1.
United States Geological Survey
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The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database
2.
Minneapolis
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Minneapolis is the county seat of Hennepin County, and the larger of the Twin Cities, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. As of 2015, Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest, after Chicago. Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Saint Paul. It was once the worlds flour milling capital and a hub for timber, the city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle, with Minneapolis proper containing Americas fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. As an integral link to the economy, Minneapolis is categorized as a global city. Noted for its music and performing arts scenes, Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub. The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag, the citys first schoolteacher, who combined mni, a Dakota Sioux word for water, and polis, Dakota Sioux had long been the regions sole residents when French explorers arrived around 1680. For a time relations were based on fur trading, gradually more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Dakota. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired this territory from France, fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the United States Army, and it attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the area. The United States government pressed the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota to sell their land, the Minnesota Territorial Legislature authorized present-day Minneapolis as a town in 1856 on the Mississippis west bank. Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867, the rail service began between Minneapolis and Chicago. It later joined with the city of St. Anthony in 1872. Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes. Due to the hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the citys thirty-four flour mills, a father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Some ideas were developed by William Dixon Gray and some acquired through industrial espionage from the Hungarians by William de la Barre, pillsbury Company across the river were barely a step behind, hiring Washburn employees to immediately use the new methods. The hard red spring wheat that grows in Minnesota became valuable, not until later did consumers discover the value in the bran that Minneapolis
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Drainage basin
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A drainage basin or catchment area is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or other body of water. Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at elevations in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins. Other terms used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin. In closed drainage basins the water converges to a point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake. The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the covered by the basin. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks, in a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins. Drainage basins of the oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the oceans, the following is a list of the major ocean basins, About 48. 7% of the worlds land drains to the Atlantic Ocean. The two major mediterranean seas of the world also flow to the Atlantic, The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico basin includes most of the U. S. The Mediterranean Sea basin includes much of North Africa, east-central Africa, Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, Turkey, and the areas of Israel, Lebanon. Just over 13% of the land in the world drains to the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Oceans drainage basin also comprises about 13% of Earths land. It drains the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, antarctica comprises approximately eight percent of the Earths land. The five largest river basins, from largest to smallest, are the basins of the Amazon, the Río de la Plata, the Congo, the Nile, and the Mississippi. The three rivers that drain the most water, from most to least, are the Amazon, Ganga, endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks, the largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, in endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example of this is the Dead Sea, drainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important
5.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
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Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was an American poet and educator whose works include Paul Reveres Ride, The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieris Divine Comedy, Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine, which was then a part of Massachusetts. After spending time in Europe he became a professor at Bowdoin and, later and his first major poetry collections were Voices of the Night and Ballads and Other Poems. Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854, to focus on his writing, living the remainder of his life in Cambridge, Massachusetts and his first wife Mary Potter died in 1835, after a miscarriage. His second wife Frances Appleton died in 1861, after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire, after her death, Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time and focused on translating works from foreign languages. Longfellow wrote many lyric poems known for their musicality and often presenting stories of mythology and he became the most popular American poet of his day and also had success overseas. He has been criticized, however, for imitating European styles and his father was a lawyer, and his maternal grandfather, Peleg Wadsworth, was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a Member of Congress. He was named after his mothers brother Henry Wadsworth, a Navy lieutenant who had died three years earlier at the Battle of Tripoli, Longfellow was the second of eight children, his siblings were Stephen, Elizabeth, Anne, Alexander, Mary, Ellen and Samuel. Longfellow was of entirely English ancestry, all of which had been in New England since the early 1600s, Longfellow attended a dame school at the age of three and by age six was enrolled at the private Portland Academy. In his years there he earned a reputation as being very studious and his mother encouraged his enthusiasm for reading and learning, introducing him to Robinson Crusoe and Don Quixote. He published his first poem, a patriotic and historical four-stanza poem called The Battle of Lovells Pond and he stayed at the Portland Academy until the age of fourteen. He spent much of his summers as a child at his grandfather Pelegs farm in the western Maine town of Hiram, in the fall of 1822, the 15-year-old Longfellow enrolled at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, along with his brother Stephen. His grandfather was a founder of the college and his father was a trustee, there Longfellow met Nathaniel Hawthorne, who would later become his lifelong friend. He boarded with a clergyman for a time before rooming in 1823 on the floor of what is now known as Winthrop Hall. He joined the Peucinian Society, a group of students with Federalist leanings, in his senior year, Longfellow wrote to his father about his aspirations, I will not disguise it in the least. The fact is, I most eagerly aspire after future eminence in literature, my whole soul burns most ardently after it, and every earthly thought centres in it. I am almost confident in believing, that if I can ever rise in the world it must be by the exercise of my talents in the field of literature. He pursued his goals by submitting poetry and prose to various newspapers and magazines
6.
The Song of Hiawatha
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The Song of Hiawatha is an 1855 epic poem in trochaic tetrameter by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow that features Native American characters. The epic relates the adventures of an Ojibwe warrior named Hiawatha, events in the story are set in the Pictured Rocks area on the south shore of Lake Superior. Longfellows poem, though based on oral traditions surrounding the figure of Manabozho, represents not a work of transmission. In sentiment, scope, overall conception, and many particulars, Longfellow insisted, I can give chapter and their chief value is that they are Indian legends. But in his entry for June 28,1854, he wrote, Work at Manabozho, or, as I think I shall call it. Longfellow, following Schoolcraft, was mistaken in thinking the names were synonyms, in Ojibwe lore the figure of Manabozho is legendary but the name Hiawatha is unknown. The name Hiawatha derives from the name of a figure associated with the League of the Iroquois. The poem was published on November 10,1855, and was an immediate success, in 1857, Longfellow calculated that it had sold 50,000 copies. Longfellow chose to set The Song of Hiawatha at the Pictured Rocks, the Song presents a legend of Hiawatha and his lover Minnehaha in 22 chapters. Hiawatha is not introduced until Chapter III, in Chapter I, Hiawathas arrival is prophesied by a mighty peace-bringing leader named Gitche Manito. Chapter II tells a legend of how the warrior Mudjekeewis became Father of the Four Winds by slaying the Great Bear of the mountains and his son Wabun, the East Wind, falls in love with a maiden whom he turns into the Morning Star, Wabun-Annung. Wabuns brother, Kabibonokka, the North Wind, bringer of autumn and winter, attacks Shingebis, Shingebis repels him by burning firewood, and then in a wrestling match. A third brother, Shawondasee, the South Wind, falls in love with a dandelion, in Chapter III, in unremembered ages, a woman named Nokomis falls from the moon. Nokomis gives birth to Wenonah, who grows to be a young woman. Nokomis warns her not to be seduced by the West Wind but she does not heed her mother, becomes pregnant and bears Hiawatha. In the ensuing chapters, Hiawatha has childhood adventures, falls in love with Minnehaha, slays the evil magician Pearl-Feather, invents written language, discovers corn, Minnehaha dies in a severe winter. The poem closes with the approach of a canoe to Hiawathas village, containing the Priest of Prayer. Hiawatha welcomes him joyously, and the Black-Robe chief brings word of Jesus Christ, Hiawatha and the chiefs accept the Christian message
7.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
8.
Lake Hiawatha
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Lake Hiawatha is located just north of Lake Nokomis in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It was purchased by the Minneapolis park system in 1922 for $550,000, at that time the lake was a marsh known as Rice Lake, but over four years, the park system transformed the wetland into a lake surrounded by a park. The lake and park have a dock, wading pool, tennis courts. There is a center that hosts activities. The lake borders a municipal golf course, in the winter the park sets up ice and hockey rinks. There is a bike and walking path starting at Lake Hiawatha which veers onto Lake Nokomis or winds down the Minnehaha Creek right to the mouth of the Minnehaha Falls. Lake Hiawatha is one of the few lakes through which the Minnehaha Creek flows, some fish consumption guideline restrictions have been placed on the lakes bluegill and northern pike due to mercury and/or PCB contamination. Lake Hiawatha has much more garbage than any other Minneapolis lake, the lake is a stormwater outlet for the Corcoran, Central, Bryant, and Northrop neighborhoods, as well as the parks golf course. The Lake Hiawatha beach has been closed, such as in August 2014. Lake Hiawatha has been officially declared infested by zebra mussels since 2010, list of lakes in Minneapolis Official website U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Lake Hiawatha
9.
Dredging
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Dredging is an excavation activity usually carried out underwater, in shallow seas or freshwater areas with the purpose of gathering up bottom sediments and disposing of them at a different location. This technique is used to keep waterways navigable. It is also used as a way to replenish sand on some public beaches, fishing dredges are used as a technique for catching certain species of edible clams and crabs. Capital, dredging carried out to create a new harbor, berth or waterway, preparatory, work and excavation for future bridges, piers or docks/wharves, often connected with foundation work. This is often carried out with a trailing suction hopper dredge, most dredging is for this purpose, and it may also be done to maintain the holding capacity of reservoirs or lakes. Land reclamation, dredging to mine sand, clay or rock from the seabed and this is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. The material may also be used for flood or erosion control, beach nourishment, mining sand offshore and placing on a beach to replace sand eroded by storms or wave action. This is done to enhance the recreational and protective function of the beaches and this is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. Harvesting materials, dredging sediment for elements like gold, diamonds or other valuable trace substances, seabed mining, a possible future use, recovering natural metal ore nodules from the seas abyssal plains. Construction materials, dredging sand and gravels from offshore licensed areas for use in construction industry, very specialist industry focused in NW Europe using specialized trailing suction hopper dredgers self discharging dry cargo ashore. Anti-eutrophication, Dredging is an option for the remediation of eutrophied water bodies. Contaminant remediation, to areas affected by chemical spills, storm water surges. Disposal becomes a large factor in these operations. Removing trash and debris, often done in combination with maintenance dredging, flood prevention, this can help to increase channel depth and therefore increase a channels capacity for carrying water. This tradition has now more or less obsolete and the tools used to do this have also changed significantly. Oyster dredging or harvesting, in Louisiana and other states with salt water estuaries that can sustain bottom oyster beds. A heavy metal rectangular scoop device is towed astern of a boat with a chain bridle attached to a cable. The device is periodically hauled aboard and the oysters in it are sorted and bagged for shipment to a processing facility
10.
Christian J. Lambertsen
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Lambertsen designed a series of rebreathers in 1940 and in 1944 and first called his invention breathing apparatus. Later, after the war, he called it Laru and finally, in 1952, the US Navy considers Lambertsen to be the father of the Frogmen. Lambertsen was born in Westfield, New Jersey and attended Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey and he graduated from medical school at University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1943. Lambertsen was awarded Honorary Doctor of Science Degree from Northwestern University in 1977, Major Lambertsen served in the U. S. Army Medical Corps from 1944 to 1946. He invented the first Self-contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus and demonstrated it to the Office of Strategic Services in a pool at a hotel in Washington D. C. OSS not only bought into the concept, they hired Major Labertsen to lead the program and he was vital in establishing the first cadres of U. S. military operational combat swimmers during late World War II. The OSS was also the predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency, following World War II, he trained U. S. forces in methods for submerged operations, including composite fleet submarine / operational swimmers activity. Lambertsen spent the 1950s concentrating on research needs in undersea medicine. He again took an appointment as Professor of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in 1962 and he was also named Professor of Medicine in 1972 and Professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine in 1976. Each of these appointments were held until 1987, in 1985, he became Emeritus Distinguished Professor of Environmental Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. Lambertsen was the founder and director of The Environmental Biomedical Stress Data Center at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the University of Pennsylvanias annual Christian J. Lambertsen Honorary Lecture is named for him. Dr. Lambertsens Predictive Studies Series, spanning from 1969 with TEKTITE I to 1997, Lambertsen Papers at Duke University Medical Center Archives
11.
Scuba diving
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Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving in which the scuba diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater. They may include additional cylinders for decompression gas or emergency breathing gas, closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, therefore, scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers. A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, the closed-circuit rebreathers were first developed for escape and rescue purposes, and were modified for military use, due to their stealth advantages, as they produce very few bubbles. The first commercially successful closed-circuit scuba was designed and built by English diving engineer, Henry Fleuss in 1878, while working for Siebe Gorman in London. Sir Robert Davis, head of Siebe Gorman, improved the oxygen rebreather in 1910 with his invention of the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus, rebreathers have been increasingly used by civilians for recreation, especially since the end of the Cold War. This reduced the risk of attack by Communist Bloc forces. After that, the armed forces had less reason to requisition civilian rebreather patents. The single hose two stage scuba regulators trace their origins to Australia, where Ted Eldred developed the first example of type of regulator. This was developed because patents protected the Aqualungs twin hose design, the single hose regulator separates the demand valve from the cylinder, giving the diver air at the ambient pressure at the mouth, rather than ambient pressure at the cylinder valve. The term SCUBA originally referred to United States combat frogmens oxygen rebreathers, SCUBA was originally an acronym, but is now generally used as a common noun or adjective, scuba. It has become acceptable to refer to equipment or scuba apparatus—examples of the linguistic RAS syndrome. Scuba diving may be performed for a number of reasons, both personal and professional, recreational diving is done purely for enjoyment and has a number of technical disciplines to increase interest underwater, such as cave diving, wreck diving, ice diving and deep diving. Divers may be employed professionally to perform tasks underwater, some of these tasks are suitable for scuba. There are divers who work, full or part-time, in the diving community as instructors, assistant instructors, divemasters. Other specialist areas of diving include military diving, with a long history of military frogmen in various roles. Their roles include direct combat, infiltration behind enemy lines, placing mines or using a manned torpedo, in some cases diver rescue teams may also be part of a fire department, paramedical service or lifeguard unit, and may be classed as public service diving
12.
Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit
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The Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit is an early model of closed circuit oxygen rebreather, used by military frogmen. Christian J. Lambertsen designed a series of them in the USA in 1940, Lambertsen designed the LARU while a medical student and demonstrated the LARU to the Office of Strategic Services in a pool at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington D. C. Two apparent large lengthways backpack cylinders under a metal cover, the right cylinder is oxygen. Fullface mask with eye holes like an old-type gasmask Two breathing bags. 4 lengths of corrugated breathing tubes in a loop, from the mask to one of the breathing bags to the canister to the other breathing bag to the mask. Its harness is a cloth jacket that enclosed the divers chest. Mid front, a long zipped pocket, the diagrams do not show whether it was for kit or for diving weights, many diving rebreathers are descended from it
13.
Rebreather
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Oxygen is added to replenish the amount metabolised by the user. This differs from a breathing apparatus, where the exhaled gas is discharged directly into the environment. Mine rescue and other industrial applications – where poisonous gases may be present or oxygen may be absent, crewed spacecraft and space suits – outer space is, effectively, a vacuum without oxygen to support life. Hospital anaesthesia breathing systems – to supply controlled concentrations of gases to patients without contaminating the air that the staff breathe. High altitude reduces the pressure of oxygen in the ambient air. Mountaineering rebreathers provide a partial pressure of oxygen to the climber. Submarines, underwater habitats, and saturation diving systems use a scrubber system working on the principles as a rebreather. Gas masks which filter contaminants from ambient air which is then breathed, the recycling of breathing gas comes at the cost of mass, bulk, technological complexity and specific hazards, which depend on the specific application and type of rebreather used. As a person breathes, the body consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide, exhaled air at sea level still contains roughly 16% oxygen. A high ventilation rate is necessary to eliminate the metabolic product carbon dioxide. By adding sufficient oxygen to compensate for the usage, removing the carbon dioxide. Around 1620, in England, Cornelius Drebbel made an early oar-powered submarine, to re-oxygenate the air inside it, he likely generated oxygen by heating saltpetre in a metal pan to emit oxygen. Heating turns the saltpetre into potassium oxide or hydroxide, which carbon dioxide from the air. That may explain why Drebbels men were not affected by carbon dioxide build-up as much as would be expected, if so, he accidentally made a crude rebreather more than two centuries before Saint Simon Sicards patent. The first basic rebreather based on carbon dioxide absorption was patented in France in 1808 by Sieur Touboulic from Brest and this early rebreather design worked with an oxygen reservoir, the oxygen being delivered progressively by the diver and circulating in a closed circuit through a sponge soaked in limewater. There is no evidence of a prototype having been manufactured, a prototype rebreather was built in 1849 by Pierre Aimable De Saint Simon Sicard, and in 1853 by Professor T. Schwann in Belgium. It had a back mounted oxygen tank with working pressure of about 13.3 bar. The first commercially practical closed-circuit scuba was designed and built by the diving engineer Henry Fleuss in 1878, Fleuss continually improved his apparatus, adding a demand regulator and tanks capable of holding greater amounts of oxygen at higher pressure
14.
Beach
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A beach is a landform along a body of water. It usually consists of particles, which are often composed of rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles. The particles comprising a beach are occasionally biological in origin, such as shells or coralline algae. Some beaches have man-made infrastructure, such as posts, changing rooms. They may also have hospitality venues nearby, wild beaches, also known as undeveloped or undiscovered beaches, are not developed in this manner. Wild beaches can be valued for their beauty and preserved nature. Beaches typically occur in areas along the coast where wave or current action deposits, although the seashore is most commonly associated with the word beach, beaches are also found by lakes and alongside large rivers. Beach may refer to, small systems where rock material moves onshore, offshore, or alongshore by the forces of waves and currents, the former are described in detail below, the larger geological units are discussed elsewhere under bars. There are several parts to a beach that relate to the processes that form. The part mostly above water, and more or less influenced by the waves at some point in the tide, is termed the beach berm. The berm is the deposit of material comprising the active shoreline, the berm has a crest and a face — the latter being the slope leading down towards the water from the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there may be a trough, at some point the influence of the waves on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough, winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a dune and these geomorphic features compose what is called the beach profile. The beach profile changes seasonally due to the change in energy experienced during summer and winter months. In temperate areas where summer is characterised by calmer seas and longer periods between breaking wave crests, the profile is higher in summer. The gentle wave action during this season tends to transport sediment up the beach towards the berm where it is deposited, onshore winds carry it further inland forming and enhancing dunes. Conversely, the profile is lower in the storm season due to the increased wave energy. The removal of sediment from the berm and dune thus decreases the beach profile
15.
Minneapolis Aquatennial
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The Minneapolis Aquatennial is an annual outdoor event held in the U. S. city of Minneapolis, Minnesota, during the third full week of July. Originating in 1940, the Minneapolis Aquatennial celebrates the citys lakes, rivers. The annual Milk Carton Boat Races, featured various divisions of boat races with boats constructed of milk cartons, the fireworks display is one of the largest in the country, and larger than the citys Fourth of July celebration. Minneapolis celebrated its centennial in 1956 in conjunction with the Aquatennial, the citys sesquicentennial was July 18–27,2008, the year Minnesota celebrated 150 years of statehood. The Queen of the Lakes Scholarship Program is a week-long candidate program for women ages 18–22 that is held in Minneapolis in conjunction with the Minneapolis Aquatennial every July. The Queen of the Lakes and two Aquatennial Princesses are chosen to represent the festival and city of Minneapolis all over the state, nation, fifty young women representing communities throughout the state of Minnesota participate in this once-in-a-lifetime program. Official Aquatennial Site Aquatennial Ambassadors Site
16.
Lake Calhoun
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Lake Calhoun is the largest lake in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and part of the citys Chain of Lakes. Surrounded by city park land and circled by bike and walking trails, the lake has an area of 401 acres and a maximum depth of 87 feet. The lake is part of the Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway, connecting with Lake of the Isles on the northeast, Cedar Lake on the northwest, and Lake Harriet on the south. The trail system has a 3. 4-mile trail around Lake Calhoun for bicyclists and skaters, both of these trails connect to the larger trail system via connections to Lake of the Isles and Lake Harriet. In addition, the Midtown Greenway Trail is located just north of the lake and Lake Street, the lake itself is popular for canoeing, kayaking, and windsurfing, and it has three swimming beaches. The three beaches are Calhoun North Beach on the side of the lake, Calhoun 32nd Beach on the east side. There is Lake Calhoun Park and Surrounding park land offers parking, picnicking, volleyball and it is also home of sailing, hosting the Calhoun Yacht Club, the Lake Calhoun Sailing School, as well as local high school teams and the University of St Thomas Sailing Team. A plaque on the east side of the lake commemorates the first home built in Minneapolis by Gideon Pond, on the west side is located the Bakken Museum, which is devoted to the study of electricity in life. The Dakota originally called the lake Mde Maka Ska meaning White Earth Lake, another Dakota name for the lake may have been Mde Medoza, which was the name initially adopted by settlers, either as Lake Medoza or in translation as Loon Lake. The United States Secretary of War, John C, Calhoun, sent the Army to survey the area that would surround Fort Snelling in 1817. Calhoun had also authorized the construction of Fort Snelling, one of the earliest Euro-American settlements in the state, the surveyors renamed the water body Lake Calhoun in his honor. The Fort Snelling Military Reservation survey map created by Lt. James L. Thompson in 1839 clearly shows the lake as bearing the name Calhoun, calhouns legacy as a pro-slavery politician has led critics to question whether he is the best person to be honored. In 2011 the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board visited the issue, following the Charleston church shooting in June 2015, a fresh drive to change the name started via an online petition. The Park Board indicated it would look into whether they could change the name through state action. On March 22,2016, a group decided via majority vote to urge the Minnesota Park. The lake contains black crappie, bluegill, bowfin, common carp, hybrid sunfish, largemouth bass, northern pike, pumpkinseed, tiger muskellunge, walleye, white sucker, and yellow perch. Some fish consumption guideline restrictions have been placed on the lakes bluegill, crappie, largemouth bass, northern pike, walleye, in 1991, the then-Minnesota state record tiger muskellunge at 33 pounds 8 ounces was caught in the lake. List of lakes in Minneapolis David C. Smith,1911 Minneapolis Civic Celebration Minnesota DNR Lake Information Report Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board, Lake Calhoun
17.
Black bullhead
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The black bullhead or black bullhead catfish is a species of bullhead catfish. Like other bullhead catfish, it has the ability to thrive in waters that are low in oxygen, brackish and it also has barbels located near its mouth, a broad head, spiny fins and no scales. It can be identified from other bullheads as the barbels are black, like virtually all catfish, it is nocturnal, preferring to feed at night, although young feed during the day. It generally does not get as large as the channel or blue catfish, with average weights are in the 1- to 2-lb range. It has a length of 8-14 in, with the largest specimen being 24 in. It is typically black or dark brown on the side of its body. Like most of the bullheads, it has a tail fin. It is a fish, meaning it is well-adapted for bottom living. It is typically flattened, and has a slightly humped back. Its color depends on the area where it is taken, and it can be distinguished from a flathead in that the black bullheads lower lip does not protrude past the upper lip. The anal fin also has a base, and the tail also has a pale bar. Also, the brown bullhead generally has 21 to 24 soft rays through its anal fin as opposed to the black bullheads 17 to 21, the brown bullhead is also typically mottled brown and green on top instead of the darker black. Both the black and brown bullheads can easily be distinguished from the yellow bullhead as the yellow bullhead has white barbels under its mouth, black bullheads are found throughout the central United States, often in stagnant or slow-moving waters with soft bottoms. They have been known to congregate in confined spaces, such as lake outlets or under dams and they are very tolerant fish, and are able to live in muddy water, with warmer temperatures and in water with lower levels of oxygen, which reduce competition from other fish. Black bullheads also occur as a species in large parts of Europe. They are omnivorous, so will eat almost anything, from grains and other plant matter to insects, dead or living fish and they have short, pointed, conical teeth, formed in multiple rows called cardiform teeth. Black bullheads have no scales, instead, they have about 100,000 taste receptors placed all over their bodies, many of these are located on the barbels near their mouths. The receptors help the fish to identify food in their dark habitats, during the winter, black bullheads decrease food intake, and may stop eating altogether
18.
Black crappie
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The black crappie is a freshwater fish found in North America, one of the two crappies. It is very similar to the white crappie in size, shape, black crappies are most accurately identified by the seven or eight spines on its dorsal fin. Crappies have a deep and laterally compressed body and they are usually silvery-gray to green in color and show irregular or mottled black splotches over the entire body. Black crappies have rows of spots on their dorsal, anal. The dorsal and anal fins resemble each other in shape, both crappies have large mouths extending to below the eye, and thin lips—both suggestive of their piscivorous feeding habits. Crappies are typically about 4–8 inches long, the current all-tackle fishing world record for a black crappie is 2.25 kg. The maximum length reported for a black crappie is 19.3 inches, the black crappies range is uncertain, since it has been widely transplanted, but it is presumed to be similar to the white crappies. Its native range is suspected to be in the eastern United States and Canada, the black crappies habitats are lakes, reservoirs, borrow pits, and navigation pools in large rivers. Like P. annularis, P. nigromaculatus is very prolific and can tend to overpopulate its environment, a commercial supplier of the fish, however, claims that it can be safely stocked in ponds as small as one acre in area. Crappies feed early in the morning and from midnight until approximately 2am. Individuals smaller than about 16 cm in length eat plankton and minuscule crustaceans, while larger individuals feed on small fish, adult black crappie feed on fewer fish than white crappie do, instead they consume a larger volume of insects and crustaceans. According to scientific studies carried out in California, mysid shrimp, Neomysis awatschensis, as well as amphipods, the same study also showed that young, small crappie tend to feed on small aquatic invertebrate animals and changed to a fish-filled diet as they matured to adulthood. Its diet, as an adult, tends to be dominated by other fish than that of the white crappie. Crappies are a popular sport fish, as they are easy to catch during their feeding times. There are minimal number and size limits for fishing the crappie species. Black crappies can be harvested under minimal, reasonable regulations. The black crappie is not listed as a species under threat on the IUCN Red List, black crappies mature at 2–4 years. Growth during the first four years of their life is faster in the waters of the southern part of its range than in cooler waters in the north
19.
Bluegill
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The bluegill is a species of freshwater fish sometimes referred to as bream, brim, or copper nose. It is a member of the sunfish family Centrarchidae of the order Perciformes and it is native to North America and lives in streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds. It is commonly found east of the Rockies and it usually hides around, and inside, old tree stumps and other underwater structures. It can live in deep or very shallow water, and will often move back and forth. Bluegills also like to find shelter among water plants and in the shade of trees along banks, bluegills can grow up to 12 inches long and about 4 1⁄2 pounds. They have very distinctive coloring, with blue and purple on the face and gill cover, dark olive-colored bands down the side. The fish are omnivores and will eat anything they can fit in their mouth and they mostly feed on small aquatic insects and fish. The fish play a key role in the chain, and are prey for muskies, walleye, trout, bass, herons, kingfishers, snapping turtles. The bluegill is the fish of Illinois. The bluegill is noted for the spot that it has on the posterior edge of the gills. The sides of its head and chin are a shade of blue. It usually contains 5–9 vertical bars on the sides of its body and it has a yellowish breast and abdomen, with the breast of the breeding male being a bright orange. The bluegill has three spines, ten to 12 anal fin rays, six to 13 dorsal fin spines,11 to 12 dorsal rays. They are characterized by their deep, flattened bodies and they have a terminal mouth, ctenoid scales, and a lateral line that is arched upward anteriorly. The bluegill typically ranges in size from four to 12 inches. The largest bluegill ever caught was four pounds,12 ounces in 1950, the bluegill is most closely related to the orangespotted sunfish and the redear sunfish, but different in a distinct spot at or near the base of the soft dorsal fin. Today they have introduced to almost everywhere else in North America, and have also been introduced into Europe, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Asia, South America. Bluegills have also found in the Chesapeake Bay, indicating they can tolerate up to 1. 8% salinity
20.
Bowfin
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Bowfin are basal bony fishes related to gars in the infraclass Holostei. Common names include mudfish, mud pike, dogfish, griddle, grinnel, cypress trout and they are regarded as taxonomic relicts, being the sole surviving species of the order Amiiformes which dates from the Jurassic to the Eocene, persisting to the present. Although bowfin are highly evolved, they are referred to as primitive fishes because they have retained some morphological characteristics of their early ancestors. Bowfin are demersal freshwater piscivores native to North America, and commonly found throughout much of the eastern United States, fossil deposits indicate Amiiformes were once widespread in both freshwater and marine environments with a range that spanned across North and South America, Europe, Asia and Africa. Their preferred habitat includes vegetated sloughs, lowland rivers and lakes, swamps and backwater areas and they are stalking, ambush predators known to move into the shallows at night to prey on fish and aquatic invertebrates such as crawfish, mollusks, and aquatic insects. Like gars, bowfin are bimodal breathers which means they have the capacity to both water and air. They can break the surface to air, which allows them to survive conditions of aquatic hypoxia that would be lethal to most other species. The average length of a bowfin is 50 cm, females grow to 65–70 cm. Records indicate bowfin can reach 109 cm in length, and weigh 9.75 kg, young of the year typically grow to 13–23 cm by October. Females tend to larger than males. The body of the bowfin is elongated and cylindrical, with the sides and back olive to brown in color, often with vertical bars, the dorsal fin has horizontal bars, and the caudal fin has irregular vertical bars. The underside is white or cream, and the paired fins, during larval stage, hatchlings from about 7–10 mm total length are black and tadpole-like in appearance. At approximately 25 mm total length they have described as looking like miniature placoderms. They grow quickly, and typically leave the nest within 4 to 6 weeks after hatching, young males have a black eyespot on the base of the tail that is commonly encircled by an orange-yellowish border while the females is black, if present at all. It is thought the purpose of the eyespot is to predators, deflecting attacks away from the head of the fish to its tail. The bowfin is so named for its long, undulating dorsal fin consisting of 145 to 250 rays, the bony gular plate is located underneath the head on the exterior of the lower jaw between the two sides of the lower jaw bone. Other distinguishing characteristics include long, sharp teeth, and two protruding tube-like nostrils, northern snakeheads are commonly mistaken for bowfin because of similarities in appearance, most noticeably their elongated, cylindrical shape, and long dorsal fin that runs along their backs. Northern snakeheads are piscivorous fishes native to the rivers and estuaries of China, Russia, however, unlike bowfin which are native to North America, the northern snakehead is considered an invasive species and environmentally harmful
21.
Carp
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Carp are various species of oily freshwater fish from the family Cyprinidae, a very large group of fish native to Europe and Asia. The cypriniformes are traditionally grouped with the Characiformes, Siluriformes, and Gymnotiformes to create the superorder Ostariophysi, the third anterior-most pair of ribs is in contact with the extension of the labyrinth and the posterior with the swim bladder. Most cypriniformes have scales and teeth on the pharyngeal bones which may be modified in relation to the diet. Tribolodon is the only cyprinid genus which tolerates salt water, several species move into brackish water but return to fresh water to spawn. All of the other cypriniformes live in waters and have a wide geographical range. Some consider all cyprinid fishes carp, and the family Cyprinidae itself is known as the carp family. Carp have long been an important food fish to humans, several species such as the various goldfish breeds and the domesticated common carp variety known as koi have been popular ornamental fishes. As a result, carp have been introduced to various locations, several species of carp are listed as invasive species by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and, worldwide, large sums of money are spent on carp control. At least some species of carp are able to survive for months with no oxygen by metabolizing glycogen to form ethanol. Carp are variable in terms of angling value, in Europe, even when not fished for food, they are eagerly sought by anglers, being considered highly prized coarse fish that are difficult to hook. The UK has a thriving carp angling market, in the United States, carp are also classified as a rough fish, as well as damaging to naturalized exotic species, but with sporting qualities. Many states departments of natural resources are beginning to view the carp as a fish instead of a maligned pest. Various species of carp have been domesticated and reared as food fish across Europe and these various species appear to have been domesticated independently, as the various domesticated carp species are native to different parts of Eurasia. Aquaculture has been pursued in China for at least 2,400 years, a tract by Fan Li in the fifth century BC details many of the ways carp were raised in ponds. The common carp, Cyprinus carpio, is originally from Central Europe, several carp species were domesticated in East Asia. Carp that are originally from South Asia, for example catla, rohu and their hardiness and adaptability have allowed domesticated species to be propagated all around the world. Although the carp was an important aquatic food item, as fish species have become readily available for the table. Demand has declined, partly due to the appearance of more desirable fish such as trout and salmon through intensive farming
22.
Golden shiner
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The golden shiner is a cyprinid fish native to eastern North America. It is the member of its genus. Much used as a fish, it is probably the most widely pond-cultured fish in the United States. It can be found in Quebec and its French name is Mené jaune or Chatte de lEst, though it has been known to reach lengths of 30 cm, in the wild the golden shiner is usually between 7.5 and 12.5 cm long. The back is green or olive, and the belly is a silvery white. The sides are silver in smaller individuals, but golden in larger ones, there can be a faint dusky stripe along the sides. The anal fin is large and has 8-19 rays, while the dorsal fin comprises almost always 8 rays, scales are relatively large and easily lost when the fish is handled. The mouth is small and upturned, the rudd also has a midventral keel, but that keel bears scales. Golden shiner and rudd can in fact hybridize and hybrids have a few scales on their midventral keel. The golden shiner is found throughout the half of North America, north to the St Lawrence River, Great Lakes, and Lake Winnipeg. Because of its use as bait, it has also introduced in many places outside this native range. Golden shiners prefer quiet waters and are found in lakes, ponds, sloughs. They are sometimes found in the quietest parts of rivers and they are fairly tolerant of pollution, turbidity, and low oxygen content. They can also tolerate temperatures as high as 40 °C, which is high for a North American minnow. They eat zooplankton, insects, plants, and algae and they can feed at the surface, in mid-water, or at the bottom. They can locate prey visually, or filter-feed on high-density zooplankton without resorting to visual cues and they are themselves food for all manner of game fish such as trout and bass, hence their popularity as bait fish. In the southern parts of their range, golden shiners can start reproducing at one year of age, in Canada, females lay up to 200,000 sticky eggs each amid vegetation. Occasionally, like a few other minnows, golden shiners can deposit their eggs in the nests of pumpkinseed
23.
Pumpkinseed
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The pumpkinseed is a North American freshwater fish of the sunfish family of order Perciformes. It is also referred to as perch, common sunfish, punkys, sunfish, sunny. The pumpkinseed’s natural range in North America is from New Brunswick down the east coast to South Carolina and it then runs inland to the middle of North America, and extends through Iowa and back through Pennsylvania. Pumpkinseed sunfish have however been introduced throughout most of North America and they can now be found from Washington and Oregon on the Pacific Coast to Georgia on the Atlantic Coast. Yet they are found in the northeastern United States and more rarely in the south-central or southwestern region of the continent. In Europe, the pumpkinseed is considered an invasive species and they were introduced to European waters, and could outcompete native fish. Pumpkinseeds typically are about 4 in in length, but can grow up to 16 in and they typically weigh less than 1 pound, with the world record being 1 pound 6 ounces. They are orange, green, yellow or blue in color, with speckles over their sides and back and a yellow-orange breast and belly. The coloration of the scales of the pumpkinseed is one of the most vibrant of any freshwater fish and can range from an olive-green or brown to bright orange. The sides are covered with bars that are a faint green or blue. Orange spots may cover the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, the pumpkinseed is noted for the orange-red spot on the margin of its black gill cover. The pectoral fins of a pumpkinseed can be amber or clear, pumpkinseeds have a small body that is shaped much like that of a pumpkinseed, giving them their common name. They have a mouth with an upper jaw stopping right under the eye. Pumpkinseeds are very similar to the bluegill, and are found in the same habitats. One difference between the two species is their opercular flap, the flap is black in both species, but the pumpkinseed has a crimson spot in the shape of a halfmoon on the back portion of its opercular flap. Pumpkinseeds have seven or eight vertical, irregular bands on their sides that are duller in color compared to the bluegill, pumpkinseeds typically live in warm, calm lakes, ponds, and pools of creeks and small rivers with plenty of vegetation. They prefer clear water where they can find shelter to hide and they tend to stay near the shore and can be found in numbers within shallow and protected areas. They will feed at all levels from the surface to the bottom in the daylight
24.
Tiger muskellunge
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The tiger muskellunge, commonly called tiger muskie, is a carnivorous fish, and is the usually-sterile, hybrid offspring of the true muskellunge and the northern pike. It lives in water and its range extends to Canada, the Northeast. It grows quickly, in one study, tiger muskie grew 1.5 times as fast as muskellunge. Like other hybrid species, tiger muskie are said to have hybrid vigor, meaning they grow faster and stronger than the parent fish, trophy specimens weigh about 30 lb. Its main diet is fish and small birds, the tiger muskie and the muskie are called the fish of 10,000 casts due to the challenge involved in catching them. The tiger muskie lives in the lakes and quiet rivers in Canada, the Great Lakes, the Upper Mississippi Valley, and it is rarely found far from its natural waters except for stocked fish. Several states, including Minnesota, Michigan, New Hampshire, Washington, Massachusetts, Arkansas, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, each tiger muskie tends to inhabit the same areas of its lake from year to year. It tends toward shallower waters and travels half as much in the summer and fall than it does in the winter to spring, the tiger muskie is the result of the true muskellunge and the northern pike interbreeding. The tiger muskie has some of the characteristics of both fish, Tiger muskie, like pike and muskellunge, have long, cylindrical-shaped bodies. Their dorsal and ventral fins are located far back near the tail and are lobe-shaped. The caudal fins of the tail are more rounded than those of true muskies. They have skinny and compressed heads and its pattern is varying amounts of color with vertical dark stripes and spots on a light background, the opposite color scheme of a northern pike. The tiger muskie has 5 or 6 chin pores per side on the lower jaw, the tiger muskie feeds as the northern pike and muskellunge do, by waiting near weeds and ambushing its prey. They have food similar to those of the true muskie. They seem to prefer larger fish during the summer and fall months in preparation for the winter months, during the winter and spring months they prey on smaller easier targets due to their slow metabolism. Its varied diet includes yellow perch, suckers, golden shiners, walleye, smallmouth bass, when fish are not readily available tiger muskies will feed on crayfish, frogs, ducklings, muskrats, mice, other small mammals, and small birds. State-record tiger muskie catches are recorded as 20-50 lb depending on the state, because tiger muskies are bred for stocking purposes, studies have been made of its growth rate and the factors that affect it. The growth rate of juveniles depends on the temperature and the type of feed. In studies, the muskie has had the highest growth, production
25.
Walleye
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Walleye is a freshwater perciform fish native to most of Canada and to the Northern United States. It is a North American close relative of the European Zander, walleyes show a fair amount of variation across watersheds. In general, fish within a watershed are quite similar and are distinct from those of nearby watersheds. The common name, walleye, comes from the fact that the fishs eyes point outward and this eyeshine is the result of a light-gathering layer in the eyes called the tapetum lucidum, which allows the fish to see well in low-light conditions. In fact, many look for walleyes at night since this is when major feeding patterns occur. The fishs eyes also allow them to see well in turbid waters, thus, walleye anglers will commonly look for locations where there is a good walleye chop. This excellent vision also allows the fish to populate the regions in a lake. Walleyes are largely olive and gold in color, the dorsal side of a walleye is olive, grading into a golden hue on the flanks. The olive/gold pattern is broken up by five darker saddles that extend to the upper sides, the color shades to white on the belly. The mouth of a walleye is large and is armed with sharp teeth. The first dorsal and anal fins are spinous, as is the Operculum, walleyes are distinguished from their close cousin the sauger by the white coloration on the lower lobe of the caudal fin which is absent on the sauger. In addition, the two dorsals and the fin of the sauger are marked with distinctive rows of black dots which are absent from or indistinct on the same fins of walleyes. Walleyes grow to about 80 cm in length, and weigh up to about 9 kg, the maximum recorded size for the fish is 107 cm in length and 13 kilograms in weight. The rate depends partly on where in their range they occur, in general, females grow larger than males. Walleyes may live for decades, the recorded age is 29 years. In heavily fished populations, however, few walleye older than five or six years of age are encountered, in North America, where they are highly prized, their typical size when caught is on the order of 30 to 50 cm, substantially below their potential size. As walleye grow longer, they increase in weight, for walleye, b =3.180 and c =0.000228. The relationship described in this section suggests a 50 cm walleye will weigh about 1.5 kg, in most of the species range, male walleyes mature sexually between three and four years of age
26.
White sucker
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The white sucker is a freshwater Cypriniform fish inhabiting the upper Midwest and Northeast in North America, but is also found as far south as Georgia and New Mexico in the south and west. The fish is known as a sucker due to its fleshy papillose lips that suck up organic matter and aufwuchs from the bottom of rivers. Other common names for the white sucker include bay fish, brook sucker, common sucker, the white sucker is often confused with the longnose sucker, because they look very similar. The white sucker is a long, round-bodied fish with a green, grey, copper, brown, or black back and sides. The fish also has features of primitive cypriniformes fishes, such as a homocercal tail, cycloid scales, as well as dorsal, pectoral. When fullgrown, it can reach lengths between 12 and 20 inches long and weigh anywhere from 2 to 6 pounds, the fishs suckermouth with its fleshy lips are located in the inferior position at the bottom of its head, as the fish obtains its food from bottom surfaces. These fish are commonly mistaken for different types of suckers and redhorse. Since the fish is a feeder and has no preferential food options, it is highly adaptable to different habitats. Generally, however, White suckers are found in streams, rivers. The White sucker is relatively tolerant of turbid and polluted waters. The white sucker is a feeder, meaning that it uses its fleshy lips to suck up bottom sediments. It will eat almost anything it can, but most commonly small invertebrates, algae, larger predatory fish species such as walleye, trout, bass, northern pike, catfish, muskellunge, and sauger naturally prey on the white sucker. The white sucker usually spawns in shallow water or streams in April and May, spawning may possibly be initiated by temperature changes and runoff from early snow melt. It is not uncommon for two or more males to gather with one female, who releases up to 10,000 eggs that can be fertilized by the gathered males. A very common fish, the sucker is usually not fished for food. It is most often used as bait, the young are sold as sucker minnows, when it is eaten by humans, it is usually processed and sold under the name of mullet. Fossils of this fish in the United States occur as early as the Early Pleistocene, froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. Hybrid Muttsucker Has Genes Of Three Species, rook Wisconsin Sea Grant Fish of the Great Lakes species profile Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture and Fisheries factsheet World Register of Marine Species entry
27.
Yellow bullhead
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The yellow bullhead is a species of bullhead catfish that is a ray-finned fish that lacks scales. This particular species is a member of the catfish family. It is typically yellow-olive to slatey-black on the back and sometimes mottled depending on habitat, the sides are lighter and more yellowish, while the underside of the head and body are bright yellow, yellow white, or bright white. The rear edge of its fin is rounded. The anal fin is larger than many fish having anywhere between 23 and 27 rays. The yellow bullhead though less common, can be distinguished from the brown bullhead. Yellow bullheads are medium-sized bullheads rarely getting larger than 2 lb but can reach up to 6.6 pounds, as documented by the International Game and this species is often misidentified on social media and the Internet. Yellow bullheads range in size from 6 to 18 inches and live up to 7 years, the yellow bullhead is a voracious scavenger that will almost eat anything. It locates prey by brushing the stream bottom with its barbels, taste buds on the barbels tell the bullhead whether or not contact is made with edible prey. Yellow bullhead are bottom dwellers, living in areas with muck, rock, sand and its habitat includes river pools, backwaters, and sluggish current over soft or mildly rocky substrate in creeks, small to larger rivers, and shallow portions of lakes and ponds. Their habitat can vary from a current with poorly oxygenated, highly silted. Fishermen often find them in sluggish creeks and rivers with a gravel bottom, bullheads have a monogamous relationship with spawning beginning in mid-May or early-June, with both sexes participating in nest-building. Bullheads usually use a natural cavities or make saucer shaped depressions near submerged cover, the female will lay anywhere from 300 to 7,000 eggs in a gelatinous mass, and after fertilization the male protects and continually fans the nest of eggs. The eggs hatch within five to 10 days and young fry are herded into tight schools by the male and they grow to about 3 inches by one year of age. Sexual maturity is reached between the ages of 2 and 3 years, when the fish are at least 140 mm in length. Yellow bullhead range throughout the central and eastern US from central Texas, north into North Dakota, in Minnesota, Yellow bullheads are found on the eastern and central portions of the state and are absent in the top third of the state. Yellow bullheads are considered a game fish, and they are sought after for food. Yellow bullheads also can be introduced into streams with high pollution because of their tolerance to pollution
28.
Yellow perch
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The yellow perch, commonly referred to as perch, is a freshwater perciform fish native to much of North America. The yellow perch was described in 1814 by Samuel Latham Mitchill from New York, yellow perch are closely related, and morphologically similar to the European perch, however, the two are recognized as independent species based on anatomical and genetic differences. Other common names for yellow perch include American perch, coontail, lake perch, raccoon perch, ring-tail perch, ringed perch, and striped perch. Latitudinal variability in age, growth rates, and size have been observed among populations of perch, likely resulting from differences in day-length. Typically, northern populations of yellow perch live longer and grow to larger sizes, however, southern populations of yellow perch generally grow much faster. In many populations, yellow perch often live from 9–10 years, the world record yellow perch was caught in 1865 from New Jersey, and is the longest standing record for freshwater fish in North America. The yellow perch has a yellow to brass-colored body and distinct pattern, consisting of five to nine olive-green, vertical bars, triangular in shape and its fins are lighter in coloration, with an orange hue on the margins. The anterior portion of the body is deep, gradually tapering into a slender caudal peduncle, the opercle is partially scaled, and a single spine is present on the posterior margin. As with all percid fishes, yellow perch have two dorsal fins, the anterior is convex in shape and consists of 11–15 spines. The posterior dorsal fin has a margin, consisting of one or two spines and 12–16 rays. The nape, breast, and belly of yellow perch are all fully scaled, a complete lateral line is present. The anal fin consists of two spines and six to nine rays, a single spine and five rays make up the pelvic fins, and the pectoral fins consist of 13–15 rays. The caudal fin of the perch is forked. Yellow perch are found in North America, they are native to the Arctic, Atlantic, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River. In Canada, its range extends throughout Nova Scotia and Quebec north to the Mackenzie River. It also is common in the northwest to Great Slave Lake and it is not native to any other areas of Canada. In the United States, the range extends south into Ohio, Illinois. It is also considered native to the Atlantic Slope basin, extending south to the Savannah River, the yellow perch has also been widely introduced for sport and commercial fishing purposes
29.
Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society
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The Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society is a primary source of information for diving and hyperbaric medicine physiology worldwide. The Undersea Medical Society grew from the associations of a small group of scientists. This group consisted of diving and aerospace Drs Edward L. Beckman, Jack L. Kinsey, Christian J. Lambertsen, Walter F. Mazzone, Earl H. Ninow, and Robert D. Workman. The key decision from this meeting was that Dr. Lambertsen was charged with writing the Constitution and they also decided that the Aerospace Medical Association could be the initial home of the UMS. On 10 April 1967, a meeting was held in Washington, D. C. to introduce the charter membership and elect the Society officers and Executive committee. By 1973, the UMS had grown to the point of needing an office, by the next year, the UMS established its scientific journal, Undersea Biomedical Research. The journal continued under this name until 1993 when it was changed to Undersea, in 1986, the UMS changed its name to the current one. The name change reflected the growing interest in hyperbaric oxygen physiology. UHMS definition of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy, The patient breathes 100% oxygen intermittently while the pressure of the treatment chamber is increased to greater than one atmosphere absolute, current information indicates that pressurization should be at least 1.4 atm abs. This may occur in a single chamber or multiplace chamber. Breathing 100% oxygen at 1 atm abs or exposing isolated parts of the body to 100% oxygen does not constitute HBO therapy, UHMS approved Indications, The following indications are approved uses of hyperbaric oxygen therapy as defined by the Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy Committee. Training and certification for hyperbaric technology is offered by the National Board of Diving, the UHMS Charles W. Shilling Library is the largest repository of diving and hyperbaric research and clinical information—current and historical—in the world. The library is located at the Duke University Medical Center Library in Durham, the collection consists of books, journals, reports, workshops, symposia, conference proceedings, and annotated bibliographies spanning the fields of diving, hyperbaric, and marine medicine. There is a journal and newsletter collection dealing with diving safety. The library has extensive reprint files of articles, cataloged by author, related to diving and hyperbaric medicine, many of the UHMS publications have been scanned and are available online at the Rubicon Research Repository. Other articles can be found in the DUMC Archive finding aids, Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society HBO evidence Rubicon Research Repository Duke University Medical Center Archives
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PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
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Minnesota Department of Natural Resources
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The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources is the agency of the U. S. state of Minnesota charged with conserving and managing the states natural resources. The agency maintains areas such as parks, state forests, recreational trails, and recreation areas as well as managing minerals, wildlife. The agency is divided into six divisions - Ecological & Water Resources, Enforcement, Fish & Wildlife, Forestry, Lands & Minerals. Efforts to conserve Minnesotas wildlife began as early as 1876, with an association established to protect the states timber resources. However, those efforts became futile as the took over. Over time, there were attempts to control the destruction of resources. In 1911 the Minnesota Forest Service was established to conserve the forests by promoting fire prevention and protection. The first agency created to maintain Minnesotas resources was founded in 1931 by the Minnesota Legislature as the Department of Conservation, the Great Depression was an important time for the Department of Conservation. Federal unemployment programs such as the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Works Progress Administration provided labor to construct buildings, clear trails, many of the buildings in Minnesotas state parks were built during this period. In 1971 the name of the agency was changed to the Department of Natural Resources to better reflect its broader responsibilities, more sections of the Minnesota Government were added to the Department and many of the division names changed. Old policies were replaced with new and more prevalent ones geared towards issues associated with an increase in land use. The Division of Ecological and Water Resources studies the ecosystems within Minnesota, the division is involved in locating and protecting endangered and threatened species, as well as the habitats that are vital to the conservation of those species. Another part of the divisions responsibilities is in managing threats against the ecosystem and these threats include, harmful invasive species, fish and wildlife diseases, and the negative impact human development can have on the environment. One of the largest programs that the Division of Ecological Resources is in charge of is Minnesota’s Nongame Wildlife Program and this would include trumpeter swans, bald eagles and Minnesota’s state bird, the common loon. The division is also accountable for all lakes, rivers and streams, wetlands, the division enforces permits implemented to protect and preserve Minnesotas water resources. As the name implies, the focuses on the enforcement of Minnesota’s natural resource laws. Originally part of the Fish and Game Division, the Enforcement Division’s goal has not changed much, Conservation Officers employed by this division enforce laws regarding hunting, fishing, trapping, recreational vehicles, State Parks and wild rice harvesting. A second focus is educating the public about safety, classes are taught by trained volunteers and are often related to the enforced laws
