1.
Provinces of South Africa
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South Africa is divided into nine provinces. On the eve of the 1994 general election, South Africas former homelands, also known as Bantustans, were reintegrated, the twelfth, thirteenth and sixteenth amendments to the constitution changed the borders of seven of the provinces. The Union of South Africa was established in 1910 by combining four British colonies, the Cape Colony, the Natal Colony, the Transvaal Colony and these colonies became the four original provinces of the Union, Cape Province, Transvaal Province, Natal Province and Orange Free State Province. Segregation of the population started as early as 1913, with ownership of land by the black majority being restricted to certain areas totalling about 13% of the country. From the late 1950s, these areas were consolidated into homelands. Four of these homelands were established as quasi-independent nation states of the population during the apartheid era. Each province is governed by a legislature, the size of the legislature is proportional to population. The provincial legislature elects, from amongst its members, a Premier, the Premier chooses an Executive Council consisting of between five and ten members of the legislature, which is the cabinet of the provincial government. The Members of the Executive Council are the equivalent of ministers. The powers of the government are limited to specific topics listed in the national constitution. The provinces do not have their own systems, as the administration of justice is a responsibility purely of the national government. ‡ Pietermaritzburg and Ulundi were joint capitals of KwaZulu-Natal from 1994 to 2004, footnotes, † States that the Homeland was independent. Elections in South Africa Prince Edward Islands Proposals for South Africa to annex Lesotho Walvis Bay ISO 3166-2, ZA
2.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
3.
Natalia Republic
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The Natalia Republic was a short-lived Boer republic on the coast of Southern Africa, established in 1839 by Voortrekkers shortly after the Battle of Blood River. The area was purchased from the Zulu king Chaka by Piet Retief and his party in 1838 and it was previously named Natália by Portuguese sailors. The republic was annexed by Britain in 1843 to form the Colony of Natal, after the British annexation of the Natalia Republic, most local Voortrekkers trekked north into Transorangia, later known as the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal. Vasco da Gama sighted the bluff at the entrance to what is now the harbour of Durban in 1497, da Gama made no landing here and, like the rest of South Africa, Natal was neglected by the Portuguese, whose nearest settlement was at Delagoa Bay. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the region was inhabited by Xhosa people, the British established small settlements along the coastline, including the town of Durban, established in 1835. The next Europeans to settle the country were emigrant Boers from the Cape Colony and these voortrekkers were led by Piet Retief. Passing through the almost deserted upper regions, Retief arrived at Port Natal in October 1837, during this journey, he chose a site for the capital of the future state which he envisioned. He went to the kraal of the Zulu king, Dingane, Dingane consented on condition that the Boers recover cattle stolen by another chief. Retief managed that and, with the help of the Rev. F. Owen, Dingane and Retief signed it on 4 February 1838. Two days later, Dingane ordered the execution of Retief and all of his party,66 whites and 34 Khoikhoi servants, the Zulu king commanded his impis to kill all the Boers who had entered Natal. Other of the farmers hastily laagered and were able to repulse the Zulu attacks, in one week after the murder of Retief, the Zulus had killed 600 Boers. Hearing of the attack on the Boers, the British settlers at the bay sent a force to help them, robert Biggar commanded 20 British and a following of 700 friendly Zulus and crossed the Tugela River near its mouth. On 17 April, in a fight with a Zulu force. Pursued by the Zulus, the inhabitants of Durban took refuge on a ship then in harbour. After the Zulus retired, fewer than a dozen Englishmen returned to live at the port, the Boers had repelled the Zulu attacks on their laagers, joined by others from the Drakensberg, about 400 men under Hendrik Potgieter and Piet Uys advanced to attack Dingane. On 11 April, they were attacked and with difficulty cut their way out, among those slain were Piet Uys and his son Dirk, aged 15. Toward the end of the year, the Boers received reinforcements, in December 460 men set out under Boer general Andries Pretorius to take on the Zulus. Andries Pretorius selected Jan Gerritze Bantjes as his scribe and secretary in recording events of the campaign, Bantjes wrote in his journal the daily progress of the commando when they started out 27 Nov.1838
4.
Colony of Natal
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The Colony of Natal was a British colony in south-eastern Africa. It is now the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa, fierce conflict with the Zulu population led to the evacuation of Durban, and eventually the Boers accepted British annexation in 1844 under military pressure. A British governor was appointed to the region and many emigrated from Europe. The British established a sugar industry in the 1860s. Farm owners had a difficult time attracting Zulu labourers to work on their plantations, as a result of the importation of Indian labourers, Durban became the home to the largest concentration of Indians outside of India. In 1823 Francis Farewell, formerly a lieutenant in the British navy, with merchants of Cape Town. In the brig Salisbury, commanded by James S. King, the voyage was not successful as a trading venture, but Farewell was so impressed with the possibilities of Natal both for trade and colonization that he resolved to establish himself at the port. He went on with ten companions, among them Henry Francis Fynn, all the rest save Farewell and Fynn speedily returned to the Cape, but the two who remained were joined by three sailors, John Cane, Henry Ogle and Thomas Holstead. On the 27th of the same month Farewell declared the territory he had acquired a British possession, Farewell, King and Fynn made independent settlements at various parts of the bay. Both Dr Smith and Uys travelled overland through Kaffraria, and were received by the English living at the bay. The next step was taken by the settlers at the port, who in 1835 resolved to lay out a town, to all these requests no official answer was returned. The settlers had joined in the year named by Allen Francis Gardiner. With the support of the traders he founded a station on the hill overlooking the bay. In 1837 Gardiner was given authority by the British government to exercise jurisdiction over the traders and they, however, refused to acknowledge Gardiners authority, and from the Cape government he received no support. The next wave of immigration consisted of Voortrekkers fleeing British rule in Cape Colony, in May 1838 the Boers took control of the port and soon afterwards established the Natalia Republic. The Republic suffered from disorganized government and poor relations with the Zulus, on 2 December 1841, Sir George Thomas Napier, governor of Cape Colony, issued a proclamation declaring his intent to resume British military occupation of Port Natal. Most of the Voortrekkers left by 1843, Natal was proclaimed a British Colony in 1843, and administered from the Cape Colony in 1844. However, it was not until the end of 1845 that an administration was installed with Martin West as lieutenant-governor that the power of the Boer Volksraad finally came to an end
5.
Natal Province
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The Province of Natal, commonly called the Natal Province, was a province of South Africa from 1910 until 1994. The Natal Province included the bantustan of KwaZulu, the majority of the white population were English-speaking, causing Natal to become the only province to vote no to the creation of a republic in the referendum of 1960. In the latter part of the 1980s, Natal was in a state of violence that only ended with the first multiracial election in 1994, in 1994, the KwaZulu bantustan was reincorporated into the territory of Natal and the province redesignated KwaZulu-Natal. Districts of the province and population at the time of the 1991 census, coat of arms of Natal Mtetwa Empire Zululand Natalia Republic Colony of Natal KwaZulu-Natal
6.
Pietermaritzburg
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Pietermaritzburg is the capital and second-largest city in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and is also regarded as the birth place of legends. It was founded in 1838 and is governed by the Msunduzi Local Municipality. Its Zulu name umGungundlovu is the used for the district municipality. Pietermaritzburg is popularly called Maritzburg in English and Zulu alike, and it is a regionally important industrial hub, producing aluminium, timber and dairy products. It is home to schools and tertiary education institutions, including a campus of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. It had a population of 228,549 in 1991, the current population is around 500,000 and has one of the largest populations of Indian South Africans in South Africa. The city was founded by the Voortrekkers, following the defeat of Dingane at the Battle of Blood River, britain took over Pietermaritzburg in 1843 and it became the seat of the Natal Colonys administration with the first lieutenant-governor, Martin West, making it his home. Fort Napier, named after the governor of the Cape Colony, in 1893, Natal received responsibility for their own government and an assembly building was built along with the city hall. In 1910, when the Union of South Africa was formed, Natal became a province of the Union, there exist two interpretations about the origin of the citys name. One is that it was named after Piet Retief and Gert Maritz, the other is that it was originally named after Piet Retief alone, since his full name was Pieter Maurits Retief. In this interpretation the name was Pieter Maurits Burg, later transliterated to the current name. Retief in fact never reached Pietermaritzburg and was killed by Dingane, successor to Shaka, Maritz died of illness on 23 September 1838 near the present-day town of Estcourt, some hundreds of kilometres northwest of Pietermaritzburg. This was after the battle with the Zulus at Bloukranz, in 1938, however, the city announced officially that the second element Maritz should also honour Gert Maritz. At the time of the rise of the Zulu Empire, the site that was to become Pietermaritzburg was called Umgungundlovu and this is popularly translated from the Zulu as Place of the Elephant, although it could also be translated to mean The elephant wins. Umgungundlovu is thus thought to be the site of some Zulu kings victory since Elephant is a name taken by the Zulu monarch. Legend has it that Shaka had his warriors hunt elephant there to sell the ivory to English traders at Durban, today, the town is still called by its Voortrekker name, although the municipality of which it is part bears the Zulu name. During apartheid, the city was segregated into various sections, 90% of the Indian population was moved to the suburb of Northdale while most of its Zulu inhabitants were moved to the neighbouring township of Edendale. The University of Natal was founded in 1910 as the Natal University College, the two campuses were incorporated into the University of Natal in March 1949
7.
Durban
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Durban is the largest city in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal. Durbans metropolitan municipality ranks third among the most populous areas in South Africa after Johannesburg. It is also the second most important manufacturing hub in South Africa after Johannesburg and it forms part of the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality. Durban is famous for being the busiest port in South Africa and it is also seen as one of the major centres of tourism because of the citys warm subtropical climate and extensive beaches. It is the largest city in KwaZulu-Natal which is the 2nd most populous province in South Africa and it has the highest number of dollar millionaires added per year of any South African city with the number rising 200% between 2000 and 2014. In May 2015, Durban was officially recognised as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, La Paz, Havana, Beirut, archaeological evidence from the Drakensberg mountains suggests that the Durban area has been inhabited by communities of hunter-gatherers since 100,000 BC. He named the area Natal, or Christmas in Portuguese, accompanying Farewell was an adventurer named Henry Francis Fynn. Fynn was able to befriend the Zulu King Shaka by helping him to recover from a wound he suffered in battle. As a token of Shakas gratitude, he granted Fynn a 30-mile strip of coast a hundred miles in depth. During a meeting of 35 European residents in Fynns territory on 23 June 1835, it was decided to build a town and name it dUrban after Sir Benjamin dUrban. The Voortrekkers established the Republic of Natalia in 1838, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg, piet Retief, leader of the Voortrekkers in Natal, negotiated with the Zulu King, Dingane, in order to obtain land for their farming purposes. After negotiations were concluded, Dingane however reneged and had Retief, thereafter the Zulus attacked and killed more than 500 Voortrekkers at Retiefs laager. The Voortrekkers retaliated and broke Dinganes power at the Battle of Blood River, the force arrived on 4 May 1842 and built a fortification that was later to be The Old Fort. On the night of 23/24 May 1842 the British attacked the Voortrekker camp at Congella, the attack failed, and the British had to withdraw to their camp which was put under siege. A local trader Dick King and his servant Ndongeni were able to escape the blockade and rode to Grahamstown, the reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later, the Voortrekkers retreated, and the siege was lifted. Fierce conflict with the Zulu population led to the evacuation of Durban, a British governor was appointed to the region and many settlers emigrated from Europe and the Cape Colony. The British established a sugar industry in the 1860s. Farm owners had a difficult time attracting Zulu labourers to work on their plantations, as a result of the importation of Indian labourers, Durban has the largest Asian community on the African continent, and has the largest Indian population outside of India
8.
Districts of South Africa
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The nine provinces of South Africa are divided into 52 districts, which are either metropolitan or district municipalities. They are the level of administrative division, below the provinces. As a consequence of the 12th amendment of the Constitution in December 2005, which altered provincial boundaries, another effect of the amendment is that each district is now completely contained within a single province, thus eliminating cross-border districts. The districts also cover the area of the continental republic. South Africas districts are analogous to counties in Great Britain and the United States, there are two types of municipality at the district level. Most of the country is covered by the 44 district municipalities, the eight largest urban agglomerations are governed by metropolitan municipalities, which act as both local and district municipalities. A district municipality or Category C municipality is a municipality which executes some of the functions of government for a district. The district municipality will in turn comprise several local municipalities, with which it shares the functions of local government, District municipalities are seen as successors to former Regional Services Councils. The Constitution, section 155.1. a, defines Category C municipalities, the Municipal Structures Act states that areas not eligible to have a metropolitan municipality must have a district municipality. District municipalities have a municipality code that consists of the letters DC followed by a number from 1 to 48, the DC reflects the fact that they were originally named District Councils. Currently all district municipalities are divided into local municipalities. However, before the alteration of boundaries which occurred at the 2011 elections. This usually occurred in areas with a low population density, for example national parks. In these areas, which were known as District Management Areas, the following map depicts the provinces and districts of South Africa. The district municipalities are labelled with numbers that correspond to their district code, further details of the districts are listed in the table that follows the image. Several projects are underway to align various services with the district boundaries
9.
EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality
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EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality is a metropolitan municipality created in 2000 that includes the city of Durban, South Africa and surrounding towns. EThekwini is one of the 11 districts of KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa, the majority of its 3,442,361 people speak Zulu. It was formed from seven formerly independent local councils and tribal land, the derivation of the word eThekwini is debated, the name is said to mean either ‘lagoon’ or ‘the one-testicled one’, referring to the appearance of the Durban Bay. In an 1859 Zulu grammar book, Bishop Colenso asserted that the root word iTeku means bay of the sea and noted that the locative form, eTekwini, was used as a proper name for Durban. An 1895 English-Zulu dictionary translates the base word iteku as bay, creek, gulf or sinus, the municipal council consists of 219 members elected by mixed-member proportional representation. In the 2016 Municipal Elections the African National Congress won a majority of 56. 01% of the vote and 126 seats on the council, the second-largest party was the Democratic Alliance, which won 26. 9% of the vote and 61 seats. The Inkatha Freedom Party, the Economic Freedom Fighters and the African Independent Congress also won notable shares of the vote, the following table shows the detailed results of the election. The shack dwellers movement Abahlali baseMjondolo has members in more than 30 settlements in eThekwini, Abahlali have campaigned vigorously against evictions, against forced removals and for basic services and ongoing democratic consultation. At times there has been conflict between Abahlali and the municipal government. Durban Industry Climate Change Partnership Project Municipal Demarcation Board eThekwini Online The official site of Durban, South Africa
10.
Ugu District Municipality
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Ugu is one of the 11 districts of KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The seat of Ugu is Port Shepstone, the majority of its 722,484 people speak IsiZulu. Election results for Ugu in the South African general election,2004, population 18 and over,385659 Total votes,216751 Voting % estimate,56. 20% votes as a % of population 18 and over Ugu DM Official website
11.
Uthukela District Municipality
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UThukela is one of the 11 districts of the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The seat of uThukela is the city of Ladysmith, the majority of its 668,848 people speak IsiZulu. Election results for uThukela in the South African general election,2004, population 18 and over,350092 Total votes,177230 Voting % estimate,50. 62% votes as a % of population 18 and over Official Website
12.
Amajuba District Municipality
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Amajuba is one of the 11 districts of KwaZulu-Natal province. The seat of Amajuba is Newcastle, the majority of its 468,040 people speak Zulu. The district code is DC25 The Amajuba District is marketed as a tourism destination. Amajuba is a name meaning “a place of doves”. The impis of King Shaka named the area Amajuba in 1825 and it is associated with peace and it is a world-renowned name. The area is also the site of a battle in which the Boers defeated the British in 1881, election results for Amajuba in the South African general election,2004
13.
Zululand District Municipality
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Zululand is one of the 11 district municipalities of KwaZulu-Natal province. The seat of Zululand is Ulundi, the majority of its 804,456 people speak IsiZulu. It is part of a historical area also known as Zululand. Election results for Zululand in the South African general election,2004, population 18 and over,394233 Total votes,218270 Voting % estimate,55. 37% votes as a % of population 18 and over Municipal Demarcation Board Zululand DM official website
14.
Umkhanyakude District Municipality
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UMkhanyakude is the northernmost of the 11 districts of the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. It is a rural district, the largest town being Mtubatuba in the south, with Hluhluwe, Mkuze, Jozini, Kwangwanase. The majority of its 573,353 people speak IsiZulu, uMkhanyakude is named after the yellow-barked fever tree, literally meaning “seen from afar”. It contains many areas of outstanding natural beauty such as the St Lucia greater wetland park, Sodwana Bay, game parks include Hluhluwe-Umfolozi, Ndumu and Tembe Elephant Park. It is one of the two most deprived districts in South Africa according to the District Health Barometer, election results for Umkhanyakude in the South African general election,2004. Population 18 and over,274753 Total votes,150543 Voting % estimate,54. 79% votes as a % of population 18 and over Umkhanyakude DM official website Elephant Coast travel guide from Wikivoyage
15.
King Cetshwayo District Municipality
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King Cetshwayo District Municipality is one of the 11 district municipalities of KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa. The seat of the district is Richards Bay, the majority of its 885944 people speak Zulu. It is named after Cetshwayo kaMpande, King of the Zulu Kingdom from 1872 to 1879, King Cetshwayo District is officially a sister city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA. It is the city in Africa to be twined with a city in Wisconsin. The joining of the two cities was largely enacted from legislation in Wisconsin in collaboration with the Africa Urban Poverty Alleviation Program, Milwaukee will collaborate with their African counterparts to identify and address the most critical problems in these sectors, which form barriers to sustained development in urban areas. This project is funded by a $7.5 million grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the program is cited to end in middle of the year 2012. Election results for uThungulu in the South African general election,2004, population 18 and over,477576 Total votes,252139 Voting % estimate,52. 80% votes as a % of population 18 and over Municipal Demarcation Board Official website
16.
ILembe District Municipality
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ILembe is one of the 11 district municipalities of KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa. The seat of iLembe is KwaDukuza, the majority of its 606,809 people speak Zulu. It was formerly named the King Shaka District Municipality, election results for iLembe in the South African general election,2004. Population 18 and over,312758 Total votes,166460 Voting % estimate,53. 22% votes as a % of population 18 and over Municipal Demarcation Board iLembe DM Official Website
17.
Harry Gwala District Municipality
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Harry Gwala is one of the 11 districts of KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The seat of Harry Gwala is Ixopo, the majority of its 298392 people speak IsiZulu. In November 2015, Sisonke Districts name was changed to Harry Gwala District, election results for Harry Gwala in the South African general election,2004. Population 18 and over,157807 Total votes,83403 Voting % estimate,52. 85% votes as a % of population 18 and over Official Website
18.
Parliamentary system
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In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a different person from the head of government. Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders, eventually these councils have slowly evolved into the modern Parliamentary system. The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages, for example in 1188 Alfonso IX, the modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden. In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, in the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George Is inability to speak English led the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the minister, literally the prime or first minister. By the nineteenth century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister, hence the use of phrases like Her Majestys government or His Excellencys government. Nineteenth century urbanisation, industrial revolution and, modernism had already fueled the political struggle for democracy. In the radicalised times at the end of World War I, a parliamentary system may be either bicameral, with two chambers of parliament or unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber. Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies, the Westminster and Consensus systems, the Westminster system is usually found in the Commonwealth of Nations and countries which were influenced by the British political tradition. These parliaments tend to have a more style of debate. The Australian House of Representatives is elected using instant-runoff voting, while the Senate is elected using proportional representation through single transferable vote, regardless of which system is used, the voting systems tend to allow the voter to vote for a named candidate rather than a closed list. The Western European parliamentary model tends to have a more consensual debating system, Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use proportional representation with open party lists than the Westminster Model legislatures. The committees of these Parliaments tend to be more important than the plenary chamber, some West European countries parliaments implement the principle of dualism as a form of separation of powers. In countries using this system, Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed minister, ministers in those countries usually actively participate in parliamentary debates, but are not entitled to vote. Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature, the head of state appoints a prime minister who will likely have majority support in parliament. The head of state appoints a minister who must gain a vote of confidence within a set time. The head of state appoints the leader of the party holding a plurality of seats in parliament as prime minister
19.
African National Congress
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The African National Congress is the Republic of South Africas governing social democratic political party. It has been the party of post-apartheid South Africa on the national level, beginning with the election of Nelson Mandela in the 1994 election. Today, the ANC remains the dominant political party in South Africa and its leader Jacob Zuma is the incumbent head of state, with Atul Gupta being the official head of government. On 8 April 1960, the administration of Charles Robberts Swart, banned the ANC, after the ban, the ANC formed the Umkhonto we Sizwe to fight against apartheid utilizing guerrilla warfare and sabotage. On 3 February 1990, State President F. W. de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC, on 17 March 1992, the apartheid referendum was passed by the voters removing apartheid and allowing the ANC to run in the 1994 election. Since the 1994 election the ANC has performed better than 60% in all general elections, the founding of the SANNC was in direct response to injustice against black South Africans at the hands of the government then in power. It can be said that the SANNC had its origins in a pronouncement by Pixley ka Isaka Seme who said in 1911, Forget all the past differences among Africans, the SANNC was founded the following year on 8 January 1912. The government of the newly formed Union of South Africa began a systematic oppression of people in South Africa. The Land Act was promulgated in 1913 forcing many non-whites from their farms into the cities and towns to work, by 1919, the SANNC was leading a campaign against passes. However, it became dormant in the mid-1920s. During that time, black people were represented by the ICU. In 1923, the became the African National Congress. By 1927, J. T. Gumede proposed co-operation with the Communists in a bid to revitalise the organisation and this led to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual and inactive, until the mid-1940s when the ANC was remodelled as a mass movement. The ANC responded to attacks on the rights of black South Africans, as well as calling for strikes, boycotts and this led to a later Defiance Campaign in the 1950s, a mass movement of resistance to apartheid. The government tried to stop the ANC by banning party leaders and enacting new laws to stop the ANC, the government claimed that this was a communist document, and consequently leaders of the ANC and Congress were arrested. 1960 saw the Sharpeville massacre, in which 69 people were killed when police opened fire on anti-apartheid protesters, in 1961, partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre, Umkhonto we Sizwe was established as the military wing to launch bomb attacks. It was considered as terrorist group by South African government, later the United States government, MK commenced the military struggle against apartheid with acts of sabotage aimed at the installations of the state, and in the early stages was reluctant to target civilian targets. MK was responsible for the deaths of civilians and members of the military
20.
Black people
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As such, the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies, and depends significantly on context. For many other individuals, communities and countries, black is also perceived as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, different societies apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as black, and these social constructs have also changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, in the United Kingdom, black was historically equivalent with person of color, a general term for non-European peoples. In South Africa and Latin America, mixed-race people are not classified as black. In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the term black or it was used by local populations with different histories and ancestral backgrounds. The Romans interacted with and later conquered parts of Mauretania, a state that covered modern Morocco, western Algeria. The people of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities. In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard and he claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had a mother who was a dark-skinned Nubian Sudanese woman, in response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish, due to the patriarchal nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more black women than men. They used more black female slaves in domestic service and agriculture than males, the men interpreted the Quran to permit sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage, leading to many mixed-race children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab masters child, she was considered as umm walad or mother of a child, the child was given rights of inheritance to the fathers property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father. Because the society was patrilineal, the children took their fathers social status at birth and were born free, some succeeded their fathers as rulers, such as Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a child of a slave, his mother was Fulani. Such tolerance for black persons, even when technically free, was not so common in Morocco, the long association of sub-Saharan peoples as slaves is shown in the term abd, it is still frequently used in the Arabic-speaking world as a term for black people. In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudans non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of deftly manipulat Arab solidarity to carry out policies of apartheid, American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. The Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid, many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid
21.
Indian South African
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Indian South Africans are South Africans of Indian descent. The majority live in and around the city of Durban, making it the largest Indian city outside India, many Indians in South Africa are descendents of migrants from colonial India during late 19th-century through early 20th-century. At times Indians were subsumed in the broader geographical category Asians, there remains a cultural, religious and racial overlap for Asians and Indian South Africans. During the most intense period of segregation and apartheid, Indian, Asian, Coloured, during ideological apartheid from 1948 to 1994, Indians were called, and often voluntarily accepted, terms that ranged from Asians to Indians. Some citizens believed that terms were improvements on the negatively defined identity of Non-White. Politically conscious and nationalistic Indian South Africans wanted to both their heritage and their local roots. Increasingly they self-identified as African, South African and, when necessary, nonetheless, the spread of democratic elections has sometimes heightened ethnic loyalties. Politicians and groups have looked for means to power in the competitive parliamentary democracy which South Africa has become since 1994. A significant proportion of slaves imported into the Cape were from parts of India including Bangladesh, many slaves had no identity as Indians and were conveniently classified by the Dutch in the Cape as part of Cape Coloured and Cape Malay communities. There is no reference to the names of these Indians and were given Christian names for convenience. This all contributed to the loss of identity similar to the Mozambicans, an early Indian to settle in South Africa was Kalaga Prabhu, a Goud Saraswat Brahmin merchant from Cochin. He was the foremost among the Konkani merchants in Cochin, no further record of this individual and his descendants if any exists. The modern South African Indian community is descended from Indians who arrived in South Africa from 1860 onwards. The first 342 of these came on board the Truro from Madras, the indentured labourers tended to speak Tamil, Telugu and Hindi, and the majority were Hindu with Christians and a few Muslims among them. The Mercury newspaper favoured the importation of labour, although other Natal newspapers were against the idea. It should be noted that although 1860 is dated as the beginning of Indian settlement in Natal, indentured labourers on sugar plantations were frequently mistreated, and lived in unsanitary conditions. Indians also became fishermen, and worked as clerks, in the postal service and these immigrant Indians who became traders were from varying religious backgrounds, namely Hindu and Muslims but largely from Gujarat, later joined by Kokanis, and Urdu speakers from Uttar Pradesh. These Muslims played an important part in the establishment of Islam in the areas where they settled, there was also a significant number of Gujarati Hindus in this group
22.
Asian South Africans
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They are largely English speaking, although many also retain the languages of their ancestors. There is also a significant group of Chinese South Africans, of whom the majority are recent immigrants of the last two decades. In total the 1.2 million Asians in South Africa represent about two percent of the nations population, traditionally, the group does not include the Cape Malays, who were descended from South East Asians, who were classified as Coloured under apartheid. The term Indian is far more commonly used than Asian in South Africa and they were hired to work in sugar plantations or mines in the Colony of Natal. Traders, known as Passenger Indians also subsequently immigrated, Indian South Africans form the largest grouping of people of Indian descent born outside India. Since 1994 however, there has been a trickle of immigrants from the Indian subcontinent. Most Indian South Africans live in KwaZulu-Natal, particularly in the cities of Durban, Pietermaritzburg, the smaller Chinese community was initially descended from migrant workers who came to work in the gold mines around Johannesburg in the late nineteenth century. Some of those workers were repatriated, estimates vary, but the Chinese population is reckoned to have increased from 10,000 in the early 1980s to more than 100,000 in the early 2000s. Chinese immigration caused difficulties for the apartheid regime, in late 2006, the Chinese Association of South Africa filed suit to have Chinese South Africans recognised as having been disadvantaged under apartheid, to benefit from Black Economic Empowerment. Complicating this attempt was the presence of recent immigrant Chinese who had not been disadvantaged by apartheid and they much outnumber native Chinese South Africans. Because Chinese under apartheid had somewhat less rigid restrictions than indigenous blacks, in addition, the status of Taiwanese, Japanese and South Koreans as honorary whites under apartheid complicated the case. Nonetheless, in June 2008, Chinese South Africans were fully recognised as having been disadvantaged and entered the BEE ethnic groups if they arrived before 1994. For separate political reasons, the government had classified Taiwanese, Japanese and South Koreans, as honorary white, a number of people from Pakistan have also immigrated to South Africa following the end of apartheid. They often, but not always, live in the areas as the Indian South Africans. The Cape Malays are Indonesian and Malaysian South Africans who were the largest group of immigrants adapted to the society of South Africa, during the apartheid regime, they were both classified as part of the Coloured racial group and thus considered non-white and treated as such
23.
White South African
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White South Africans are people from South Africa who are of European descent and who do not regard themselves, or are not regarded as, being part of another racial group. In 2011, 61% were native Afrikaans speakers, 36% were native English speakers, White South Africans are by far the largest European-descended population group in Africa. The history of European settlement in South Africa started in 1652 with the settlement of the Cape of Good Hope by the Dutch East India Company under Jan van Riebeeck. The colony remained under Dutch rule for two centuries, after which it was annexed by Great Britain around 1806. At that time, South Africa was home to about 26,000 people of European descent, however, beginning in 1818 thousands of British immigrants arrived in the fledgling Cape Colony, looking to join the local workforce or settle directly on the frontier. About a fifth of the Capes original Dutch-speaking white population migrated eastwards during the Great Trek in the 1830s, nevertheless, the population of European origin continued increasing at the Cape as a result of immigration, and by 1865 had reached 181,500 people. Between 1880 and 1910, there was an influx of Eastern Europeans of various nationalities, the first nationwide census in South Africa was held in 1911 and indicated a white population of 1,276,242. By 1936 there were an estimated 2,003,857 white South Africans, South Africas white population increased to over 3,408,000 by 1965, reached 4,050,000 in 1973, and peaked at 5,044,000 in 1990. The number of white South Africans resident in their home country began gradually declining between 1990 and the mid-2000s as a result of increased emigration, whites continue to play a role in the South African economy and across the political spectrum. Whites number approximately 4.5 to 5 million, or nearly 9% of South Africas population and this represents a decline, both numerically and proportionately, since the countrys first multiracial elections in 1994. Just under a million white South Africans are also living as expatriate workers abroad, under the 1950 Population Registration Act, each inhabitant of South Africa was classified into one of several different race groups, of which White was one. Many criteria, both physical and social were used when the decided to classify someone as white or coloured. This was ventral extended to all those considered the children of two White persons, regardless of appearance, the Act was repealed on 17 June 1991. The 1994 Employment Equity legislation favours employment of black South Africans over the white population, however, private enterprise adheres to this legislation voluntarily. This combined with a wave of violent crime has led to vast numbers of Afrikaners, there are 40,000 white farmers in South Africa. Since 1994 close to three thousand farmers have murdered in thousands of farm attacks, with many being brutally tortured and/or raped. Some victims have been burned with smoothing irons or had boiling water poured down their throats, since 1994 there has been significant emigration of white people from South Africa. There are thus currently large Afrikaner and English-speaking South African communities in the UK, between 1995 and 2005, more than one million South Africans have emigrated, citing violent and racially motivated black on white crime as the main reason
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Coloureds
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Coloureds are a multiracial ethnic group originating in colonial South Africa, who possess ancestry from European, African and Asian ethnic groups. Different families and individuals have a variety of different physical features, there were extensive relationships and unions among these diverse peoples in the Western Cape — in which a distinctive Cape Coloured and affiliated Cape Malay culture developed. In other parts of Southern Africa, people classified as Coloured were usually the descendants of individuals from two distinct ethnicities, genetic studies suggest the group has the highest levels of mixed ancestry in the world. Mitochondrial DNA studies have demonstrated that the lines of the Coloured population are descended mostly from Khoisan women. The Coloured community is descended from numerous interracial sexual unions between Western European men and Khoisan women in the Cape Colony from the 17th century onwards. In KwaZulu-Natal, Coloureds possess a diverse heritage including British, Irish, German, Mauritian, Saint Helenians, Indians, Xhosa, zimbabwean Coloureds are descended from Shona or Ndebele mixing with British and Afrikaner settlers. Griqua, on the hand, are descendants of Khoisan. Despite these major differences, their ancestry from more than one naturalised racial group means that they are coloured in the South African context, such people did not necessarily self-identify this way, some preferred to call themselves black or Khoisan or just South African. The Griqua were subjected to an ambiguity of other people within Southern African social order. With territories beyond the VOC’s administration, Kok provided refuge to deserting soldiers, runaway slaves, the imperial and apartheid governments categorized them as Coloureds. In addition, other groups also traditionally viewed them as a separate group. Coloured people are made up of Indonesian, mixed-race, and people from Khoisan ancestry, the Apartheid government thus treated them as one people, despite their differences. Cape Muslims are also classified as coloured and they generally have Indonesian and black ancestry, as many Indonesian slaves had children with African partners. Many Griqua began to self-identify as Coloureds during the apartheid era, for example, Coloureds did not have to carry a dompas, while the Griqua, who were seen as an indigenous African group, did. Coloured people constitute a plurality of the population in the Western Cape, most speak Afrikaans, while about twenty percent of Coloureds speak English as their mother tongue, mostly in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. Virtually all Cape Town Coloureds are bilingual, some can comfortably codeswitch between Kaapse taal and suiwer Afrikaans, and South African English. At least one study indicates that Cape Coloureds have ancestries from the following ethnic groups. This genetic admixture appears to be gender-biased, a majority of maternal genetic material is Khoisan
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Zulu language
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Zulu is the language of the Zulu people, with about 10 million speakers, the vast majority of whom live in South Africa. Zulu is the most widely spoken language in South Africa. It became one of South Africas 11 official languages in 1994, according to Ethnologue, it is the second most widely spoken of the Bantu languages, after Shona. Like many other Bantu languages, it is written with the Latin alphabet, even in English, the language is often referred to by using its native form, isiZulu. Zulu migrant populations have taken it to adjacent regions, especially Zimbabwe, Xhosa, the predominant language in the Eastern Cape, is often considered mutually intelligible with Zulu. Maho lists four dialects, central KwaZulu-Natal Zulu, northern Transvaal Zulu, eastern coastal Qwabe, the Zulu, like Xhosa and other Nguni people, have lived in South Africa for a long time. The Zulu language possesses several click sounds typical of Southern African languages, the Nguni people have coexisted with other Southern tribes like the San and Khoi. Zulu, like most indigenous Southern African languages, was not a written language until the arrival of missionaries from Europe, the first grammar book of the Zulu language was published in Norway in 1850 by the Norwegian missionary Hans Schreuder. The first written document in Zulu was a Bible translation that appeared in 1883, in 1901, John Dube, a Zulu from Natal, created the Ohlange Institute, the first native educational institution in South Africa. He was also the author of Insila kaShaka, the first novel written in Zulu, another pioneering Zulu writer was Reginald Dhlomo, author of several historical novels of the 19th-century leaders of the Zulu nation, U-Dingane, U-Shaka, U-Mpande, U-Cetshwayo and U-Dinizulu. Other notable contributors to Zulu literature include Benedict Wallet Vilakazi and, more recently, the written form of Zulu was controlled by the Zulu Language Board of KwaZulu-Natal. This board has now disbanded and superseded by the Pan South African Language Board which promotes the use of all eleven official languages of South Africa. English, Dutch and later Afrikaans had been the official languages used by all South African governments before 1994. However, in the Kwazulu bantustan the Zulu language was widely used, all education in the country at the high-school level was in English or Afrikaans. Since the demise of apartheid in 1994, Zulu has been enjoying a marked revival, zulu-language television was introduced by the SABC in the early 1980s and it broadcasts news and many shows in Zulu. Zulu radio is very popular and newspapers such as isoLezwe, Ilanga and UmAfrika in the Zulu language are available, mainly available in Kwazulu-Natal province, in January 2005 the first full-length feature film in Zulu, Yesterday, was nominated for an Oscar. South African matriculation requirements no longer specify which South African language needs to be taken as a second language, and some people have made the switch to learning Zulu. However people taking Zulu at high-school level overwhelmingly take it as a first language, according to statistics, in the 1994 film The Lion King, in the Circle of Life song, the phrases Ingonyama nengw enamabala, Nans ingonyama bakithi Baba and Siyonqoba were used
26.
Xhosa language
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The Xhosa language is a Bantu language with click consonants and one of the official languages of South Africa. It is spoken by approximately 7.6 million people, or about 18% of the South African population, like most other Bantu languages, Xhosa is a tonal language, the same sequence of consonants and vowels can have different meanings, depending on intonation. Xhosa has two tones, high and low, Xhosa is written with the Latin alphabet. Three letters are used to indicate the basic clicks, c for dental clicks, x for lateral clicks, tones are not normally indicated in writing. Xhosa is the southernmost branch of Nguni languages, which include Swazi, Northern Ndebele, there is some mutual intelligibility with other Nguni languages, all of which share many linguistic features. Nguni languages are, in turn, part of the larger group of Bantu languages. Xhosa is the most widely distributed African language in South Africa, Xhosa is the second most common home language in South Africa as a whole. A minority of Xhosa speakers lives in Quthing District, Lesotho, maho lists Mpondo, Xesibe, Bomwana, Gaika, Gcaleka, Thembu, Mpondomise, Ndlambe, and Hlubi. Hlubi is the dialect in the former Ciskei, there is the more distinct Hlubi language further north, where Xhosa meets Sotho. Xhosa has an inventory of ten vowels, and, all occurring both long and short, they are written a, e, i, o and u. Xhosa is a language with two inherent, phonemic tones, low and high. Tones are rarely marked in the language, but they can be indicated a, á, â, ä. Xhosa is rich in uncommon consonants, besides pulmonic egressive sounds, which are found in all spoken languages, it has 18 clicks. Also, Xhosa has ejectives and an implosive, although 15 of the clicks also occur in Zulu, they are used less frequently than in Xhosa. The first six are dental clicks, made with the tongue on the back of the teeth, the next six are lateral, made by the tongue at the sides of the mouth, and they are similar to the sound used to call horses. The last six are alveolar, made with the tip of the tongue at the roof of the mouth, and they sound somewhat like a cork pulled from a bottle. The following table lists the consonant phonemes of the language, with the pronunciation in IPA on the left and the orthography on the right, Two additional consonants, Two additional consonants, and, are found in borrowings. Two additional consonants, and, are found in loans, an additional consonant, is found in loans. In addition to the affricate, the spelling tsh may also be used for either of the aspirated affricates
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Afrikaans
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Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Hence, it is a language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch or kitchen Dutch. Although, it is described as a creole, a partially creolised language the least. The term is derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch. It is the first language of most of the Afrikaner and Coloured people of Southern Africa, therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages—especially in written form. With about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13. 5% of the population and it has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the eleven official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. About 1. 5% of black South Africans speak it as their first language, large numbers of speakers of Bantu languages and English-speaking South Africans also speak it as their second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students and it, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25% of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German survive as recognised regional languages in the country, estimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million. The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, there is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Nevertheless, Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch, in general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The workers and slaves who contributed to the development of Afrikaans were Asians and Malagasys, as well as the Khoi, San, and Bantu peoples who also lived in the area. African creole people in the early 18th century — documented on the cases of Hendrik Bibault, Only much later in the second half of the 19th century did the Boers adopt this attribution, too. The Khoi and mixed-race groups became collectively referred to as Coloureds, beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet, see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin alphabet, started to appear in newspapers and political, in 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper. Before the Boer Wars, and indeed for some time afterwards, rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ‘a kitchen language’ or as ‘a bastard jargon, suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants
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South African Standard Time
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South African Standard Time is the time zone used by all of South Africa, as well as Swaziland and Lesotho. The zone is two hours ahead of UTC and is the same as Central Africa Time, daylight saving time is not observed in either time zone. Thus, most of South Africas population experience true solar noon at approximately 12,00 daily, the western Northern Cape and Western Cape differ however. Everywhere on land west of 22°30′ E effectively experiences year-round daylight saving time because of its location in true UTC+1, sunrise and sunset are thus relatively late in Cape Town compared to the rest of the country. Before 8 February 1892, there was no uniformity of time in South Africa, in 1892, a railway conference was held in Bloemfontein and discussed difficulty of working a railway system, in the absence of a uniform time system. The governments of the Orange Free State, Transvaal and the Cape Colony officially adopted a standard time of Greenwich Mean Time +01,30 which was defined as mean time 22. 5° east of Greenwich. On 1 March 1903 GMT+02,00 was adopted, which became the current UTC+02,00 when UTC replaced GMT for most purposes, prior to 1 March 1903, the Colony of Natal was already using a uniform time supplied by the Natal Observatory. The observatorys local mean time was GMT+1,57, South Africa observed a daylight saving time of GMT+3,00 between 20 September 1942 to 21 March 1943 and 19 September 1943 to 21 March 1944. South African Standard Time is defined as Coordinated Universal Time plus two hours
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Zulu people
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The Zulu are a Bantu ethnic group of Southern Africa and the largest ethnic group in South Africa, with an estimated 10–11 million people living mainly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. Small numbers also live in Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique, the Zulu were originally a major clan in what is today Northern KwaZulu-Natal, founded ca.1709 by Zulu kaMalandela. In the Nguni languages, iZulu means heaven, or weather, at that time, the area was occupied by many large Nguni communities and clans. Nguni communities had migrated down Africas east coast over centuries, as part of the Bantu migrations probably arriving in what is now South Africa in about the 9th century, the Zulu formed a powerful state in 1818 under the leader Shaka. Shaka, as the Zulu King, gained an amount of power over the tribe. On 11 December 1878, agents of the British delivered an ultimatum to 11 chiefs representing Cetshwayo, the terms forced upon Cetshwayo required him to disband his army and accept British authority. Cetshwayo refused, and war followed January 12,1879, during the war, the Zulus defeated the British at the Battle of Isandlwana on 22 January. The British managed to get the hand after the Battle at Rorkes Drift. After Cetshwayos capture a month following his defeat, the British divided the Zulu Empire into 13 kinglets, the sub-kingdoms fought amongst each other until 1883 when Cetshwayo was reinstated as king over Zululand. This still did not stop the fighting and the Zulu monarch was forced to flee his realm by Zibhebhu, one of the 13 kinglets, Cetshwayo died in February 1884, killed by Zibhebhus regime, leaving his son, the 15-year-old Dinuzulu, to inherit the throne. In-fighting between the Zulu continued for years, until Zululand was absorbed fully into the British colony of Natal, under apartheid, the homeland of KwaZulu was created for Zulu people. In 1970, the Bantu Homeland Citizenship Act provided that all Zulus would become citizens of KwaZulu, KwaZulu consisted of a large number of disconnected pieces of land, in what is now KwaZulu-Natal. By 1993, approximately 5.2 million Zulu people lived in KwaZulu, the Chief Minister of KwaZulu, from its creation in 1970 was Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi. In 1994, KwaZulu was joined with the province of Natal, Inkatha YeSizwe means the crown of the nation. In 1975, Buthelezi revived the Inkatha YaKwaZulu, predecessor of the Inkatha Freedom Party and this organization was nominally a protest movement against apartheid, but held more conservative views than the ANC. For example, Inkatha was opposed to the struggle. Inkatha was initially on good terms with the ANC, but the two came into increasing conflict beginning in 1976 in the aftermath of the Soweto Uprising. The modern Zulu population is evenly distributed in both urban and rural areas
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Bantustan
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A Bantustan was a territory set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa, as part of the policy of apartheid. The term was first used in the late 1940s and was coined from Bantu and it was regarded as a disparaging term by some critics of the apartheid-era governments homelands. Four of the South African Bantustans—Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei —were declared independent, other South African Bantustans received partial autonomy but were never granted independence. In South West Africa, Ovamboland, Kavangoland, and East Caprivi were granted self-determination, the Bantustans were abolished with the end of apartheid and re-joined South Africa proper in 1994. The creation of the homelands or Bantustans was an element of this strategy. As a result, blacks would lose their South African citizenship and voting rights, the term Bantustan was used by apartheids apologists in reference to the partition of India in 1947. However, it quickly became pejorative in left and anti-apartheid usage, verwoerd argued that the Bantustans were the original homes of the black peoples of South Africa. In 1951, the government of Daniel François Malan introduced the Bantu Authorities Act to establish homelands allocated to the countrys ethnic groups. These amounted to 13% of the land, the remainder being reserved for the white population. The homelands were run by tribal leaders, while uncooperative chiefs were forcibly deposed. Over time, a ruling black élite emerged with a personal and financial interest in the preservation of the homelands, while this aided the homelands political stability to an extent, their position was still entirely dependent on South African support. The role of the homelands was expanded in 1959 with the passage of the Bantu Self-Government Act and this enabled the homelands to establish themselves as self-governing, quasi-independent states. This plan was stepped up under Verwoerds successor as minister, John Vorster. The homelands were encouraged to opt for independence, as this would reduce the number of black citizens of South Africa. In parallel with the creation of the homelands, South Africas black population was subjected to a programme of forced relocation. It has been estimated that 3.5 million people were forced from their homes from the 1960s through the 1980s, the government made clear that its ultimate aim was the total removal of the black population from South Africa. But this goal was not achieved, only about 55% of South Africas population lived in the Bantustans, the remainder lived in South Africa proper, many in townships, shanty-towns and slums on the outskirts of South African cities. Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classified as self-governing or independent, in theory, self-governing Bantustans had control over many aspects of their internal functioning but were not yet sovereign nations
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KwaZulu
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KwaZulu was a bantustan in South Africa, intended by the apartheid government as a semi-independent homeland for the Zulu people. The capital was moved from Nongoma to Ulundi in 1980 and it was led until its abolition in 1994 by Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi of the Zulu tribe and head of the Inkatha Freedom Party. It was merged with the surrounding South African province of Natal to form the new province of KwaZulu-Natal, the name kwaZulu translates roughly as Place of Zulus, or more formally Zululand. In March 1996, two years after South Africas transition to majority rule, the trial of The State v. Districts of the province and population at the 1991 census
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Indian Ocean
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The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
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Mozambique
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It is separated from Madagascar by the Mozambique Channel to the east. The capital and largest city is Maputo, between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated from farther north and west. Swahili commercial ports existed along the coasts until the arrival of Europeans, the area was explored by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and colonised by Portugal from 1505. The country was an important place where Somali merchants enslaved the local population, after over four centuries of Portuguese rule, Mozambique gained independence in 1975, becoming the Peoples Republic of Mozambique shortly thereafter. After only two years of independence, the country descended into an intense and protracted civil war lasting from 1977 to 1992, in 1994, Mozambique held its first multiparty elections and has remained a relatively stable presidential republic. However, since 2013, following more than 20 years of peace, Mozambique is one of the poorest and most underdeveloped countries in the world. Mozambique is endowed with rich and extensive natural resources, the countrys economy is based largely on agriculture, but industry is growing, mainly food and beverages, chemical manufacturing, and aluminium and petroleum production. The countrys tourism sector is also growing, South Africa is Mozambiques main trading partner and source of foreign direct investment. Belgium, Brazil, Portugal, and Spain are also among the countrys most important economic partners, since 2001, Mozambiques annual average GDP growth has been among the worlds highest. However, the ranks among the lowest in GDP per capita, human development, measures of inequality. The only official language of Mozambique is Portuguese, which is mostly as a second language by about half of the population. Common native languages include Makhuwa, Sena, and Swahili, the countrys population of around 24 million is composed overwhelmingly of Bantu people. The largest religion in Mozambique is Christianity, with significant minorities following Islam, the island-town was the capital of the Portuguese colony until 1898, when it was moved south to Lourenço Marques. Between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, waves of Bantu-speaking people migrated from the west and north through the Zambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and they established agricultural communities or societies based on herding cattle. They brought with them the technology for smelting and smithing iron, from the late first millennium AD, vast Indian Ocean trade networks extended as far south into Mozambique as the ancient port town of Chibuene. Connections are evident at sites including Manyikeni for 11–14th century ties with the inland Great Zimbabwe kingdoms, from about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts displaced the Arabic commercial and military hegemony, becoming regular ports of call on the new European sea route to the east. The voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 marked the Portuguese entry into trade, politics, the Portuguese attempted to legitimise and consolidate their trade and settlement positions through the creation of prazos tied to Portuguese settlement and administration. Historically within Mozambique there was slavery, Human beings were bought and sold by African tribal chiefs, Arab Muslim traders and Portuguese and other European traders as well
34.
Swaziland
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Swaziland, officially the Kingdom of Eswatini, is a sovereign state in Southern Africa. It is neighboured by Mozambique to its northeast and by South Africa to its north, west and south, the country and its people take their names from Mswati II, the 19th-century king under whose rule Swazi territory was expanded and unified. At no more than 200 kilometres north to south and 130 kilometres east to west, despite its size, its climate and topography are diverse, ranging from a cool and mountainous highveld to a hot and dry lowveld. The population is primarily ethnic Swazis whose language is Swati and they established their kingdom in the mid-18th century under the leadership of Ngwane III, the present boundaries were drawn up in 1881. After the Anglo-Boer War, Swaziland was a British protectorate from 1903 until 1967 and it regained its independence on 6 September 1968. The country is a monarchy, ruled by iNgwenyamaiNgwenyama Mswati III since 1986. He is head of state and appoints the prime ministers. Elections are held five years to determine the House of Assembly majority. The current constitution was adopted in 2005, Swaziland is a developing country with a small economy. Its GDP per capita of $9,714 means it is classified as a country with a lower-middle income, as a member of the Southern African Customs Union and Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, its main local trading partner is South Africa. Swazilands currency, the lilangeni, is pegged to the South African rand, Swazilands major overseas trading partners are the United States and the European Union. The majority of the employment is provided by its agricultural. Swaziland is a member of the Southern African Development Community, the African Union, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Swazi population faces major health issues, HIV/AIDS and, to a lesser extent, tuberculosis are serious challenges. As of 2013, Swaziland has a life expectancy of 50 years. The population of Swaziland is fairly young with an age of 20.5 years. The present population growth rate is 1. 195%, Swaziland is well known for its culture. Umhlanga, held in August/September and incwala, the kingship dance held in December/January, are the nations most important events, artifacts indicating human activity dating back to the early Stone Age, around 200,000 years ago, have been found in the Kingdom of Swaziland. Prehistoric rock art paintings date from c.25,000 BC, the earliest known inhabitants of the region were Khoisan hunter-gatherers
35.
Lesotho
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Lesotho, officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is an enclaved, landlocked country in southern Africa completely surrounded by South Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 in size and has a slightly over two million. Its capital and largest city is Maseru, previously known as Basutoland, Lesotho declared independence from the United Kingdom on 4 October 1966. It is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the name Lesotho translates roughly into the land of the people who speak Sesotho. About 40% of the population lives below the poverty line of US$1.25 a day. The original inhabitants of the now known as Lesotho were the San people. Examples of their art can be found in the mountains throughout the area. The present Lesotho, then called Basutoland, emerged as a single polity under King Moshoeshoe I in 1822, Moshoeshoe, a son of Mokhachane, a minor chief of the Bakoteli lineage, formed his own clan and became a chief around 1804. Casalis, acting as translator and providing advice on foreign affairs, helped to set up diplomatic channels and acquire guns for use against the encroaching Europeans and the Griqua people. Trekboers from the Cape Colony showed up on the borders of Basutoland and claimed land rights, beginning with Jan de Winnaar. As more Boers were moving into the area tried to colonise the land between the two rivers, even north of the Caledon, claiming that it had been abandoned by the Sotho people. Moshoeshoe subsequently signed a treaty with the British Governor of the Cape Colony, Sir George Thomas Napier and these outraged Boers were suppressed in a brief skirmish in 1848. In 1851 a British force was defeated by the Basotho army at Kolonyama, after repelling another British attack in 1852, Moshoeshoe sent an appeal to the British commander that settled the dispute diplomatically, then defeated the Batlokoa in 1853. In 1854 the British pulled out of the region, and in 1858 Moshoeshoe fought a series of wars with the Boers in the Free State–Basotho War, the last war in 1867 ended when Moshoeshoe appealed to Queen Victoria, who agreed to make Basutoland a British protectorate in 1868. Moshoeshoe died on 11 March 1870, marking the end of the traditional era and he was buried at Thaba Bosiu. In the early years of British rule between 1871 and 1884, Basutoland was treated similarly to territories that had been forcefully annexed. This led to the Gun War in 1881, Basutoland gained its independence from Britain and became the Kingdom of Lesotho in 1966. In January 1970, the ruling Basotho National Party lost the first post-independence general elections, Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan refused to cede power to the Basotho Congress Party, declared himself Tona Kholo, and imprisoned the BCP leadership
36.
Gauteng
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Gauteng, which means place of gold, is one of the nine provinces of South Africa. It was formed part of the old Transvaal Province after South Africas first all-race elections on 27 April 1994. It was initially named Pretoria–Witwatersrand–Vereeniging and was renamed Gauteng in December 1994, situated in the Highveld, Gauteng is the smallest province in South Africa, accounting for only 1. 5% of the land area. Nevertheless, it is highly urbanised, containing the countrys largest city, Johannesburg, its capital, Pretoria. As of 2015, it has a population of nearly 13.2 million, the name Gauteng is derived from the Sotho name, gauta meaning gold with the locative suffix -eng. There was a thriving industry in the province following the 1886 discovery of gold in Johannesburg. In Sesotho, the name Gauteng was used for Johannesburg and surrounding areas long before it was adopted in 1994 as the name of a province. Gauteng, formerly known as Pretoria–Witwatersrand–Vereeniging, was carved out of the old Transvaal province in 1994, although the terminology PWV, after the discovery of gold in 1886, the region proceeded to become the single largest gold producer in the world and the city of Johannesburg was founded. The older city Pretoria was not subject to the same attention, Pretoria grew at a slower rate and was highly regarded due to its role in the Second Boer War. The Cullinan Diamond which is the largest diamond ever mined was mined near Pretoria in a town called Cullinan in the year 1905. Gauteng has only been documented since the 1800s and as a result. At the Sterkfontein caves, some of the oldest fossils of hominids have been discovered, such as Mrs. Ples, today, the Apartheid Museum stands testament to these struggles in Johannesburg. Gauteng is governed by the Gauteng Provincial Legislature, a 73-person unicameral legislature elected by party-list proportional representation. The most recent election of the legislature was held on 7 May 2014, and the African National Congress won 53. 59% of the vote. The official opposition is the Democratic Alliance, which won 30. 78% of the vote and 23 seats, other parties represented are the Economic Freedom Fighters with eight seats and the Freedom Front Plus and the Inkatha Freedom Party with one seat each. Premier David Makhura of the ANC was elected on 21 May 2014, the Gauteng Division of the High Court of South Africa, which has seats in Pretoria and Johannesburg, is a superior court with general jurisdiction over the province. Johannesburg is also home to the Constitutional Court, South Africas highest court, Gautengs southern border is the Vaal River, which separates it from the Free State. It also borders on North West to the west, Limpopo to the north, Gauteng is the only landlocked province of South Africa without a foreign border
37.
Zulu Kingdom
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The area was subsequently absorbed into the Colony of Natal and later became part of the Union of South Africa. Shaka Zulu was the son of Senzangakona, King of the Zulus. He and his mother, Nandi, were exiled by Senzangakona, Shaka fought as a warrior under Jobe, and then under Jobes successor, Dingiswayo, leader of the Mthethwa Paramountcy. When Senzangakona died, Dingiswayo helped Shaka claim his place as chief of the Zulu Kingdom, after Dingiswayos death at the hands of Zwide, king of the Ndwandwe, around 1818, Shaka assumed leadership of the entire Mthethwa alliance. Shaka initiated many military, social, cultural and political reforms, the alliance under his leadership survived Zwides first assault at the Battle of Gqokli Hill. The death toll has never been determined, but the whole region became nearly depopulated. Normal estimates for the death toll during this period range from 1 million to 2 million people, by 1825, Shaka had conquered a huge empire covering an area of around 11,500 square miles. Shaka was succeeded by Dingane, his brother, who conspired with Mhlangana, another half-brother, and Mbopa. Following this assassination, Dingane murdered Mhlangana, and took over the throne, one of his first royal acts was to execute all of his royal kin. In the years followed, he also executed many past supporters of Shaka in order to secure his position. One exception to these purges was Mpande, another half-brother, who was considered too weak to be a threat at the time, before encountering the British, the Zulus were first confronted with the Boers. In an attempt to form their own state as a protection against the British, while travelling they first collided with the Ndebele kingdom, and then with Dinganes Zulu kingdom. In October 1837, the Voortrekker leader Piet Retief visited Dingane at his kraal to negotiate a land deal for the voortrekkers. In November, about 1,000 Voortrekker wagons began descending the Drakensberg mountains from the Orange Free State into what is now KwaZulu-Natal. Dingane asked that Retief and his party retrieve some cattle stolen from him by a chief as part of the treaty for land for the Boers. This Retief and his men did, returning on 3 February 1838, the next day, a treaty was signed, wherein Dingane ceded all the land south of the Tugela River to the Mzimvubu River to the Voortrekkers. On 6 February, at the end of the celebrations, Retiefs party were invited to a dance, at the peak of the dance, Dingane leapt to his feet and yelled Bambani abathakathi. Retief and his men were overpowered, taken to the nearby hill kwaMatiwane, some believe that they were killed for withholding some of the cattle they recovered, but it is likely that the deal was a plot to overpower the Voortrekkers
38.
Boer
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Boer is the Dutch and Afrikaans word for farmer. As used in South Africa, it was used to denote the descendants of the Dutch-speaking settlers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 18th century. For a long time the Dutch East India Company controlled this area, in addition the term was applied to those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to settle in the Orange Free State, Transvaal, and to a lesser extent Natal. They left the Cape primarily to escape British rule and get away from the constant border wars between the British imperial government and the tribes on the eastern frontier. The Dutch East India Company had been formed in the Dutch Republic in 1602, in 1648 one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay, and the shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months. The result was that in 1652, a Dutch expedition led by surgeon Jan van Riebeek constructed a fort, landing at Table Bay, Van Riebeek took control over Cape Town, the settlement developed during the previous 10 years. In 1671 the Dutch first purchased land from the native Khoikhoi beyond the limits of the built by Van Riebeek. They formed a class of a class of vrijlieden, also known as vrijburgers, a large number of vrijburgers became independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from the Company administration. Political refugees from the wars in France, following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, they were settled at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Franschhoek. The influence of small body of immigrants on the character of the Dutch settlers was marked. The Company in 1701 directed that only Dutch should be taught in the schools and this resulted in the Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss to the community in the use and knowledge of French. The little settlement gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 the country as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony, at this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, but their chief wealth was in cattle. Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, the administration of the Dutch East India Company was extremely despotic. Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, the effect of this tyranny was inevitable, it drove men to desperation. They fled from oppression, and even before 1700 trekking began, in 1789, so strong had feeling amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam. After this deputation, some reforms were granted. It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government, the company, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786
39.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
40.
Albert Lutuli
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Inkosi Albert John Lutuli, also known by his Zulu name Mvumbi, was a South African teacher, activist, Nobel Peace Prize winner, and politician. Luthuli was elected president of the African National Congress, at the time an organisation that led opposition to the white minority government in South Africa. He was awarded the 1960 Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the non-violent struggle against apartheid and he was the first African, and the first person from outside Europe and the Americas, to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The third son of Seventh-day Adventist missionary John Bunyan Lutuli and Mtonya Gumede, Albert Lutuli was born near Bulawayo in what was then called Rhodesia and his father died, and he and his mother returned to her ancestral home of Groutville in KwaDukuza, Natal, South Africa. He stayed with his uncle, Martin Lutuli, who was at time the elected chief of the Zulu Christians inhabiting the mission reserve area now covered by the Umzinyathi District Municipality. Lutuli attended the Adams College south of Durban, on completing a teaching course at Edendale, near Pietermaritzburg, Lutuli accepted the post of principal and only teacher at a primary school in rural Blaauwbosch, Newcastle, Natal. Here Lutuli was confirmed in the Methodist Church and became a lay preacher, to provide financial support for his mother, he declined a scholarship to University of Fort Hare. In 1928 he became secretary of the African Teachers Association and in 1933 its president and he was also active in missionary work. In 1933 the tribal elders asked Lutuli to become chief of the Zulu tribe in succession to his uncle, for two years he hesitated, but accepted the call in early 1936 and became a chieftain. He held this position until he was removed from his office by the Apartheid government in 1953 and their having done so notwithstanding, amongst his people he retained the use of the dignity chief as a pre-nominal style for the remainder of his life. In 1936 the government disenfranchised the only black Africans who had voting rights at that time — those in Cape Province, in 1948 the Nationalist Party, which was in control of the government, adopted the policy of apartheid and over the next decade the Pass Laws were tightened. In 1944 Lutuli joined the African National Congress, in 1945 he was elected to the Committee of the KwaZulu Provincial Division of ANC and in 1951 to the presidency of the Division. The next year he joined with other ANC leaders in organizing nonviolent campaigns to defy discriminatory laws, the government, charging Lutuli with a conflict of interest, demanded that he withdraw his membership in ANC or forfeit his office as tribal chief. Refusing to do either, he was dismissed from his chieftainship, a month later Lutuli was elected president-general of ANC, formally nominated by the future Pan Africanist Congress leader Potlako Leballo. Responding immediately, the government imposed two two-year bans on Lutulis movement, when the second ban expired in 1956, he attended an ANC conference only to be arrested and charged with treason a few months later, along with 155 others. In December 1957, after nearly a year in custody during the hearings, Lutuli was released. He stood close to the International Fellowship of Reconciliation that in 1957 opened a branch in Southern Rhodesia Another five-year ban confined him to a 15-mile radius of his home, the ban was temporarily lifted while he testified at the continuing treason trials. It was lifted again in March 1960, to permit his arrest for publicly burning his pass following the Sharpeville massacre, in the ensuing state of emergency he was arrested, found guilty, fined, given a suspended jail sentence, and finally returned to Groutville
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