developed than that of many other jellyfish and they possess a nerve ring around the base of the bell that coordinates their pulsing movements, a feature found elsewhere only in the crown jellyfish. Whereas some other jellyfish have simple pigment-cup ocelli, box jellyfish are unique in the possession of true eyes, complete with retinas, corneas and their eyes are set in clusters called rhopalia, located in pockets halfway up the outer, flat surfaces of the bell. Each contains two rhopalial ocelli with lenses, one directed upwards and the other downwards and inwards towards the manubrium and this enables the animal to see specific points of light, as opposed to simply distinguishing between light and dark. Box jellyfish also have twenty ocelli that do not form images, near the rhopalia are statoliths which detect gravitational pull and help the animal to orient itself. Box jellyfish also display complex, probably visually guided behaviors such as obstacle avoidance, research indicates that, owing to the number of rhopalial nerve cells and their overall arrangement, visual processing and integration at least partly happen within the rhopalia of box jellyfish. The complex nervous system supports a relatively advanced sensory system compared to other jellyfish, some species have tentacles that can reach up to 3 m in length. Box jellyfish can weigh up to 2 kg and it has been found that the statoliths, which are composed of calcium sulfate hemihydrate, exhibit clear sequential incremental layers, thought to be laid down on a daily basis. This has enabled researchers to estimate growth rates, ages, Chironex fleckeri, for example, increases its inter-pedalia distance by 3 mm per day, reaching an IPD of 50 mm when 45 to 50 days old. The maximum age of any individual examined was 88 days by which time it had grown to an IPD of 155 mm, the box jellyfish actively hunts its prey, rather than drifting as do true jellyfish
36.
Decapoda
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The Decapoda or decapods are an order of crustaceans within the class Malacostraca, including many familiar groups, such as crayfish, crabs, lobsters, prawns, and shrimp. The order is estimated to contain nearly 15,000 species in around 2,700 genera, nearly half of these species are crabs, with the shrimp and Anomura (including hermit crabs, porcelain crabs, squat lobsters making up the bulk of the remainder. The earliest fossil decapod is the Devonian Palaeopalaemon, as the name Decapoda implies, all decapods have what are considered ten legs, in the form of five pairs of thoracic appendages on the last five thoracic segments. Decapods can have as many as twenty apendages, arranged in one pair per body segment, the front three pairs function as mouthparts and are generally referred to as maxillipeds, the remainder are pereiopods. In many decapods, however, one pair of legs has enlarged pincers, the remaining appendages are found on the abdomen, with each segment capable of carrying a pair of biramous pleopods, the last of which form part of the tail fan and are called uropods. Classification within the order Decapoda depends on the structure of the gills and legs, the Dendrobranchiata consist of prawns, including many species colloquially referred to as shrimp, such as the white shrimp, Litopenaeus setiferus. The Pleocyemata include the groups, including true shrimp. Those groups which usually walk rather than form a clade called Reptantia. This classification to the level of superfamilies follows De Grave et al
37.
Cephalopod
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A cephalopod is any member of the molluscan class Cephalopoda. These exclusively marine animals are characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head, fishermen sometimes call them inkfish, referring to their common ability to squirt ink. The study of cephalopods is a branch of known as teuthology. Cephalopods became dominant during the Ordovician period, represented by primitive nautiloids, the class now contains two, only distantly related, extant subclasses, Coleoidea, which includes octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish, and Nautiloidea, represented by Nautilus and Allonautilus. In the Coleoidea, the shell has been internalized or is absent, whereas in the Nautiloidea. About 800 living species of cephalopods have been identified, two important extinct taxa are the Ammonoidea and Belemnoidea. There are over 800 extant species of cephalopod, although new species continue to be described, an estimated 11,000 extinct taxa have been described, although the soft-bodied nature of cephalopods means they are not easily fossilised. Cephalopods are found in all the oceans of Earth, none of them can tolerate freshwater, but the brief squid, Lolliguncula brevis, found in Chesapeake Bay, is a notable partial exception in that it tolerates brackish water. Cephalopods are thought to be unable to live in due to multiple biochemical constraints. Cephalopods occupy most of the depth of the ocean, from the plain to the sea surface. Their diversity is greatest near the equator and decreases towards the poles, Cephalopods are widely regarded as the most intelligent of the invertebrates, and have well developed senses and large brains. The nervous system of cephalopods is the most complex of the invertebrates, the brain is protected in a cartilaginous cranium. Cephalopods have also known to climb out of their aquaria, maneuver a distance of the lab floor, enter another aquarium to feed on the crabs. Cephalopods are social creatures, when isolated from their own kind, some cephalopods are able to fly through the air for distances of up to 50 m. While cephalopods are not particularly aerodynamic, they achieve these impressive ranges by jet-propulsion, the animals spread their fins and tentacles to form wings and actively control lift force with body posture. Cephalopods have advanced vision, can detect gravity with statocysts, and have a variety of sense organs. Octopuses use their arms to explore their environment and can use them for depth perception, most cephalopods rely on vision to detect predators and prey, and to communicate with one another. Consequently, cephalopod vision is acute, training experiments have shown that the octopus can distinguish the brightness, size, shape
38.
Red algae
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The red algae, or Rhodophyta, are one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae. The Rhodophyta also contains one of the largest phyla of algae, the majority of species are found in the Florideophyceae, and consist of mostly multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. Approximately 5% of the red algae occur in freshwater environments, red algae store sugars as floridean starch, which is a type of starch that consists of highly branched amylopectin without amylose, as food reserves outside their plastids. Most red algae are multicellular, macroscopic, marine. The red algal life history is typically an alternation of generations that may have three rather than two. Chloroplasts evolved following an event between an ancestral, photosynthetic cyanobacterium and an early eukarytoic Phagotroph. This event resulted in the origin of the red and Green algae, and the Glaucophytes, a secondary endosymbiosis event involving an ancestral red alga and a heterotrophic eukaryote resulted in the evolution and diversification of several other photosynthetic lineages. The coralline algae, which secrete calcium carbonate and play a role in building coral reefs. Red algae such as dulse and laver are a part of European and Asian cuisines and are used to make other products such as agar, carrageenans. Unicellular members of the Cyanidiophyceae are thermoacidophiles and are found in hot springs. The remaining taxa are found in marine and freshwater environments, most rhodophytes are marine with a worldwide distribution, and are often found at greater depths compared to other seaweeds because of dominance in certain pigments within their chloroplasts. Some marine species are found on sandy shores, while most others can be attached to rocky substrata. A few freshwater species are found in waters with sandy bottoms. Bangiomorpha pubescens, a fossil from arctic Canada, strongly resembles the modern red alga Bangia despite occurring in rocks dating to 1.2 billion years ago. Two kinds of fossils resembling red algae were found sometime between 2006 and 2011 in well-preserved sedimentary rocks in Chitrakoot, central India, red algae are important builders of limestone reefs. The earliest such coralline algae, the solenopores, are known from the Cambrian period, other algae of different origins filled a similar role in the late Paleozoic, and in more recent reefs. Calcite crusts that have been interpreted as the remains of red algae. Thallophytes resembling coralline red algae are known from the late Proterozoic Doushantuo formation, in the system of Adl et al
39.
Lichen
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A lichen is a composite organism that arises from algae or cyanobacteria living among filaments of multiple fungi in a symbiotic relationship. The combined lichen has properties different from those of its component organisms, Lichens come in many colours, sizes, and forms. The properties are sometimes plant-like, but lichens are not plants, Lichens may have tiny, leafless branches, flat leaf-like structures, flakes that lie on the surface like peeling paint, or other growth forms. A macrolichen is a lichen that is either bush-like or leafy, here, macro and micro do not refer to size, but to the growth form. Common names for lichens may contain the word moss, and lichens may superficially look like and grow with mosses, Lichens do not have roots that absorb water and nutrients as plants do, but like plants, they produce their own food by photosynthesis. When they grow on plants, they do not live as parasites, Lichens occur from sea level to high alpine elevations, in many environmental conditions, and can grow on almost any surface. Lichens are abundant growing on bark, leaves, mosses, on other lichens and they grow on rock, walls, gravestones, roofs, exposed soil surfaces, and in the soil as part of a biological soil crust. Different kinds of lichens have adapted to survive in some of the most extreme environments on Earth, arctic tundra, hot dry deserts, rocky coasts and they can even live inside solid rock, growing between the grains. It is estimated that 6% of Earths land surface is covered by lichen, there are about 20,000 known species of lichens. Some lichens have lost the ability to reproduce sexually, yet continue to speciate, Lichens may be long-lived, with some considered to be among the oldest living things. They are among the first living things to grow on fresh rock exposed after an event such as a landslide, the long life-span and slow and regular growth rate of some lichens can be used to date events. In American English, lichen is pronounced the same as the verb liken, in British English, both this pronunciation and one rhyming with kitchen /ˈlɪtʃən/) are used. Lichens grow in a range of shapes and forms. The shape of a lichen is determined by the organization of the fungal filaments. The nonreproductive tissues, or vegetative body parts, is called the thallus, Lichens are grouped by thallus type, since the thallus is usually the most visually prominent part of the lichen. Thallus growth forms typically correspond to a few basic internal structure types, Common names for lichens often come from a growth form or color that is typical of a lichen genus. When a crustose lichen gets old, the center may start to crack up like old-dried paint, old-broken asphalt paving and this is called being rimose or areolate, and the island pieces separated by the cracks are called areolas. The areolas appear separated, but are connected by an underlying prothallus or hypothallus, when a crustose lichen grows from a center and appears to radiate out, it is called crustose placodioid
40.
Lizard
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Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 6,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic as it excludes the snakes which are also squamates, Lizards typically have four legs feet and external ears, though some are legless, while snakes lack both of these characteristics. Lizards and snakes share a movable quadrate bone, distinguishing them from the sphenodonts, Lizards form about 60% of all the species of extant non-avian reptiles. Some extinct varanids reached great size, The giant monitor Megalania is estimated to have reached up to 7 m long, vision, including color vision, is particularly well developed in most lizards. Most lizards communicate using body language, using specific postures, gestures, and movements to define territory, resolve disputes, some species of lizards also use pheromones or bright colors, such as the iridescent patches on the belly of Sceloporus. These colors are visible to predators, so are often hidden on the underside or between scales and only revealed when necessary. The particular innovation in this respect is the dewlap, a colored patch of skin on the throat. When a display is needed, a lizard can erect the hyoid bone of its throat, anoles are particularly famous for this display, with each species having specific colors, including patterns only visible under ultraviolet light, as many lizards can see UV light. Lizard tails are often a different and dramatically more vivid color than the rest of the body so as to potential predators to strike for the tail first. Many lizards, including geckos and skinks, are capable of shedding part of their tails through a process called autotomy. This is an example of the pars pro toto principle, sacrificing a part for the whole, the detached tail writhes and wiggles, creating a deceptive sense of continued struggle, distracting the predators attention from the fleeing prey animal. The lizard partially regenerates its tail over a period of weeks, a 2014 research identified 326 genes involved in the regeneration of lizard tails. The new section contains cartilage rather than bone, and the skin may be discolored compared to the rest of the body, most lizards are oviparous, though in some species the eggs are retained until the live young emerge. Parthenogenesis occurs in at least 50 species and may be more widespread in the group. Sexual selection in lizards shows evidence of mate choice, favouring males display fitness indicators. However, doubt has been raised over the age of Tikiguania because it is almost indistinguishable from modern agamid lizards, the Tikiguania remains may instead be late Tertiary or Quaternary in age, having been washed into much older Triassic sediments. Lizards are most closely related to the Rhynchocephalia, which appeared in the Late Triassic, mitochondrial phylogenetics suggest that the first lizards evolved in the late Permian. It had been thought on the basis of data that iguanid lizards diverged from other squamates very early on
41.
Moss
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Mosses are small flowerless plants that typically grow in dense green clumps or mats, often in damp or shady locations. Although some species have conducting tissues, these are poorly developed. Mosses do not have seeds and after fertilisation develop sporophytes with unbranched stalks topped with single capsules containing spores and they are typically 0. 2–10 cm tall, though some species are much larger. Dawsonia, the tallest moss in the world, can grow to 50 cm in height, mosses are commonly confused with lichens, hornworts, and liverworts. Lichens may superficially look like mosses, and have names that include the word moss. This contrasts with the pattern in all plants, where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses are now classified on their own as the division Bryophyta, the main commercial significance of mosses is as the main constituent of peat, although they are also used for decorative purposes, such as in gardens and in the florist trade. Traditional uses of mosses included as insulation and for the ability to absorb liquids up to 20 times their weight, botanically, mosses are non-vascular plants in the land plant division Bryophyta. They are small plants that absorb water and nutrients mainly through their leaves and harvest carbon dioxide. They differ from plants in lacking water-bearing xylem tracheids or vessels. As in liverworts and hornworts, the gametophyte generation is the dominant phase of the life cycle. This contrasts with the pattern in all plants, where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses reproduce using spores, not seeds, and have no flowers, Moss gametophytes have stems which may be simple or branched and upright or prostrate. Their leaves are simple, usually only a layer of cells with no internal air spaces. They do not have roots, but have threadlike rhizoids that anchor them to their substrate. Mosses do not absorb water or nutrients from their substrate through their rhizoids and they can be distinguished from liverworts by their multi-cellular rhizoids. Spore-bearing capsules or sporangia of mosses are borne singly on long, unbranched stems, thereby distinguishing them from the polysporangiophytes, the spore-bearing sporophytes are short-lived and dependent on the gametophyte for water supply and nutrition. Also, in most mosses, the capsule enlarges and matures after its stalk elongates
42.
Nepenthes
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Nepenthes, also known as tropical pitcher plants or monkey cups, is a genus of carnivorous plants in the monotypic family Nepenthaceae. The genus comprises roughly 150 species, and numerous natural and many cultivated hybrids, the greatest diversity occurs on Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines, with many endemic species. Many are plants of hot, humid, lowland areas, but the majority are tropical plants, receiving warm days but cool to cold. A few are considered tropical alpine, with days and nights near freezing. The name monkey cups refers to the fact that monkeys have been observed drinking rainwater from these plants, from the stems arise alternate, sword-shaped leaves with entire leaf margins. An extension of the midrib, which in some species aids in climbing, protrudes from the tip of the leaf, the pitcher starts as a small bud and gradually expands to form a globe- or tube-shaped trap. The trap contains a fluid of the own production, which may be watery or syrupy. Research has shown this fluid contains viscoelastic biopolymers that may be crucial to the retention of insects within the traps of many species, the viscoelastic fluid in pitchers is especially effective in the retention of winged insects. The trapping efficiency of this fluid remains high, even when diluted by water. The lower part of the trap contains glands which absorb nutrients from captured prey, along the upper inside part of the trap is a slick, waxy coating which makes the escape of its prey nearly impossible. Surrounding the entrance to the trap is a called the peristome which is slippery and often quite colorful, attracting prey. The prey-capture effectiveness of the peristome is further enhanced in moist environments, when wet, the slippery surface of the peristome causes insects to ‘aquaplane’, or slip and fall, into the pitcher. Above the peristome is a lid, in species, this keeps rain from diluting the fluid within the pitcher. Nepenthes species usually produce two types of pitchers, known as leaf dimorphism, appearing near the base of the plant are the large lower traps, which typically sit on the ground. The upper or aerial pitchers are smaller, coloured differently. These upper pitchers usually form as the plant reaches maturity and the plant grows taller, to keep the plant steady, the upper pitchers often form a loop in the tendril, allowing it to wrap around nearby support. In some species, different prey may be attracted by the two types of pitchers and this varied morphology also often makes identification of species difficult. Prey usually consists of insects, but the largest species may catch small vertebrates, such as rats
43.
Nudibranch
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Nudibranchs /ˈnjuːdᵻbræŋk/ are a group of soft-bodied, marine gastropod molluscs which shed their shells after their larval stage. They are noted for their often extraordinary colours and striking forms, currently, about 2,300 valid species of nudibranchs are known. The word nudibranch comes from the Latin nudus, naked, Nudibranchs are often casually called sea slugs, but many sea slugs belong to several taxonomic groups which are not closely related to nudibranchs. A number of other sea slugs, such as the photosynthetic Sacoglossa. Nudibranchs occur in worldwide, including in the tropics and the Southern Ocean. Nudibranchs live at all depths of salt water, from the intertidal zone to depths well over 700 m. The greatest diversity of nudibranchs is seen in warm, shallow reefs, Nudibranchs are benthic animals, found crawling over the substrate. In all nudibranchs, the male and female sexual openings are on the side of the body. Some species have venomous appendages on their sides, which deter predators, many also have a simple gut and a mouth with a radula. The eyes in nudibranchs are simple and able to discern more than light. The eyes are set into the body, are about a quarter of a millimeter in diameter, Nudibranchs vary in adult size from 4 to 600 mm. The adult form is without a shell or operculum, in most species is a swimming veliger larva with a coiled shell which is shed at metamorphosis when the larva transforms into the adult form. Some species have direct development and the shell is shed before the animal emerges from the egg mass, the name nudibranch is appropriate, since the dorids breathe through a naked gill shaped into branchial plumes in a rosette on their backs. By contrast, on the back of the aeolids in the clade Cladobranchia there are brightly coloured sets of protruding organs called cerata, Nudibranchs have cephalic tentacles, which are sensitive to touch, taste, and smell. This group includes some of the most colourful creatures on earth, in the course of their evolution, nudibranchs have lost their shell while developing alternative defense mechanisms. Some species evolved an external anatomy with textures and colors that mimicked surrounding sessile invertebrate animals to avoid predators, other nudibranchs, as seen especially well on chromodorids, have an intensely bright and contrasting color pattern that makes them especially conspicuous in their surroundings. For example, the Spanish dancer nudibranch, among the largest of tropical marine slugs, potently chemically defended, other studies of nudibranch molluscs have concluded they are aposematically colored, for example, the slugs of the family Phylidiidae from Indo-Pacific coral reefs. Nudibranchs that feed on hydrozoids can store the hydrozoids nematocysts in the body wall
44.
Trachylinae
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Trachylinae are a cnidarian subclass of the Hydrozoa. They are placed at order rank in many classifications. But the Actinulidae, then considered an independent order, and probably also the Limnomedusae which were placed in the paraphyletic Hydroida. Schuchert, Peter, The Hydrozoa Directory - Hydrozoan Phylogeny and Classification
45.
Orchidaceae
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The Orchidaceae are a diverse and widespread family of flowering plants, with blooms that are often colourful and often fragrant, commonly known as the orchid family. Along with the Asteraceae, they are one of the two largest families of flowering plants, the Orchidaceae have about 28,000 currently accepted species, distributed in about 763 genera. The determination of which family is larger is still under debate, regardless, the number of orchid species nearly equals the number of bony fishes and is more than twice the number of bird species, and about four times the number of mammal species. The family also encompasses about 6–11% of all seed plants, the largest genera are Bulbophyllum, Epidendrum, Dendrobium and Pleurothallis. The family also includes Vanilla, Orchis, and many cultivated plants such as Phalaenopsis. Moreover, since the introduction of species into cultivation in the 19th century, horticulturists have produced more than 100,000 hybrids. Orchids are easily distinguished from plants, as they share some very evident, shared derived characteristics. Among these are, bilateral symmetry of the flower, many flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal, fused stamens and carpels. All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure and they can grow according to two patterns, Monopodial, The stem grows from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year and the stem grows longer accordingly. The stem of orchids with a monopodial growth can reach several metres in length, as in Vanda, Sympodial, Sympodial orchids have a front and a back. The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots which grow to a size, bloom. Sympodial orchids grow laterally rather than vertically, following the surface of their support, the growth continues by development of new leads, with their own leaves and roots, sprouting from or next to those of the previous year, as in Cattleya. While a new lead is developing, the rhizome may start its growth again from a so-called eye, Sympodial orchids may have visible pseudobulbs joined by a rhizome, which creeps along the top or just beneath the soil. Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers, the root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white. Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as Orchis and Ophrys, have two subterranean tuberous roots, one is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops. In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs, epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis and it is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, the cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support
46.
Prosobranchia
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Not to be confused with the bivalve order Protobranchia. Prosobranchia was a large subclass of sea snails, land snails. This taxon of gastropods dates back to the 1920s and it has however been proven to be polyphyletic. One can still encounter this subclass used as if it is valid in many texts. In contrast opisthobranch means gills behind, prosobranchs have their gills, mantle cavity and anus situated in front of their heart. The majority of gastropods are prosobranch, as are a few land snails. The majority of prosobranchs have an operculum, a corneous or calcareous plate situated on the surface of the foot. In many prosobranchs, the animal can close the aperture with the operculum. The nervous system of prosobranchs is twisted into a figure 8 due to a process known as torsion. The eyes are situated at the base of the tentacles, the taxonomy of the gastropods is changing rapidly. The old classification divided Gastropoda into three subclasses, Prosobranchia, Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata, the subclass Prosobranchia was further divided into the orders Archaeogastropoda, Mesogastropoda and Neogastropoda. The new version of the classification is explained in Taxonomy of the Gastropoda. 1154 p.584 figs. Bieler, R. & P. M. Mikkelsen,1992, handbook of Systematic Malacology, Part 1. Smithsonian Institution and National Science Foundation, xviii +625 pp. 470+1 text-fig, also published, in 1993, by Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart/Jena/New York. Bieler, R. Gastropod phylogeny and systematics, annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. On the origin and evolution of major groups, with special reference to the Streptoneura. Bieler, R. Haszprunars clado-evolutionary classification of the Gastropoda - a critique
