1.
Martha Washington
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Martha Washington was the wife of George Washington, the first president of the United States. Although the title was not coined until after her death, Martha Washington is considered to be the first First Lady of the United States, during her lifetime she was often referred to as Lady Washington. Widowed at 25, she had four children with her first husband Daniel Parke Custis, two of her children by Custis survived to young adulthood. She brought great wealth to her marriage to Washington, which enabled him to buy land and she also brought nearly 100 dower slaves for her use during her lifetime, they and their descendants reverted to her first husbands estate at her death and were inherited by his heirs. She and Washington did not have children together but they did rear her two children by Daniel Parke Custis, including son John Jacky Parke Custis, as well as helped both of their extended families. Martha Dandridge was born on June 2,1731 on her parents plantation Chestnut Grove in the British colony, Province of Virginia. She was the oldest daughter of John Dandridge, a Virginia planter and immigrant from England, by his wife Frances Jones, who was of American birth and English, Welsh, and French descent. Martha had three brothers and four sisters, John, William, Bartholomew, Anna Marie Fanny Bassett, Frances Dandridge, Elizabeth Aylet Henley, Marthas father may also have fathered an out-of-wedlock half-brother to Martha named Ralph Dandridge, who was probably white. They had four children together, Daniel, Frances, John, Daniel and Frances died in childhood. The other two children, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke Custis, survived to young adulthood, in all, she was left in custody of some 17,500 acres of land and 300 slaves, apart from other investments and cash. According to her biographist, she ran the five plantations left to her when her first husband died. Martha Dandridge Custis, age 27, and George Washington, age nearly 27, married on January 6,1759, as a man who lived and owned property in the area, Washington likely knew both Martha and Daniel Parke Custis for some time before Daniels death. During March 1758 he visited her twice at White House, the time he came away with either an engagement of marriage or at least her promise to think about his proposal. At the time, she was also being courted by the planter Charles Carter, Washingtons suit was of blue and silver cloth with red trimming and gold knee buckles. The bride wore purple silk shoes with spangled buckles, which are displayed at Mount Vernon. The couple honeymooned at White House for several weeks before setting up house at Washingtons Mount Vernon estate and they appeared to have had a solid marriage. Martha and George Washington had no children together, but they raised Marthas two surviving children and her daughter, nicknamed Patsy, died as a teenager during an epileptic seizure, classed as SUDEP. John Parke Jacky Custis returned from college to comfort his mother, Custis later married and had children, he served as an aide to Washington during the siege of Yorktown in 1781 during the American Revolutionary War
2.
Commencement Bay
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Commencement Bay is a bay of Puget Sound in the U. S. state of Washington. The city of Tacoma is located on the bay, with the Port of Tacoma occupying the southeastern end, a line drawn from Point Defiance in the southwest to Browns Point in the northeast serves to mark the generally accepted division between the bay and the open sound. Commencement Bay has become home to one of the most active ports in the world. The Port of Tacoma is the port facility. The Puyallup River is the largest freshwater stream emptying into the bay, others include Ruston Creek, Mason Creek, Asarco Creek, Puget Creek, Hylebos Creek, and Wapato Creek. Lieutenant Charles Wilkes of the United States Exploring Expedition named Commencement Bay in 1841, the first Euro-American habitation on Commencement Bay was by Swede Nicolas Delin. He built a sawmill in 1852 where a creek entered the head of the bay. A small community grew up around the operation, but the settlers evacuated during the Puget Sound War of 1855–56, in 1873 the Northern Pacific Railway, the first transcontinental railroad in the northern United States, announced it would locate its terminus at Commencement Bay. When the railroad reached the bay in 1883 it caused a boom of development in Tacoma, the railroad facilities were located near the extensive tide flats by the mouth of the Puyallup River, about a mile from the original site of Tacoma. A new town, called New Tacoma, quickly grew up by the railroad hub, old town Tacoma and New Tacoma soon merged. Large land grants were provided to the Northern Pacific, including a significant part of the coast of Commencement Bay, over time the city of Tacoma bought up this land. Originally the boundary between Pierce and King counties ran east from the mouth of the Puyallup River, splitting Commencement Bay between the two counties, in 1901 the border was changed, giving Pierce County the entire bay. For much of the 20th century a smelting facility was operated by ASARCO on the shore of Commencement Bay near Point Defiance. The town of Ruston surrounds the former ASARCO plant, tailing waste was dumped into the bay, eventually forming a long peninsula. Today it is an area within the Commencement Bay Superfund site. The Thea Foss Waterway, an arm of Commencement Bay near downtown Tacoma, was declared a Superfund site in 1983, U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Commencement Bay Citizens for a Healthy Bay
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Ship replica
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A ship replica is a reconstruction of a no longer existing ship. Replicas can range from authentically reconstructed, fully seaworthy ships, to ships of modern construction that give an impression of a historic vessel, some replicas may not even be seaworthy, but built for other educational or entertainment purposes. Reasons to build a replica include historic research into shipbuilding, national pride, exposition at a museum or entertainment, for example, see the project to build a replica of the Continental brig Andrew Doria. The term replica in this context does not normally include scale models, the term museum ship is used for an old ship that has been preserved and converted into a museum open to the public. Some generic type replicas such as Thor Heyerdahls Ra II, qualify as true replicas as these ships were built to investigate the craft and that they do not replicate a specific vessel is mainly because no details of such a specific vessel are available. Some other ships that are modeled after ships of a type or era do not qualify as true replicas. Some ships may be borderline cases, such as Kanrin Maru, which is twice the size of the original. Replicas can be temporary, cheap and very simple, such as the replica of a Viking ship that was burnt at the Leixlip Festival, notable historic type ships that are not replicas include, USS Constitution is strictly speaking not a replica but the original vessel. However, most of the timber has been replaced over time. This is a version of the philosophers dilemma concerning replica versus original. HMS Victory is still the original vessel, although unlike Constitution, she is in dry dock and she has also been heavily restored, with only 10-15% of her original timber remaining. Mircea, which is an almost exact copy of Gorch Fock, Mircea was built as a copy because Gorch Fock was a very successful ship. Thus Mircea was not built as a replica per se, stad Amsterdam is a generic clipper type ship combining the best qualities of clippers of the past with modern materials and technologies. Another ambiguous case subject to the Ship of Theseus dilemma is Niagara, the original was sunk in 1820 for preservation, and the ship has been rebuilt three times since. Princess Taiping, a replica of a Ming Dynasty Chinese junk, hokulea, Honolulu, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel. Makalii, Kawaihae, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel, alingano Maisu, Kawaihae, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel. Hokualakai, Hilo, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel, iosepa, Honolulu, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel. Hawaiiloa, Honolulu, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel, te Aurere, Auckland, New Zealand, an ancient Maori vessel
5.
Aberdeen, Washington
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Aberdeen /ˈæbərdiːn/ is a city in Grays Harbor County, Washington, United States. The population was 16,896 at the 2010 census, the city is the economic center of Grays Harbor County, bordering the cities of Hoquiam and Cosmopolis. Aberdeen is called the Gateway to the Olympic Peninsula, Aberdeen was founded by Samuel Benn in 1884 and incorporated on May 12,1890. Although it became the largest and best-known city in Grays Harbor, Aberdeen lagged behind nearby Hoquiam, west built the towns first sawmill in 1894, the other two municipalities had been in business for several years. Hoquiam and Aberdeen citizens together built a spur, and in 1895, by 1900, Aberdeen had many saloons, whorehouses, and gambling establishments populating the area. Aberdeen was nicknamed The Hellhole of the Pacific, or The Port of Missing Men, one notable resident was Billy Gohl, known locally as Billy Ghoul, who was rumored to have killed at least 140 men. Gohl was convicted of two murders, during the Great Depression, Aberdeen was hit hard, reducing the number of major sawmills from 37 to 9. The timber industry continued to boom, but by the late 1970s most of the timber had been logged, most of the mills were closing down by the 1970s and 1980s. Aberdeen is at the end of Grays Harbor, near the mouth of the Chehalis River. Grays Harbor is notable as the northernmost ria on North Americas Pacific Coast because it has remained free of glaciers throughout the Quaternary due to unfavorable topography and warm temperatures. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 12.36 square miles. Aberdeen experiences a climate on the boundary between Mediterranean and oceanic, although the rainfall is extremely high between October and March, July and August still have a distinct excess of evaporation over rainfall. Temperatures are generally mild due to the proximity of the warm Pacific Ocean. Occasionally, southeasterly winds can cause high temperatures. For example, in August 1981, the temperature in Aberdeen reached 105 °F, as of the census of 2010, there were 16,896 people,6,476 households, and 4,020 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,586.5 inhabitants per square mile, there were 7,338 housing units at an average density of 689.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 80. 4% White,0. 8% African American,3. 7% Native American,1. 9% Asian,0. 3% Pacific Islander,8. 0% from other races, and 4. 9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15. 8% of the population,29. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
6.
Length overall
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Length overall, often abbreviated as is the maximum length of a vessels hull measured parallel to the waterline. This length is important while docking the ship and it is the most commonly used way of expressing the size of a ship, and is also used for calculating the cost of a marina berth. LOA is usually measured on the hull alone, for sailing ships, this may exclude the bowsprit and other fittings added to the hull. This is how some racing boats and tall ships use the term LOA, however, other sources may include bowsprits in LOA. Sparred length, Total length including bowsprit, Mooring length and LOA including bowsprit are other expressions that might indicate the length of a sailing ship. Often used to distinguish between the length of a vessel including projections from the length of the hull itself, the Length on Deck or LOD is often reported and this is especially useful for smaller sailing vessels, as their LOA can be significantly different from their LOD. In ISO8666 for small boats, there is a definition of LOH and this may be shorter than a vessels LOA, because it excludes other parts attached to the hull, such as bowsprits. Another measure of length is LWL which is useful in assessing a vessels performance. In some cases LWL can be shorter than LOA. Overall length in cartridges The National Register of Historic Vessels Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
7.
Waterline length
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The waterline length is the length of a ship or boat at the point where it sits in the water. It excludes the length of the boat, such as features that are out of the water. Most boats rise outwards at the bow and stern, so a boat may be quite a bit longer than its waterline length. In a ship with raked stems, naturally the waterline length changes as the draft of the ship changes. Length at the waterline is often abbreviated as lwl, w/l and this measure is essential in determining a lot of properties of a vessel, such as how much water it displaces, where the bow and stern waves are, hull speed, amount of bottom-paint needed, etc. In sailing boats, longer waterline length will usually enable a greater speed, because it allows greater sail area. Higher beam and draft causes higher resistance against the water and this maximum speed, also known as theoretical hull speed, can be calculated using the formula x 1.34. Length overall Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
8.
Rigging
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According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition rigging derives from Anglo-Saxon wrigan or wringing, to clothe. The same source points out that rigging a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging. Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast, and running, which controls the orientation of the sails, configurations differ for each type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position, standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable and it was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements. Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds, running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, running rigging varies between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards, are used to raise sails, on gaff-riged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the downhaul at the clew. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, full rigged ship Lateen rig Shipbuilding Superstructure Harland, John. Seamanship in the Age of Sail, the Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625–1860
9.
Brig
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A brig is a sailing vessel with two square-rigged masts. During the Age of Sail, brigs were seen as fast and they were especially popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Brigs fell out of use with the arrival of the ship because they required a relatively large crew for their small size and were difficult to sail into the wind. They are not to be confused with a brigantine, which has different rigging, in sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts. The main mast of a brig is the aft one, to improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small fore-and-aft sail. Behind the main sail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail, on the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars. These are called studding sails, and are used with fair, the wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened, i. e. the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc. The brig’s foremast is smaller than the main mast, the fore mast holds a fore sail, fore top sail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, all the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast. A brig is generally built on a scale than a schooner. Brigs vary in length between 75 and 165 ft with tonnages up to 480, a notable exception being the famous designer Colin Mudies Little Brigs, which are only 10m long and weigh only 8 tonnes. Historically, most brigs were made of wood, although some later brigs were built with hulls, a brig made of pine in the 19th century was designed to last for about twenty years. The word brig has been used in the past as an abbreviation of brigantine, the brig actually developed as a variant of the brigantine. Re-rigging a brigantine with two square-rigged masts instead of one gave it greater sailing power, the square-rigged brigs advantage over the fore-and-aft rigged brigantine was that the sails, being smaller and more numerous, are more easily managed, and require fewer men or hands to work them. The variant was so popular that the term came to exclusively signify a ship with this type of rigging. By the 17th century the British Royal Navy defined brig as having two square rigged masts, Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 guns
10.
Brigantine
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The brigantine was a two-masted sailing vessel with a fully square rigged foremast and at least two sails on the main mast, a square topsail and a gaff sail mainsail. The main mast is the second and taller of the two masts, modern American definitions include vessels without the square sails on the main mast. In the Mediterranean Basin during the 13th century, a referred to a sail-. It was lateen rigged on two masts and had eight and twelve oars on each side. Its speed, maneuverability and ease of handling made it a favourite of Mediterranean pirates and its name is derived from the Italian word brigantino, which in turn is derived from brigante brigand. Other than in names, this vessel has no relation to the later developed in Northern Europe. By the 17th century the term was adapted by Atlantic maritime nations, the vessel had no lateen sails but was instead square-rigged on the foremast and had a gaff-rigged mainsail with square rig above it on the mainmast. The main mast of a brigantine is the aft one, the brigantine was the second most popular rig for ships built in the British colonies in North America before 1775. The brigantine could be of various sizes, ranging from 50 to 200 tons burden, the brigantine was generally larger than a sloop or schooner but smaller than a brig. The last sailing true brigantine in the world is the Eye of the Wind, the definition given above describes the international usage of the term brigantine. In modern American terminology, the term now usually means a vessel with the foremast square rigged. Historically, this rig used to be called a schooner brig or hermaphrodite brig, in Europe, the distinction is typically still made. The word brig is an 18th-century shortening of the word brigantine and it is the gaff-rigged mainsail on a brigantine which distinguishes it from the brig, which is principally square rigged on both masts. In addition to the different sail configuration, the main mast is made from two parts and equal to that of a schooner, a quite long mast and a top mast. The main mast of a brig is made from three parts and equal to that of a fully rigged ship, a mast, topmast, with the advent of modern pole masts, this last difference typically no longer exists. Brig Schooner Snow The dictionary definition of brigantine at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of hermaphrodite brig at Wiktionary El bergantín goleta Jaime Soberano segundo
11.
Douglas fir
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Pseudotsuga menziesii, commonly known as Douglas fir or Douglas-fir, is an evergreen conifer species native to western North America. The common name honors David Douglas, a Scottish botanist and collector who first reported the extraordinary nature, the common name is misleading since it is not a true fir, i. e. not a member of the genus Abies. For this reason the name is written as Douglas-fir. The specific epithet, menziesii, is after Archibald Menzies, a Scottish physician, Menzies first documented the tree on Vancouver Island in 1791. Colloquially, the species is known simply as Doug-fir or as Douglas pine. One Coast Salish name for the tree, used in the Halkomelem language, is lá, one variety, coast Douglas fir, grows in the coastal regions, from west-central British Columbia southward to central California. In Oregon and Washington, its range is continuous from the edge of the Cascades west to the Pacific Coast Ranges. In California, it is found in the Klamath and California Coast Ranges as far south as the Santa Lucia Range, in the Sierra Nevada, it ranges as far south as the Yosemite region. It occurs from sea level along the coast to 1,800 m above sea level in the mountains of California. Further inland, coast Douglas fir is replaced by another variety, mexican Douglas fir, which ranges as far south as Oaxaca, is often considered a variety of P. menziesii. Coast Douglas fir is currently the second-tallest conifer in the world. Extant coast Douglas fir trees 60–75 m or more in height and 1. 5–2 m in diameter are common in old growth stands, Douglas firs commonly live more than 500 years and occasionally more than 1,000 years. The bark on trees is thin, smooth, and gray. On mature trees, it is thick and corky, the shoots are brown to olive-green, turning gray-brown with age, smooth, though not as smooth as fir shoots, and finely pubescent with short, dark hairs. The buds are a distinctive, narrow, conic shape, 4–8 mm long. Unlike the Rocky Mountain Douglas fir, coast Douglas fir foliage has a noticeable sweet fruity-resinous scent, the mature female seed cones are pendulous, 5–8 cm long, 2–3 cm wide when closed, opening to a 4 cm width. They are produced in spring, green at first, maturing orange-brown in the autumn 6–7 months later, the seeds are 5–6 mm long and 3–4 mm wide, with a 12–15-mm wing. The male cones are 2–3 cm long, dispersing yellow pollen in spring, in forest conditions, old individuals typically have a narrow, cylindric crown beginning 20–40 m above a branch-free trunk
12.
Boston Harbor
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Boston Harbor is a natural harbor and estuary of Massachusetts Bay, and is located adjacent to the city of Boston, Massachusetts. It is home to the Port of Boston, a shipping facility in the northeastern United States. Since its discovery to Europeans by John Smith in 1614, Boston Harbor has been an important port in American history and it was the site of the Boston Tea Party as well as almost continuous backfilling of the harbor until the 19th century. By 1660 almost all came to the greater Boston area. A rapid influx of people transformed Boston into a booming city, the health of the harbor quickly decreased as the population of Boston increased. As early as the late 19th century Boston citizens were advised not to swim in any portion of the Harbor, in the 19th century two of the first steam sewage stations were built. With these mandates the harbor was seeing small improvements, but raw sewage was still continuously pumped into the harbor, in 1919 the Metropolitan District Commission was created to oversee and regulate the quality of harbor water. However, not much improvement was seen and general awareness of the poor quality of water was very low. In 1972 the Clean Water Act was passed in order to promote increased national water quality. Boston did not receive a clean water act waiver from the Environmental Protection Agency, since the mid-1970s organizations within the Boston community have battled for a cleaner Boston Harbor. More recently, the harbor was the site of the $4.5 billion Boston Harbor Project, failures at the Nut Island sewage treatment plant in Quincy and the companion Deer Island plant adjacent to Winthrop had far-reaching environmental and political effects. Fecal coliform bacteria levels forced frequent swimming prohibitions along the harbor beaches and that suit was followed by one by the Conservation Law Foundation and finally by the United States government, resulting in the landmark court-ordered cleanup of Boston Harbor. The court ordered cleanup continued throughout the two decades and is still ongoing. Before the cleanup projects, the water was so polluted that The Standells released a song in 1966 called Dirty Water about the state of the Charles River. The song is popular with Red Sox fans and is played regularly at Fenway Park whenever the Red Sox win a game. Neal Stephenson, who attended Boston University from 1977 to 1981, based his novel, Zodiac. Boston Harbor is a harbor which constitutes the western extremity of Massachusetts Bay. The harbor is often described as being split into an inner harbor, the harbor itself comprises fifty square miles with 180 miles of shoreline and 34 harbor islands
13.
Cape Horn
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Cabo de Hornos is a Chilean commune located in the south of Tierra del Fuego archipelago, in Antártica Province, Magallanes Region. The municipality of Cabo de Hornos, located in the town of Puerto Williams and it is named for Cape Horn. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Cabo de Hornos spans an area of 15,853.7 km2 and has 2,262 inhabitants, of these,1,952 lived in urban areas and 310 in rural areas. The population grew by 24. 7% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, as a commune, Cabo de Hornos is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2016-2020 alcalde is Patricio Fernández, the commune is represented in the Senate by Carlos Bianchi Chelech and Carolina Goic as part of the 19th senatorial constituency. Murray Channel Cabo de Hornos commune,2006 Official website of the Municipality of Cabo de Hornos Official website of Puerto Williams Gobierno Regional Magallanes y Antártica Chilena Official website Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve
14.
Maritime fur trade
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The furs were mostly sold in China in exchange for tea, silks, porcelain, and other Chinese goods, which were then sold in Europe and the United States. The maritime fur trade was pioneered by Russians, working east from Kamchatka along the Aleutian Islands to the southern coast of Alaska, British and Americans entered during the 1780s, focusing on what is now the coast of British Columbia. The trade boomed around the beginning of the 19th century, a long period of decline began in the 1810s. As the sea otter population was depleted, the fur trade diversified and transformed, tapping new markets and commodities, while continuing to focus on the Northwest Coast. It lasted until the middle to late 19th century, Russians controlled most of the coast of what is now Alaska during the entire era. The coast south of Alaska endured fierce competition between, and among, British and American trading vessels, the British were the first to operate in the southern sector, but were unable to compete against the Americans, who dominated from the 1790s to the 1830s. The British Hudsons Bay Company entered the coast trade in the 1820s with the intention of driving the Americans away and this was accomplished by about 1840. In its late period, the fur trade was largely conducted by the British Hudsons Bay Company. Historically, the fur trade was not known by that name. The term North West was rarely spelled as the single word Northwest, a triangular trade network emerged linking the Pacific Northwest coast, China, the Hawaiian Islands, Britain, and the United States. The trade had an effect on the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest coast, especially the Aleut, Sugpiaq, Tlingit, Haida, Nuu-chah-nulth. A rapid increase of wealth occurred among the Northwest Coast natives, along with increased warfare, potlatching, slaving, however, the indigenous culture was not overwhelmed by rapid change, but actually flourished. Native Hawaiian society was similarly affected by the influx of Western wealth and technology. The wealth generated by the fur trade was invested in industrial development. The sea otter was the most hunted during the Maritime Fur Trade during the 17th and 18th centuries, Sea otters possess a thicker fur than any other mammal, and the sea otters habit of grooming their coat prevents molting. The reason for their exploitation was due to dark and silver tipped fur. The popularity and demand in fashion of sea otter pelts in China was one of the reasons why it was hunted to the point of disappearance and these mammals of the Pacific are currently listed as Threatened under the Canadian Species at Risk Act. Sea otter distribution extends from the north of Japan all the way to the vicinity of Cedros Island, the species stayed approximately within the arc of the Northern Pacific until the pressure of the maritime trade forced them to move north
15.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
16.
Pacific Northwest
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The Pacific Northwest, sometimes referred to as Cascadia, is a geographic region in western North America bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and loosely, by the Rocky Mountains on the east. Though no agreed boundary exists, a common conception includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader conceptions reach north into Alaska and Yukon, south into far northern California and east to the Continental Divide, thus including Idaho, Western Montana, narrower conceptions may be limited to the northwestern US or to the coastal areas west of the Cascade and Coast mountains. The variety of definitions can be attributed to partially overlapping commonalities of the history, geography, society. The Northwest Coast is the region of the Pacific Northwest. The term Pacific Northwest should not be confused with the Northwest Territory or the Northwest Territories of Canada. The border — in two sections, along the 49th parallel south of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle west of northern British Columbia — has had an effect on the region. According to Canadian historian Ken Coates, the border has not merely influenced the Pacific Northwest—rather, definitions of the Pacific Northwest region vary, and there is no commonly agreed-upon boundary, even among Pacific Northwesterners. A common conception of the Pacific Northwest includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington as well as the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader definitions of the region may include the U. S. state of Alaska, the Canadian territory of Yukon, the portion of the state of California. Definitions based on the historic Oregon Country reach east to the Continental Divide, thus including all of Idaho and parts of western Montana. Sometimes the Pacific Northwest is defined as being the Northwestern United States, often these definitions are made by government agencies whose scope is limited to the United States. Some definitions include, in addition to Washington, Oregon, Idaho and British Columbia, Southeast Alaska, western Montana, the coast of northern California, the Pacific Northwest has been occupied by a diverse array of indigenous peoples for millennia. The Pacific Coast is seen by scholars as a major coastal migration route in the settlement of the Americas by late Pleistocene peoples moving from northeast Asia into the Americas. Other evidence for human occupation dating back as much as 14,500 years ago is emerging from Paisley Caves in south-central Oregon, however, despite such research, the coastal migration hypothesis is still subject to considerable debate. Due in part to the richness of Pacific Northwest Coast and river fisheries, in the interior of the Pacific Northwest, the indigenous peoples, at the time of European contact, had a diversity of cultures and societies. Some areas were home to mobile and egalitarian societies, others, especially along major rivers such as the Columbia and Fraser, had very complex, affluent, sedentary societies rivaling those of the coast. In British Columbia and Southeast Alaska, the Tlingit and Haida erected large, throughout the Pacific Northwest, thousands of indigenous people live, and some continue to practice their rich cultural traditions, organizing their societies around cedar and salmon
17.
Tea
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Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world, Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th century, during the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass the Chinese monopoly. The term herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile and these are sometimes called tisanes or herbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant. The tea industry often uses the term fruit tea to refer to what are in fact fruit-flavored black teas. The Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with a stroke as 荼. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, there were other ancient words for tea, though ming is the only other one still in common use. Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha and these two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. Starting in the seventeen century, the Dutch played a dominant role in the early European tea trade via the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch borrowed the word for tea from Min Chinese, either through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa where they had established a port, or from Malay traders in Bantam, Java. The Dutch then introduced to other European languages this Min pronunciation for tea, including English tea, French thé, Spanish té and this pronunciation is also the most common form worldwide. The Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation chá, and spread it to India, the Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history. A third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay, both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. English has all three forms, cha or char, attested from the 16th century, tea, from the 17th, however, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English. Tea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the points of the lands of north Burma. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China. The earliest written records of tea come from China, in the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king
18.
Porcelain
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Porcelain /ˈpɔːrsəlᵻn, ˈpɔːrslᵻn/ is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain was first developed in China around 2,000 years ago, then spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a range of decorative treatments in tablewares, vessels. It also has uses in technology and industry. The European name, porcelain in English, come from the old Italian porcellana because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell, Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine china in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in imports from China. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent, however, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases, a high proportion of modern porcelain is made of the variant bone china. Kaolin is the material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an old term for both the unfired and fired material, a more common terminology these days for the unfired material is body, for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse, the clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive and have high plasticity, short clays are cohesive and have lower plasticity. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays and they wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow. The following section provides information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around 1,000 °C, coated with glaze, another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation
19.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
20.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
21.
Tillamook, Oregon
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The city of Tillamook /ˈtɪləmʊk/ is the county seat of Tillamook County, Oregon, United States. The city is located on the southeast end of Tillamook Bay on the Pacific Ocean, the population was 4,935 at the 2010 census. The city is named for the Tillamook people, a Native American tribe speaking a Salishan language who lived in area until the early 19th century. Anthropologist Franz Boas identifies the Tillamook Indians as the southernmost branch of the Coast Salish peoples of the Pacific Northwest and this group was separated geographically from the northern branch by tribes of Chinookan peoples who occupied territory between them. The name Tillamook, he says, is of Chinook origin and they spoke Tillamook, a combination of two dialects. Tillamook culture differed from that of the northern Coast Salish, Boas says, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.7 square miles, all of it land. The Tillamook area is home to five rivers, the Tillamook, Trask, Wilson, Kilchis. Tillamook has a climate that lies between the cool-summer Mediterranean climate and the oceanic climate, Tillamook has a mild and wet climate with very little seasonal temperature variation due to its proximity to the Pacific Ocean. From November through April, daytime temperatures range from the high 40s to the high 50s with abundant rainfall - including more than 13 inches per month in November, December. Snowfall is very rare, but winter floods are a common occurrence, between April and October, the precipitation in Tillamook is comparatively lighter, but still remains much wetter than the population centers in the Willamette Valley. Tillamooks annual precipitation averages about 88 inches compared to only 36 inches in Portland, summers in Tillamook are brief and mild with average daytime temperatures in the upper 60s, although daytime temperatures can occasionally soar into the 80s and 90s for days at a time. Summer is by far the driest season in Tillamook with only 1.35 inches and 1.33 inches of rain falling in July and August, respectively. As of the census of 2010, there were 4,935 people,2,037 households, the population density was 2,902.9 inhabitants per square mile. There were 2,248 housing units at a density of 1,322.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 86. 5% White,0. 2% African American,1. 5% Native American,1. 1% Asian,0. 8% Pacific Islander,6. 9% from other races, and 3. 0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 17. 2% of the population,34. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 15. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the family size was 3.11. The median age in the city was 33.7 years
22.
John Meares
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John Meares was a navigator, explorer, and maritime fur trader, best known for his role in the Nootka Crisis, which brought Britain and Spain to the brink of war. Meares father was Charles Meares, formerly an attorney of great eminence, in 1771, Meares joined the Royal Navy as a captains servant and was commissioned a lieutenant in 1778. The East India Company held a monopoly on British trade in the Pacific and required all British traders to be licensed with the company, Meares did not license his ships with the East India Company and instead tried to conceal the illegal activity by using the flag of Portugal. Meares registered his ships in Macau, a Portuguese colony in China, non-British ships were not required to have licences from the East India Company. He sailed from Calcutta on 12 March 1786, in the Nootka and he spent the winter of 1786-1787 in Prince William Sound with poor provisions, his men suffered from the weather and scurvy. Twenty three of his men died of scurvy and the ten were saved only by the timely arrival of Captain George Dixon. Meares gave Dixon his bond never to trade in the Northwest again, showing no gratitude to Dixon, Meares proceeded to sue him for allegedly overcharging him for the supplies that saved his life. In 1788, Meares started a new expedition with two vessels and more false papers, the ships sailed under the Portuguese flag and were given Portuguese names, the Felice Adventurero, captained by Meares, and the Iphigenia Nubiana, under William Douglas. The names are spelled in various ways, such as Feliz Aventureira and they sailed from China on 22 January 1788 and arrived at Nootka Sound, on Vancouver Island, in May. Using Nootka Sound as a base of operations he spent the summer trading for furs along the coasts of present-day British Columbia and these claims would become a key point in Britains position during the Nootka Crisis. Spain strongly disputed both claims, and the facts of the matter have never been fully established. Maquinna himself later called Meares a liar and denied selling him any land, the land and building aside, there is no doubt that Mearess men, and a group of Chinese workers they brought, built the sloop North West America. It was launched in September 1788, the first non-indigenous vessel built in the Pacific Northwest, in September Meares left, sailing the Felice Adventurero to China. The Iphigenia Nubiana and North West America wintered in the Hawaiian Islands, while on the island of Kauai, Meares picked up a Hawaiian chief or prince of Attooi by the name of Tianna, whom he took aboard his ship. He took Tianna to Guangzhou, China, where Meares found a Hawaiian women by the name of Winée, eventually, Meares returned Tianna to his homeland but Winée died of illness on the voyage home. Winée and Tianna are considered the two first Hawaiians to have traveled abroad, later, Meares gained possession of Barkleys nautical gear and his journal. During the winter of 1788-89 Meares was in Guangzhou, China, plans were made for more ships to sail to the Pacific Northwest in 1789, including the Princess Royal, under Thomas Hudson, and the Argonaut under James Colnett. The consolidation of the fur trading companies of Meares and the Etches resulted in James Colnett being given the overall command, Meares instructed Colnett to establish a permanent fur trading post at Nootka Sound based on the foothold accomplished by Meares the year before
23.
Vancouver Island
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Vancouver Island is in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, just off the coast of Canada. It is part of the Canadian province of British Columbia, the island is 460 kilometres in length,100 kilometres in width at its widest point, and 32,134 km2 in area. It is the largest island on the West Coast of North America and this area has one of the warmest climates in Canada, and since the mid-1990s has been mild enough in a few areas to grow subtropical Mediterranean crops such as olives and lemons. Vancouver Island has a population of 759,366 according to the Canada 2011 Census, nearly half of that figure live in the metropolitan area of Greater Victoria. Other notable cities and towns on Vancouver Island include Nanaimo, Port Alberni, Parksville, Courtenay, and Campbell River. Victoria, the city of British Columbia, is located on the island. Vancouver Island has been the homeland to many indigenous peoples for thousands of years, the island was explored by British and Spanish expeditions in the late 18th century. Quadras name was dropped from the name. It is one of several North American locations named after George Vancouver, Vancouver Island is the worlds 43rd largest island, Canadas 11th largest island, and Canadas second most populous island after the Island of Montreal. It is the largest Pacific island anywhere east of New Zealand, Vancouver Island has been the homeland to many indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The groupings, by language, are the Kwakwakawakw, Nuu-chah-nulth and their cultures are connected to the natural resources abundant in the area. The Kwakwakawakw today number about 5,500, who live in British Columbia on northern Vancouver Island and they are also known as Kwakiutl in English, from one of their tribes, but they prefer their autonym Kwakwakawakw. Their indigenous language, part of the Wakashan family, is Kwakwala, the name Kwakwakawakw means speakers of Kwakwala. The language is now spoken by less than 5% of the population—about 250 people, today 17 separate tribes make up the Kwakwakawakw. Some Kwakwakawakw groups are now extinct, Kwakwala is a Northern Wakashan language, a grouping shared with Haisla, Heiltsuk and Wuikyala. The Nuu-chah-nulth are indigenous peoples in Canada and their traditional home is on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The Nuu-chah-nulth speak a Southern Wakashan language and are related to the Makah of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State. The Coast Salish are the largest of the southern groups and they are a loose grouping of many tribes with numerous distinct cultures and languages
24.
Robert Gray (sea captain)
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In the course of those voyages, Gray explored portions of that coast and, in 1790, completed the first American circumnavigation of the world. Perhaps his most remembered accomplishment from his explorations was his coming upon and then naming of the Columbia River, Grays earlier and later life are both comparatively obscure. He was born in Tiverton, Rhode Island, and may have served in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War, after his two famous voyages, he carried on his career as a sea captain, mainly of merchantmen in the Atlantic. Gray died at sea in 1806, near Charleston, South Carolina, many geographic features along the Oregon and Washington coasts bear Grays name, as do numerous schools in the region. Robert Gray was born in Tiverton, Rhode Island, on May 10,1755, little is known of his early life. He is known to have served in the Triangular trade of South Carolina, on September 30,1787, Robert Gray and Captain John Kendrick left Boston, to trade along the north Pacific coast. Captain Gray commanded Lady Washington and Captain Kendric commanded Columbia Rediviva and they were sent by Boston merchants including Charles Bulfinch. Bulfinch had read Cook’s Journals, published in 1784, that in part discussed his success selling sea otter pelts in Canton, bulfinch’s learning of Cooks pelt-trading solved this problem, so New England sea merchants could trade with China profitably. Gray might have been the first American to visit the Northwest Coast, on the voyage of Kendrick and Gray, the ships cargo included blankets, knives, iron bars, and other trade goods. Both ships had official letters from Congress and passports from Massachusetts for their trading voyage, Kendrick and Gray sailed around Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America, first stopping at the Cape Verde Islands and the Falkland Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. In January after passing Cape Horn, the ships encountered a storm separated the two vessels and damaged the Columbia Rediviva. The damage forced Kendrick to sail for the nearest port, Juan Fernandez, Juan Fernandez was a Spanish port under the control of Don Blas Gonzalez commandant of the garrison. There, the Columbia was repaired before sailing for the northwest coast, meanwhile, Gray reached the coast in August. Upon reaching the coast, Gray ran aground attempting to enter a river near 46°N latitude, here the ship was attacked by natives, with the ship losing one crew member before freeing itself and proceeding north. On September 17,1788, the Lady Washington with Gray in command reached Nootka Sound, the Columbia arrived soon after and the two ships wintered at Nootka Sound. They were still in the vicinity when Esteban José Martínez arrived in early May,1789, a number of British merchant ships soon arrived, as well, and conflict between the Spanish and British resulted in the Nootka Crisis, which almost resulted in war between the two nations. Martínez seized a number of ships, including the Princess Royal, the two American ships were left alone, although Martínez captured a third American ship, the Fair American, when it arrived at Nootka Sound in the fall of 1789. Robert Gray witnessed much of the Nootka Incident, during their trading along the coastlines of what is now British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California, the two explored many bays and inland waters
25.
Columbia Rediviva
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Columbia Rediviva was a privately owned ship under the command of John Kendrick, along with Captain Robert Gray, best known for going to the Pacific Northwest for the maritime fur trade. The Rediviva was added to her name upon a rebuilding in 1787, since Columbia was privately owned, she did not carry the prefix designation USS. Early authorities claim the ship was built in 1773 by James Briggs at Hobart’s Landing on North River, in Norwell, Massachusetts, later historians say she was built in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1787. In 1790 she became the first American ship to circumnavigate the globe, during the first part of this voyage, she was accompanied by the Lady Washington which served as tender for the Columbia. In 1792 Captain Gray entered the Columbia River and named it after the ship, the river and its basin, in turn, lent its name to the surrounding region, and subsequently to the British colony and Canadian province located in part of this region. The ship was decommissioned and salvaged in 1806, a replica of Lady Washington is homeported at Grays Harbor Historical Seaport in Aberdeen, Washington. Simeon Woodruff, under the command of Kendrick, serving September to November 1787. A former gunners mate during the voyage of Captain James Cook. Joseph Ingraham, under the command of Kendrick, in 1790 he was captain of Hope that competed with the Columbia in the fur trade. Robert Haswell, under the command of Gray in 1791–93 during the voyage to the Pacific Northwest. Contained within the hull is Below Decks, which is an exhibit of artifacts from the 18th Century that passengers can visit while on board. In 1969, the name was used for the Command/Service Module of Apollo 11, in 1981, the name was re-used for the Space Shuttle Columbia by NASA. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Third Series, Vol.53, Columbia Rediviva Hit and Run History, The Columbia Expedition
26.
Macau
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Macau, also spelled Macao, officially the Macao Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the western side of the Pearl River Delta in East Asia. Macau is bordered by the city of Zhuhai in Mainland China to the north, Hong Kong lies about 64 kilometres to its east across the Delta. With a population of 650,900 living in an area of 30.5 km2, Macau was administered by the Portuguese Empire and its inheritor states from the mid-16th century until late 1999, when it constituted the last remaining European colony in Asia. Portuguese traders first settled in Macau in the 1550s, in 1557, Macau was leased to Portugal from Ming China as a trading port. The Portuguese Empire administered the city under Chinese authority and sovereignty until 1887, sovereignty over Macau was transferred back to China on 20 December 1999. The Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau and Macau Basic Law stipulate that Macau operate with a degree of autonomy until at least 2049. Macau participates in international organizations and events that do not require members to national sovereignty. Macau is a city in Southern China, known for its casinos. Its gaming revenue has been the worlds largest since 2006, with the heavily dependent on gaming. According to The World Factbook, Macau has the fourth highest life expectancy in the world, the present Chinese name means Inlet Gates. Macau is otherwise known in Chinese as Haojing or Jinghai, the name Macau is thought to be derived from the A-Ma Temple, a temple built in 1448 dedicated to Mazu, the goddess of seafarers and fishermen. It is said that when the Portuguese sailors landed at the coast just outside the temple and asked the name of the place, the Portuguese then named the peninsula Macau. The history of Macau is traced back to the Qin dynasty, the first recorded Chinese inhabitants of the area were people seeking refuge in Macau from invading Mongols during the Southern Song. Under the Ming dynasty, fishermen migrated to Macau from Guangdong, the Macau native people were Tanka boat people. Macau did not develop as a settlement until the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century. In 1513, Jorge Álvares became the first Portuguese to land in China, in 1535, Portuguese traders obtained the rights to anchor ships in Macaus harbours and to carry out trading activities, though not the right to stay onshore. In 1557, the Portuguese established a permanent settlement in Macau, the Portuguese continued to pay an annual tribute up to 1863 in order to stay in Macau. By 1564, Portugal commanded western trade with India, Japan, but their pride was damaged by the indifference with which the Chinese treated them
27.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
28.
Fur
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Fur is used in reference to the hair of non-human mammals, particularly those with extensive body hair coverage that is generally soft and thick, as opposed to the stiffer bristles on most pigs. The term pelage – first known use in English c.1828 – is sometimes used to refer to the hair of an animal as a complete coat. Fur is also used to refer to animal pelts which have been processed into leather with the still attached. The words fur or furry are also used, more casually, to refer to hair-like growths or formations, particularly when the subject being referred to exhibits a dense coat of fine, soft hairs. If layered, rather than grown as a coat, it may consist of short down hairs, long guard hairs. Mammals with reduced amounts of fur are called naked, as with the naked mole-rat, or hairless. An animal with commercially valuable fur is known within the fur industry as a furbearer and its principal function is thermoregulation, it maintains a layer of dry air next to the skin and repels water, thus providing thermal insulation. Guard hair — the top consisting of longer, generally coarser. The distal ends of the guard hairs provide the externally visible layer of the coat of most mammals with well-developed fur and this layer of the coat displays the most marked pigmentation and gloss, including coat patterns adapted to display or camouflage. It is also adapted to shedding water and blocking sunlight, protecting the undercoat and skin from external factors such as rain, many animals, such as domestic cats, erect their guard hairs as part of their threat display when agitated. Mammals with well-developed down and guard hairs also usually have numbers of awn hairs. These begin their growth much as guard hairs do, but change their mode of growth and this portion of the hair is called awn. The rest of the growth is thin and wavy, much like down hair, in many species of mammals, the awn hairs comprise the bulk of the visible coat. Hair is one of the characteristics of mammals, however. These are often called naked or hairless, some mammals naturally have reduced amounts of fur. Some semiaquatic or aquatic mammals such as cetaceans, pinnipeds and hippopotamuses have evolved hairlessness, the naked mole-rat has evolved hairlessness, perhaps as an adaptation to their subterranean life-style. Two of the largest extant mammals, the elephant and the rhinoceros, are largely hairless. The hairless bat is mostly hairless but does have short bristly hairs around its neck, on its front toes, most hairless animals cannot go in the sun for long periods of time, or stay in the cold for too long
29.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
30.
Edmonds, Washington
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Edmonds is a city in Snohomish County, Washington, United States, and is a Northern Suburb of Seattle located 11 miles north of the city. Edmonds has a view of Puget Sound and both the Olympic Mountains and Cascade Range, the third most populous city in Snohomish County after Everett and Marysville, the population was 39,709 according to the 2010 census and the estimated population in 2015 was 40,490. Based on per capita income, one of the more reliable measures of affluence, Edmonds is a port in the Washington State Ferries system. Currently, the ferry from Edmonds is a run to Kingston, Washington, in the past, there have been much longer routes from Edmonds to Port Townsend. Edmonds is the oldest incorporated city in Snohomish County, Brackett came to the future site of Edmonds while paddling a canoe north of Seattle, searching for timber. When a gust of wind hit his canoe, Brackett beached in a location later called Bracketts Landing, the town was named Edmonds in 1884, but was not incorporated until 1890 as an official village fourth class of Snohomish County. In that same year, Brackett sold 455 acres to the Minneapolis Realty, the town was plotted and a wharf was added along the waterfront. Modest houses and commercial structures sprouted up with a row of shingle mills dominating the cityscape, in 1891, the Great Northern Railway came through and early settlers and investors grew hopeful that Edmonds would prosper. Unfortunately, the Panic of 1893 created business setbacks and the town owners foreclosed, Brackett reclaimed his town and along with other early settlers continued to develop its infrastructure. By 1900 there was passenger ferry service available by the steam-powered mosquito fleet of private ferryboats from Edmonds to Seattle. Edmonds suffered major fires in 1909 and 1928, and many buildings were lost, the first car arrived in Edmonds in 1911. As more roads were established, Edmonds experienced steady growth along with commercial and residential development, the Edmonds-South Snohomish County Historical Society resides in the citys only National Historic Place - the old Carnegie Library of Edmonds. Located on 5th Ave, it was built in 1910 to serve as a library and city hall and it now serves as the Edmonds Historical Museum. The Edmonds Fountain, a landmark, has been a major source of contention over the past decades. The current Edmonds Fountain is located in the center of the intersection of 5th Avenue, until 1970, every holiday season the Edmonds municipal Christmas tree stood on this spot. In 1970 the original fountain, an obscure twisted sculpture incorporating water elements, was erected, often the target of high school pranks and other local humor, that fountain and sculpture were wrecked in 1998 by a drunk driver. The city council and subsequent Gazebo subcommittee decided to build a new structure, in 2005, a driver crashed into it at night and the gazebo met the same fate as the earlier fountain. It was completed in the summer of 2006, located in the extreme southwest corner of Snohomish County, Edmonds is bounded by King County on the south and Puget Sound on the west
31.
Morro Bay, California
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Morro Bay is a waterfront city in San Luis Obispo County, California. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 10,234, the prehistory of Morro Bay relates to Chumash settlement, particularly near the mouth of Morro Creek. At least as early as the Millingstone Horizon thousands of years before present, there was a settlement along the banks. The first European land exploration of Alta California, the Spanish Portola expedition, came down Los Osos Valley, franciscan missionary and expedition member Juan Crespi noted in his diary that we saw a great rock in the form of a round morro. Morro Rock later gave its name to the town, the descriptive term morro is common to the Spanish, Portuguese and Italian languages, and the word is part of many place names where there is a distinctive and prominent rock formation. Note that the similar Spanish descriptive word moro indicates a bluish color rather than a shape, while governed by Mexico, large land grants split the surrounding area into cattle and dairy ranchos. These ranchos needed shipping to bring in dry goods and to carry their crops, animals, the town of Morro Bay was founded by Franklin Riley in 1870 as a port for the export of dairy and ranch products. He was instrumental in the building of a wharf which has now become the Embarcadero, during the 1870s, schooners could often be seen at the Embarcadero picking up wool, potatoes, barley, and dairy products. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the town has been a center for beach holidays, tourism is the citys largest industry, coexisting with the towns commercial fishery. The most popular beach is on the side of Morro Rock. There are also excellent beaches north and south of the town which are now owned by the State of California, in the 1940s, Morro Bay developed an abalone fishing industry, it peaked in 1957, and stocks of abalone have declined significantly due to overfishing. Halibut, sole, rockfish, albacore, and many species are still caught by both commercial and sport vessels. In addition, oysters are aquacultured in the back bay. A portion of Morro Bay is also designated as a state and it is also a state and national estuary. Much of Morro Bay is a wildlife refuge where waterfowl hunting is conducted during the season and is one of the few areas in California where Pacific brant are pursued. In 2007, the California Fish and Game Commission designated Morro Bay as a Marine Protected Area named the Morro Bay State Marine Reserve, Morro Bay is located at 35°22′45″N 120°51′12″W. Morro Bay 35°20′16″N 120°51′05″W is also the name of the estuary that is situated along the northern shores of the bay itself. The larger bay on which the area lies is Estero Bay
32.
Grays Harbor
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Grays Harbor is an estuarine bay located 45 miles north of the mouth of the Columbia River, on the southwest Pacific coast of Washington state, in the United States of America. It is a ria, which formed at the end of the last ice age, the bay is 17 miles long and 12 miles wide. Besides the Chehalis, many rivers and streams flow into Grays Harbor, such as Hoquiam River. A pair of low peninsulas separate it from the Pacific Ocean, the northern peninsula, which is largely covered by the community of Ocean Shores, ends in Point Brown. Facing that across the bay-mouth is Point Chehalis, at the end of the peninsula upon which stands the town of Westport. Grays Harbor is named after Captain Robert Gray who discovered and entered it on May 7,1792 in the course of his fur-trading voyages along the north Pacific coast of North America, Grays Harbor was the name that stuck. Settlement of the began in the early 1870s and was largely dependent on the lumber industry. As the forests of the eastern United States depleted, many loggers from the East, Grays Harbor National Wildlife Refuge is located on 1,500 acres of intertidal mudflats, salt marsh, and uplands around Hoquiam. The schooner Annie Larsen was seized at Grays Harbour on 25 June 1915 by US customs officials, later leading to what was at the time the most expensive trial in US legal history
33.
Tall ship
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A tall ship is a large, traditionally-rigged sailing vessel. Popular modern tall ship rigs include topsail schooners, brigantines, brigs, Tall ship can also be defined more specifically by an organization, such as for a race or festival. Traditional rigging may include square rigs and gaff rigs, usually with separate topmasts and it is generally more complex than modern rigging, which utilizes newer materials such as aluminum and steel to construct taller, lightweight masts with fewer, more versatile sails. Most smaller, modern vessels use the Bermuda rig, author and master mariner Joseph Conrad used the term tall ship in his works, for example, in The Mirror of the Sea in 1903. If Conrad used the term, it is fairly certain tall ship was common parlance among his fellow mariners in the last quarter of the 19th century. Henry David Thoreau also references the term tall ship in his first work, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, quoting Down out at its mouth, the dark inky main blending with the blue above. Plum Island, its sand ridges scolloping along the horizon like the sea-serpent, and he does not cite this quotation, but the work was written in 1849. The exact definitions have changed somewhat over time, and are subject to various technicalities, basically there are only two size classes, A is over 40 m LOA, and B/C/D are 9.14 m to under 40 m LOA. The STI definitions can be here and a ship database here. All square-rigged vessels and all other more than 40 metres Length Overall. STI classifies its A Class as all square-rigged vessels and all vessels over 40 metres length overall, in this case STI LOA excludes bowsprit. STI defines LOA as Length overall measured from the side of stem post to aft side of stern post. Traditionally rigged vessels with an LOA of less than 40 metres, modern rigged vessels with an LOA of less than 40 metres and with a waterline length of at least 9.14 metres not carrying spinnaker-like sails. Modern rigged vessels with an LOA of less than 40 metres, there are also a variety of other rules and regulations for the crew, such as ages, and also for a rating rule. There are other festivals and races with their own standards. An older definition of class A by the STI was all square-rigged vessels over 120 length overall, fore and aft rigged vessels of 160 and over. By LOA they meant length excluding bowsprit and aft spar, Class B was all fore and aft rigged vessels between 100 and 160 feet in length, and all square rigged vessels under 120. See also a list of class A ships with lengths including bowsprit, Tall ships are sometimes lost, such as by a storm at sea
34.
Hawaiian Chieftain
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Hawaiian Chieftain is the name of a sailing vessel briefly known as the Spirit of Larinda. Built in 1988 in Lahaina on the island of Maui, the Hawaiian Chieftain is an interpretation of a traditional design. She is unique with the rig of a 19th-century trading vessel, drawing only 5.5 feet, she is highly maneuverable in shallow waters. Lofting, initial hull framing and partial hull plating was performed by Morgan Davies. Completion of hull welding was performed by ship welders Ken Bear, Bill Purvis, Lionel Clemons, additional expert tradesmen were hired for the rigging, ships carpentry, machinery and electrical installation. Master Mariner Des Kearns played a key role as a Project Director from early 1987 until launch in June 1988, under its paint, her bowsprit bears the inscription Lahaina Welding Co. Her maiden voyage was to French Polynesia on April 1,1990, in the winter of 2004, she was sold to a Cape Cod sailing program and renamed the Spirit of Larinda, however, due to the unexpected death of her owner, she remained inactive. In October 2005, the Grays Harbor Historical Seaport Authority, owner of Lady Washington, purchased her to add to its fleet
35.
Topgallant sail
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On a square rigged sailing vessel, a topgallant sail is the square-rigged sail or sails immediately above the topsail or topsails. It is also known as a gallant or garrant sail, later full rigged ships split the topsail for easier handling. They thus fly two topsails per mast, the lower topgallant sail is immediately above the upper topsail. The upper or only topgallant sail is set from the top of the topgallant mast, a staysail set on a stay running forward and downwards from the top or midpoint of the topgallant mast is called a topgallant staysail
36.
Topsail
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A topsail is a sail set above another sail, on square-rigged vessels further sails may be set above topsails. On a square rigged vessel, a topsail is a sail rigged above the course sail. A full rigged ship has either single or double topsails on all masts, the single or lower topsail being the second sail above the deck, the bottom edge of the topsail, like that of other square sails, is slightly concave. Although topsails of a kind were used at least as early as Roman times, they first came into use in Europe some time in the 15th century. It was quite common for a ship to sail with topsails and jibs alone, the larger topsails were difficult and dangerous to handle in strong winds. Sometime in the 1680s, reef-bands were introduced to tie up part of the sail, with topsails eventually getting four of these, and reefing the sails became a regular occupation of sailors. In the mid 19th century, topsails of merchant vessels were split into upper and lower topsails that could be managed separately. Competing versions of the double topsail were invented by Robert Bennet Forbes, although Forbes strove to defend his rig, the Howe rig dominated. In the Forbes rig, both topsail yards are fixed vertically, in the Howe rig, the upper topsail yard slides on the topmast so it can be lowered in a few seconds to close reef the upper topsail. Howe had the foot of the upper topsail closely attached to the lower topsail yard, in 1865 the British clipper Ariel introduced a gap there. Forbes first tried his rig in the topsail schooner Midas in 1844. The clipper Climax built in 1853 under the supervision of Howes was the first ship with Howe rig, gaff topsails, like gaff rigs in general, may still be seen at Tall Ships gatherings. The gaff rig has been superseded by the Bermuda rig. On a gaff-rigged sailing boat, topsails may take a few different forms, a gaff-rigged vessel might have a gaff topsail above any or all of its gaff sails. A yard topsail is similar, but set on a yard, early 19th-century topsail yards were set almost horizontally, but gradually increased in angle until they became almost vertical extension of the topmast. A jack-yard topsail instead has its lower edge extended out beyond the end of the gaff with a short yard, a jack-yard topsail may also have the aforementioned vertical yard, although this makes for a very large topsail. A cornish topsail is a triangular sail having its luff extended well above the masthead by being laced to a yard hoisted by a halyard rove through a sheave fitted diagonally in the mast. The heel of the yard fits immediately about the gaff and is kept in place by a called a timminoggy. A square topsail is a sail, carried above the foresail only
37.
Gaff sail
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Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
38.
Sail plan
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A sail plan is a set of drawings, usually prepared by a naval architect which shows the various combinations of sail proposed for a sailing ship. Alternatively, as a term of art, it refers to the way such vessels are rigged as discussed below, the combinations shown in a sail plan almost always include three configurations, A light air sail plan. Over most of the Earth, most of the time, the force is Force 1 or less. Thus a sail plan should include a set of huge, lightweight sails that will keep the ship underway in light breezes and this is the set of sails that are changed rapidly in variable conditions. They are much stronger than the light air sails, but still lightweight, an economical sail in this set will include several sets of reefing ties, so the area of the sail can be reduced in a stronger wind. This is the set of small, very rugged sails flown in a gale, to keep the vessel under way. In all sail plans, the attempts to balance the force of the sails against the drag of the underwater keel in such a way that the vessel naturally points into the wind. In this way, if control is lost, the vessel will avoid broaching, broaching always causes uncomfortable motion, and in a storm, the breaking waves can destroy a lightly built boat. The architect also tries to balance the force on each sail plan against a range of loads. The calculation assures that the sail will not knock the vessel sideways with its mast in the water, capsizing, fore-and-aft rig features flat sails that run fore and aft. These types of sails are the easiest to manage, because they often do not need to be relaid when the ship changes course, Bermuda rig is a type of fore-and-aft rig with a triangular mainsail. Gaff rig features fore-and-aft sails shaped like a triangle minus its point, the top of the sail tends to twist away from the wind reducing its efficiency when close-hauled. However, due to the gaff on the top edge of the sail the centre of effort is typically lower, square rig features sails set square to the mast from a yard, a spar running transversely in relation to the hull. In ships built using designs of the square rig, sailors would have to climb the rigging. In a modern square rigged design the crew can furl and unfurl sails by remote control from the deck, lateen rig features a triangular sail set on a long yard, mounted at an angle on the mast and running in a fore-and-aft direction. This is one of the lowest drag sails, each form of rig requires its own type of sails. Among them are, A staysail is a piece of cloth that has one or two attached to a stay, that is, one of the ropes or wires that helps hold the mast in place. A staysail was classically attached to the stay with wooden or steel hoops, sailors would test the hoops by climbing on them
39.
Starship Enterprise
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Jefferies, who was a pilot, based NCC on 20th century aircraft registration codes. In such 20th century usage, an N first letter refers to a registered in the United States. A C for a second letter refers to a civil aircraft, Jefferies added a second C because he thought it looked better. The Franz Joseph Blueprints, the book The Making of Star Trek, in an interview with the BBC, Jefferies explained that NC is the designation for U. S. commercial aircraft and the Soviet Unions space program used the CCCP designation. He concluded that any major future space projects would likely be an international effort. The 1701 had two functions, it represented the first ship of a 17th federation cruiser design, and that the digits were unlikely to be misread, unlike 6,8, or 9. In Gene Roddenberrys original Star Trek pitch, the starship is described as a United Space Ship, before Star Trek, The Motion Picture, Paramount had planned a Star Trek film to have been named Star Trek, Planet of the Titans. Early in the production, Ralph McQuarrie had been hired to redesign the ship, the major feature of the redesign was to replace the cigar-shaped secondary hull with a larger, triangle-shaped delta wing section. McQuarries design was discarded in favor of keeping the shape of the ship intact for the release of Star Trek. Three spaceships with the name Enterprise predate the United Federation of Planets in Star Treks fictional timeline and it was retroactively entered into the Star Trek continuity. In real life, the selected name for the orbiter was Constitution but it was instead named Enterprise due to Star Trek fans. The 1979 Star Trek Spaceflight Chronology describes this first interstellar liner as a Declaration-class ship launched in 2123 and its length is given as 300 metres, and it has a capacity of 100 crew and 850 passengers. The Star Trek Maps by New Eye Photography Editors, also published in 1979, the Making of Star Trek, The Motion Picture, published in 1980, describes the ship as the very first starship U. S. S. A painting of this ship hangs on the wall of Earths 602 Club in flashbacks from the Star Trek, registry, Enterprise Class, NXService, 2151–2161 Captain, Jonathan Archer, alternate timeline - TPol United Earth Starfleets Enterprise is the main setting of Star Trek, Enterprise. Enterprise was the first human-built starship capable of reaching warp 5 and she was commanded by Captain Jonathan Archer and played an instrumental role in the founding of several proto-Federation alliances. Enterprise had significant engagements with the Klingons, Suliban, and Xindi, three ships named USS Enterprise are featured in the original Star Trek television series and the first through seventh Star Trek films. Registry, USS Enterprise Class, Constitution class refit starship Service, 2286–2293 Captain, Kirk This ship first appears at the conclusion of Star Trek IV, The Voyage Home and is the main setting in the subsequent Star Trek movies which use the original crew. The ship is ordered decommissioned at the end of Star Trek VI, paperwork included with the model kit indicated the ship was mothballed at the Memory Alpha ship museum
40.
Holodeck
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The holodeck, and holographic technology in general, is a plot device used in stories set within the Star Trek universe. It is used to stories with locations and characters that could not otherwise exist in the Star Trek setting. Although Star Treks conception of technology is fictional, some scientists have predicted that virtual reality tools similar to the holodeck will become a consumer-ready product by 2024. Most holodeck programs shown in the run in first person subjective mode, in which the user actively interacts with the program. Writer Phil Farrand has often pointed out how in many episodes matter from the holodeck that gets on a person still exists when the real person exits the holodeck. In Encounter at Farpoint, Wesley Crusher falls into a holodeck stream, in The Big Goodbye, Picard has lipstick on his cheek after encountering a holodeck simulation of a 20th-century woman. In Elementary, Dear Data, Data and Geordi La Forge exit the holodeck with a piece of paper that originated in the holodeck and this could be explained using replicated rather than holographic matter. In most episodes, the holodeck is controlled by voice commands and they also include safety protocols to protect the users. Some users may develop an addiction to the holodeck, leading to them spending unhealthy amounts of time there and this was demonstrated by the Starfleet human character Reginald Barclay in the Voyager episode Pathfinder and The Next Generation episode Hollow Pursuits. In the timeline of the universe, the concept of a holodeck was first shown to humans in an encounter with the Xyrillian race in the Star Trek. In real-time, the holodeck is first presented as a called the Rec room within the Star Trek animated series (released in 1974. During the episode The Practical Joker, Dr McCoy, Sulu, Holodeck variations of being by the sea, in a forest, falling down a pit and being trapped in a snow-storm all having physical characteristics place the lives of McCoy, Sulu and Uhura at risk. When they were running from the Borg on his starship they hid in the holodeck, the Star Trek Holodeck was inspired by New York inventor and holographer, Gene Dolgoff, who is also the inventor of the digital projector. His holography laboratory, built in 1964, was the first holography lab in New York City, in 1973, Dolgoff was giving a technical paper on his holographic model of the human brain at a conference in Prague. There he met Melanie Toyofuku, also based in New York, Dolgoff had won 4th prize in the student paper contest in 1968 in which he described how such a holographic TV system could work. Roddenberry wrote the concept into Star Trek, The Next Generation, however, the concept had already been tested in 1974 in Star Trek, the Animated Series. Starfleet personnel use holodecks for training, diagnostics and recreation, the Emergency Medical Hologram on ships such as USS Voyager applies holodeck technology to present a single character within the otherwise natural environment of the ships sick bay. An example of the holodecks recreational functions are the holosuites that are owned and rented out—often for sexual purposes—by Quark on Deep Space Nine, writing stories and plotlines for the holodeck is an activity pursued by people known as holonovelists
41.
Star Trek Generations
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Star Trek Generations is a 1994 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures. Generations is the feature film based on Star Trek, and is the first film in the series to star the cast of the television series Star Trek. Captain Jean-Luc Picard of the USS Enterprise-D teams up with his predecessor Captain James T, Kirk to stop a villain from destroying a planet. Parts of the film were shot at the Valley of Fire State Park near Overton, Nevada, Paramount Studios, while the film received mixed reviews from critics, it performed well at the box office. In the year 2293, retired Captain James T. Kirk, Montgomery Scott, during the voyage, Enterprise is pressed into a rescue mission to save two El-Aurian ships from a strange energy ribbon. Enterprise is able to some of the refugees before their ships are destroyed. In 2371, the crew of the USS Enterprise-D celebrate the promotion of Worf to Lieutenant Commander, Captain Jean-Luc Picard receives a message that his brother and nephew were killed in a fire, meaning the storied Picard family line will end with him. Enterprise receives a call from an observatory in orbit of the star Amargosa. The android Data and engineer Geordi La Forge discover a compound called trilithium in a room of the observatory. Soran appears, knocks La Forge unconscious, and launches a solar probe at Amargosa. The probe causes the star to implode, sending a shock wave toward the observatory, Data is rescued just before the station is destroyed by the shock wave. Guinan, Enterprises bartender, tells Captain Jean-Luc Picard more about Soran, Guinan explains that Soran is obsessed with reentering the Nexus, an extra-dimensional realm where time has no meaning and anyone can experience whatever they desire. Upon entering the Veridian system, Enterprise makes contact with the Duras Bird of Prey, Picard offers himself to the sisters in exchange for La Forge, but insists that he be transported to Sorans location first. La Forge is returned to Enterprise, but he inadvertently reveals Enterprises shield frequency, Enterprise destroys the Bird of Prey, but has sustained irreversible damage to its warp core. Commander William Riker orders an evacuation to the saucer section of the ship which separates from the star drive. The shock wave from the star drives destruction sends the saucer crashing to the surface of Veridian III, Picard fails to talk Soran out of his plan and is too late to stop him from launching his missile. The collapse of the Veridian star alters the course of the Nexus ribbon as predicted, in the Nexus, Picard finds himself surrounded by the family he never had, including a wife and children, but realizes it is an illusion. He is confronted by an echo of Guinan, after being told that he may leave whenever he chooses and go wherever and whenever he wishes, Guinan sends him to meet Kirk, also safe in the Nexus
42.
The Walt Disney Company
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The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney, is an American diversified multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate, headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California. It is the second largest media conglomerate in terms of revenue. Disney was founded on October 16,1923 – by brothers Walt Disney, the company also operated under the names The Walt Disney Studio and then Walt Disney Productions. Taking on its current name in 1986, it expanded its operations and also started divisions focused upon theater, radio, music, publishing. In addition, Disney has since created corporate divisions in order to more mature content than is typically associated with its flagship family-oriented brands. The company is best known for the products of its studio, Walt Disney Studios. Disneys other three divisions are Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, Disney Media Networks, and Disney Consumer Products. The company has been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since May 6,1991, Mickey Mouse, an early and well-known cartoon creation of the company, is a primary symbol and mascot for Disney. In early 1923, Kansas City, Missouri, animator Walt Disney created a film entitled Alices Wonderland. After the bankruptcy in 1923 of his previous firm, Laugh-O-Gram Studios, Disney moved to Hollywood to join his brother, Walt and Roy Disney formed Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio that same year. More animated films followed after Alice, in January 1926, with the completion of the Disney studio on Hyperion Street, the Disney Brothers Studios name was changed to the Walt Disney Studio. The distributor owned Oswald, so Disney only made a few hundred dollars, Disney completed 26 Oswald shorts before losing the contract in February 1928, due to a legal loophole, when Winklers husband Charles Mintz took over their distribution company. After failing to take over the Disney Studio, Mintz hired away four of Disneys primary animators to start his own animation studio, Snappy Comedies. In 1928, to recover from the loss of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, Disney came up with the idea of a character named Mortimer while on a train headed to California. The mouse was later renamed Mickey Mouse and starred in several Disney produced films, ub Iwerks refined Disneys initial design of Mickey Mouse. Disneys first sound film Steamboat Willie, a cartoon starring Mickey, was released on November 18,1928 through Pat Powers distribution company and it was the first Mickey Mouse sound cartoon released, but the third to be created, behind Plane Crazy and The Gallopin Gaucho. Disney used Pat Powers Cinephone system, created by Powers using Lee De Forests Phonofilm system, Steamboat Willie premiered at B. S. Mosss Colony Theater in New York City, now The Broadway Theatre. Disneys Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho were then retrofitted with synchronized sound tracks, Disney continued to produce cartoons with Mickey Mouse and other characters, and began the Silly Symphonies series with Columbia Pictures signing on as Symphonies distributor in August 1929
United States
