1.
Real estate
–
Also, the business of real estate, the profession of buying, selling, or renting land, buildings or housing. It is a term used in jurisdictions whose legal system is derived from English common law, such as India, the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Pakistan, Australia. Residential real estate may contain either a family or multifamily structure. Residences can be classified by, if, and how they are connected to neighbouring residences, different types of housing tenure can be used for the same physical type. For example, connected residents might be owned by an entity and leased out. Major categories in North America and Europe Attached / multi-unit dwellings Apartment or Flat – An individual unit in a multi-unit building, the boundaries of the apartment are generally defined by a perimeter of locked or lockable doors. Often seen in apartment buildings. Multi-family house – Often seen in multi-story detached buildings, where each floor is an apartment or unit. Terraced house – A number of single or multi-unit buildings in a row with shared walls. Condominium – Building or complex, similar to apartments, owned by individuals, common grounds and common areas within the complex are owned and shared jointly. There are townhouse or rowhouse style condominiums as well, semi-detached dwellings Duplex – Two units with one shared wall. Single-family detached house Portable dwellings Mobile homes – Potentially a full-time residence which can be movable on wheels, houseboats – A floating home Tents – Usually very temporary, with roof and walls consisting only of fabric-like material. The size of an apartment or house can be described in square feet or meters, in the United States, this includes the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. It can be described roughly by the number of rooms. A studio apartment has a bedroom with no living room. A one-bedroom apartment has a living or dining room separate from the bedroom, Two bedroom, three bedroom, and larger units are common. Major categories in India and the Asian Subcontinent Co-operative Housing Societies Condominiums Chawls Villas Havelis The size is measured in Gaz, Quila, Marla, Beegha, and acre. See List of house types for a listing of housing types and layouts, real estate trends for shifts in the market
Real estate
–
'Single-family detached house'
2.
Military service
–
Military service is service by an individual or group in an army or other militia, whether as a chosen job or as a result of an involuntary draft. Some nations require an amount of military service from every citizen. A nation with a volunteer military does not normally require mandatory military service from its citizens. In this summary,195 countries are included, Compulsory military service has declined considerably since 1970. Albanias armed forces announced an objective to create an army by the end of 2010. Argentina suspended military conscription in 1995 and replaced it with a military service. It should be noted that military conscription has not been abolished, Conscription was known in Argentina as la colimba. Conscripts themselves were known and referred to as colimbas, voluntary service in the Boer War was initially from a number of the separate colonies before federation in 1901 and later volunteers were deployed as an Australian force. Two conscription referendums were defeated during World War 1, Military service during WW1 was voluntary as was service in WW2. The Vietnam War was lost on 1 May 1975 over three years after the ADF withdrew in late 1971, all forms of conscription were abolished by the Whitlam Government in later 1972. The country has set the age for voluntary recruitment into the Barbados Defence Force at 18. Younger recruits may be conscripted with parental consent, belgium suspended conscription on 31 December 1992 by amending the 1962 Law on Conscription, which became applicable only to conscripts drafted in 1993 and earlier. In practice this meant that the law no longer applied to those born in 1975, since 1 March 1995 the Belgian armed forces consist of professional volunteers only. Belize has set minimum age for recruitment into the Armed Forces at 18. Conscription has never been prescribed in the Defense Act, but is at the Governor General’s discretion, bosnia and Herzegovina abolished compulsory military service as of 1 January 2007. The last conscripts were sent home on 25 November 2007, previously there was mandatory military service for male citizens from eighteen to twenty-seven years of age. Duration of the depended on the degree of education. For citizens studying for or holding a degree or higher the service was six months
Military service
–
Timetable of military duties, Switzerland.
Military service
–
Military service in Spain (1945)
3.
Main Line of Public Works
–
The market potential of this burgeoning population was the target of Philadelphia and New Jerseys business class. An employee of industrialist Josiah Whites had figured out how to get Rock Coal to burn properly during the War of 1812 renewing serious interest in exploiting these relatively coal resources. After surveying and deciding improving Navigation on the Lehigh could be feasible, a couple years later, the legislature declined another offer by the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company which had built the Lehigh Canal with private funds. This new proposal was to build—at the companies expense— the project that would become their version of the eventual Delaware Canal built by the states engineering managers a few years later. LC&N ended up running both canals into the 1930s, and retained the rights to the Lehigh until the 1960s, while some problems were fixable, the Delaware Canals locks design was always an costly economic problem until the Canal became the parkland and current haven for pleasure boats. White and Hazard made the offer in return for a break on tolls, all the eastern projects were to reliably provide clean-burning anthracite coal to eastern cities that had already consumed much of the eastern forests for heating fuel. Eastern Division Canal,43 miles from Columbia to Duncans Island at the mouth of the Juniata River, the canals reduced travel time between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh from at least 23 days to just four. The Main Line of Public Works was completed in 1834 and was sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad on June 25,1857, within a year, the PRR replaced the Philadelphia-Pittsburgh route with an entirely rail-based system. At that point, the division of the canal continued north along the river. The Northern Liberties and Penn Township Railroad was incorporated in 1829 to build a branch continuing east on Noble Street, the Belmont Plane ran from the Schuylkill River for 2,805 feet, rising 1 foot per 15 feet for a total rise of 187 feet. Steam-driven cables dragged the railway cars to the top of Belmont Hill, the Plane was the site of a signal event in railroad history. On July 10,1836, the Philadelphia-based Norris Locomotive Works drove a 4-2-0 locomotive up the Incline, making it the first steam locomotive to climb an ascending grade while pulling a load. The 14, 400-pound engine, named George Washington, hauled a load of 19,200 pounds, including 24 people riding on the tender and one freight car, so remarkable was this accomplishment that reports in engineering journals doubted its occurrence. Nine days later, the engine repeated the feat in a formal trial with an even greater load. The old line, which ran from the Schuylkill River up the Belmont Plane to Ardmore along the route of present-day Montgomery Avenue in Lower Merion Township, was abandoned. The Columbia Bridge and line east to Broad and Vine Streets were sold to the Philadelphia, the Reading acquired the Northern Liberties and Penn Township Railroad in 1870, giving it access to the Delaware River. The section of the old Pennsylvania Railroad running from Philadelphia west through Chester County and, by extension, the Columbia Plane, which lowered railway cars down to the Eastern Division Canal along the Susquehanna River, was bypassed in 1840 by a new track alignment. The Pennsylvania Canals Eastern Division, which opened in 1833, ran 43 miles along the east side of the Susquehanna River between Columbia and Duncans Island at the mouth of the Juniata River, the canal included 14 locks with an average lift of 7.5 feet
Main Line of Public Works
–
The
Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad (P&CRR) Depot (1854)
Main Line of Public Works
–
Map of historic Pennsylvania canals and connecting railroads
Main Line of Public Works
–
Railroads in Philadelphia that became a part of the
PRR.
Main Line of Public Works
–
"View of the Inclined Plane, near Philadelphia" (1838).
4.
Transportation
–
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
Transportation
–
People walking in front of the
bulk carrier BW Fjord
Transportation
–
French
National Police use several modes of transport, each with their distinct advantages.
Transportation
–
Human-powered transport remains common in developing countries.
Transportation
–
An
Air France Airbus A318 lands at
London Heathrow Airport.
5.
Infrastructure
–
Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure
Infrastructure
–
Grand Coulee Dam
6.
Cumberland Road
–
The National Road was the first major improved highway in the United States built by the federal government. Built between 1811 and 1837, the 620-mile road connected the Potomac and Ohio Rivers and was a main path to the West for thousands of settlers. When rebuilt in the 1830s, it became the second U. S. road surfaced with the macadam process pioneered by Scotsman John Loudon McAdam, construction began heading west in 1811 at Cumberland, Maryland, on the Potomac River. The road has also referred to as the Cumberland Turnpike, the Cumberland–Brownsville Turnpike, the Cumberland Pike, the National Pike. Today, much of the alignment is followed by U. S. Route 40, with various portions bearing the Alternate U. S. Route 40 designation, or various state-road numbers. In 2002, the road, including extensions east to Baltimore and west to St. Louis, was designated the Historic National Road. Construction of the Cumberland Road was authorized on March 29,1806, from there, where the Braddock Road turned north towards Pittsburgh, the new National Road/Cumberland Road continued west to Wheeling, West Virginia, also on the Ohio River. The contract for the construction of the first section was awarded to Henry McKinley on May 8,1811, for more than 100 years, a simple granite stone was the only marker of the roads beginning in Cumberland, Maryland. In June 2012, a monument and plaza were built in that towns Riverside Park, completed in 1824, these feeder routes formed what is referred to as an eastern extension of the federal National Road. On May 15,1820, Congress authorized an extension of the road to St. Louis, on the Mississippi River, in 1849, a bridge was completed to carry the National Road across the Ohio River at Wheeling. The Wheeling Suspension Bridge, designed by Charles Ellet Jr. was at the time the worlds longest bridge span at 1,010 feet from tower to tower, maintenance costs on the Cumberland Road were becoming more than Congress was willing to bear. In agreements with Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, the road was to be reconstructed and resurfaced, the section that ran over Haystack Mountain, just west of Cumberland, was abandoned and a new road was built through the Cumberland Narrows. On April 1,1835, the section from Wheeling to Cumberland was transferred to Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. The last congressional appropriation was made May 25,1838, and in 1840, Congress voted against completing the unfinished portion of the road, construction of the National Road stopped in 1839. Much of the road through Indiana and Illinois remained unfinished and was transferred to the states. In 1912, the Cumberland National Road was chosen to become part of the National Old Trails Road, five Madonna of the Trail monuments, donated by the Daughters of the American Revolution, were erected along the old National Road. In 1927, the National Road was designated as the part of U. S. Highway 40, which still generally follows the National Roads alignment with occasional bypasses, realignments. The mostly parallel Interstate 70 now provides a route for through travel without the many sharp curves, steep grades
Cumberland Road
–
National Road
Cumberland Road
–
Start of the Cumberland National Road marker
Cumberland Road
–
The Wheeling Suspension Bridge across the Ohio River, completed in 1849 and still in use by local traffic.
Cumberland Road
–
The
Cumberland Narrows west of Cumberland, part of the realigned routing
7.
Toll road
–
A toll road, also known as a turnpike or tollway, is a public or private roadway for which a fee is assessed for passage. It is a form of road pricing typically implemented to help recoup the cost of road construction, the amount of the toll usually varies by vehicle type, weight, or number of axles, with freight trucks often charged higher rates than cars. Tolls are collected at points known as toll booths, toll houses, plazas, stations, bars, some toll collection points are unmanned and the user deposits money in a machine which opens the gate once the correct toll has been paid. To cut costs and minimize time delay many tolls today are collected by some form of automatic or electronic toll collection equipment which communicates electronically with a toll payers transponder, Toll booths are usually still required for the occasional users who do not have a transponder. The tolls are often prepaid or collected automatically from a credit card service. Some toll roads have automated toll enforcement systems that take photos of drivers who do not pay the tolls and they typically get the toll bill delivered to them in the mail. Criticisms of toll roads include the time taken to stop and pay the toll, automated toll paying systems help minimize both of these. Others object to paying twice for the road, in fuel taxes. In addition to roads, toll bridges and toll tunnels are also used by public authorities to generate funds to repay the cost of building the structures. Some tolls are set aside to pay for maintenance or enhancement of infrastructure, or are applied as a general fund by local governments. This is sometimes limited or prohibited by government legislation. Also road congestion pricing schemes have been implemented in a number of urban areas as a transportation demand management tool to try to reduce traffic congestion. Toll roads have existed for at least the last 2,700 years, as tolls had to be paid by travellers using the Susa–Babylon highway under the regime of Ashurbanipal, aristotle and Pliny refer to tolls in Arabia and other parts of Asia. In India, before the 4th century BC, the Arthasastra notes the use of tolls, germanic tribes charged tolls to travellers across mountain passes. A 14th-century example is Castle Loevestein in the Netherlands, which was built at a point where two rivers meet. River tolls were charged on boats sailing along the river, in 14th-century England, some of the most heavily used roads were repaired with money raised from tolls by pavage grants. Widespread toll roads sometimes restricted traffic so much, by their high tolls, tolls were used in the Holy Roman Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the 20th century, road tolls were introduced in Europe to finance the construction of motorway networks and specific transport infrastructure such as bridges, Italy was the first European country to charge motorway tolls, on a 50 km motorway section near Milan in 1924
Toll road
–
A high-speed toll booth on
SR 417 near
Orlando, Florida, United States.
Toll road
–
A toll collection area in Great Britain.
Toll road
–
Hong Kong toll booth.
Toll road
–
A table of tolls in pre-decimal currency for the College Road, Dulwich, London SE21 tollgate.
8.
Lehigh Canal
–
At its terminus, other entities would scramble to build canals and railroads to distribute the fuel of choice of the day to all the Eastern Seaboard of America and ocean going ships. It started with the need for energy by White and partner Erskine Hazard who operated a mill, foundry. It had one fall-back provision — at some time the legislature might require the improvements be made to two way navigation. The 44 Lift locks begin with Lock 1 at the dam, each non-LC&NC barge on the canal had to be record and empty weights were subtracted and tolls assessed by the ton per mile traveled, like fares on any toll road. Using a specially designed canal boat capable of making the trip on the River as well. The privately funded canal was joined as part of the Pennsylvania Canal System, the canal was last used to carry cargoes in 1942 and thereafter LC&N Co. let natures ravages have their gradual and inevitable way. The LC&N Co. was sold back to Pennsylvania for preservation, today, many parts of the canal or railroads later constructed to flank it, have been converted to the Delaware and Lehigh National Heritage Corridor, a multi-use rail trail. Despite many politically connected stockholders and officers, over a decade, prior to the war, so dismal was the LCMC companys record of getting coal to market, that coal imported from England was cheaper to find and more reliable to repurchase. Before their larger victories, they established a reputation for innovation, inspired by the energy shortfall during the blockade of the War of 1812, the LCMC sent a large expedition out in 1813, which started down the river in spring of 1814 with five arks laden with coal. Only two of them made it to Philadelphia, and both were purchased by Josiah White and partner Erskine Hazard. In the fall of 1814 they mounted an expedition to survey the Lehighs problems, but by late 1822 Anthracite was achieving early acceptance and skepticism was waning. The design all 45.6 miles from the Delaware to the water pool at Mauch Chunk. In 1824, the rejected the proposal, swayed by lumber and timber interests fearing damming would prevent rafting logs on the rivers to local sawmills. In 1827 a revision to the Main Line of Public Works funded the promised Delaware Canal, a weigh lock determined canal boat fees a half mile south of Mauch Chunk. A cable-ferry connection across the Delaware River to the Morris Canal, unlike the lower canal with a maximum lift less than 20, the upper canal had locks lifting a maximum of 58 feet. This is comparable to the lift of the canal in a bit over half the distance using less than 11/18ths as many locks per mile. The LC&N Co. began work on the canal in 1835. Unlike the lower canal where most locks lifted less than six feet in easy elevation stages, the upper Lehigh was a twisty rapids strewn watercourse with steep sides, a large part of which was located in a ravine, the Lehigh Gorge
Lehigh Canal
–
Lehigh Canal
Lehigh Canal
–
Loading coal at the
Mauch Chunk chutes, 1873
Lehigh Canal
–
Weigh lock with
scales to determine tolls, 1873
Lehigh Canal
–
The canal passing through
Bethlehem, 1907
9.
Schuylkill Canal
–
Schuylkill Canal is the common, but technically inaccurate, name for the Schuylkill Navigation, a 19th-century commercial waterway in and along the Schuylkill River in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. The canal was actually a system of interconnected canals and slack-water pools in the river, chartered in 1815, the Schuylkill Navigation opened in 1825 to provide transportation and water power. It fostered the mining of coal as the major source of industry between Pottsville and eastern markets. The Schuylkill was in operation until 1931 and was almost completely filled in the 1950s, some remaining watered reaches are now used for recreation. While there was a lack of highways or navigable streams leading to the region. Small quantities of coal were mined, but people were slow to appreciate its value, not only the coal but the fact that it was coal had to be discovered. When the engineering challenges and finances allowed, the Schuylkill Canal began operations in 1825, the initial configuration completed in 1827, was waterway of 108 miles was linking Philadelphia to Port Carbon in the Southern Anthracite Coal Fields near Pottsville. This was similar in degree to the gradients of the Lehigh Canal but twice the height drop in twice the distance, both much steeper than the Erie Canals leisurely descents. Like the later Delaware Canal was to the Lehigh, the Union Canal, when completed, the two canals combined to make a water link between Philadelphia and the slack water level of the Susquehanna River at Middletown. The Schuylkill Canal also featured the first transportation tunnel in America, by transporting bulk cargoes and provide water power, the Schuylkill Navigation transformed the towns of Reading, Norristown, and Pottsville into early manufacturing centers. By using the Delaware River and the Delaware and Raritan and Morris Canals, manufactured products, in 1841, the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad opened, and within four years, was hauling three times as much anthracite to Philadelphia each year as the Schuylkill Navigation. In response, the Schuylkill Navigation Company enlarged its canals, by 1847, in 1850, a price-fixing arrangement with the railroad stabilized prices for the transportation of anthracite. This decade was the Schuylkill Navigations most prosperous period, in 1859, its peak year, it transported 1,700,000 tons of cargo. However, in same year the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad carried over 2,500,000 tons. Railroads could reach mine heads and coal breakers where no stream existed to support the digging of a new ditch. Coal shifted away from canals to the more flexible means of goods transportation. Where the established canals supplied, their markets mostly remained relatively stable, eventually, Oil heat and their perennial problems of delivering in winters cold diminished their role. The self-examination during the years of the Great Depression would end up closing most
Schuylkill Canal
–
Lock 60, guard lock of the Oakes Reach.
Schuylkill Canal
–
Canal aqueduct over Crossman's Run, near Oaks
Schuylkill Canal
–
Remains of Lock 70 at the outlet of the Manayunk Reach
Schuylkill Canal
–
Manayunk Reach, a very industrial section of the Navigation
10.
Military history of ancient Rome
–
The military history of ancient Rome is inseparable from its political system, based from an early date upon competition within the ruling elite. Two consuls were elected each year to head the government of the state, and in the early to mid-Republic were assigned a consular army and an area in which to campaign. The Empire was increasingly plagued by usurpations led or supported by conspiracies, leading to the Crisis of the Third Century in the late empire. Following is a list of topics on the history of ancient Rome. Structural history of the Roman military The branches of the Roman military at the highest level were the Roman army, within these branches the actual structure was subject to substantial change throughout its history. Campaign history of the Roman military The history of Rome is inseparable from its history over the roughly thirteen centuries that the Roman state existed. The core of the campaigns of ancient Rome is the account of the Roman militarys land battles, from the conquest of Italy to its fights against the Huns. Naval battles were largely less important, although there are notable exceptions during, for instance, technological history of the Roman military From sticks and stones to ballistae and quinqueremes. Political history of the Roman military From subjects of the state to subjects of the general
Military history of ancient Rome
11.
Pensions
–
The terms retirement plan and superannuation tend to refer to a pension granted upon retirement of the individual. Retirement plans may be set up by employers, insurance companies, called retirement plans in the United States, they are commonly known as pension schemes in the United Kingdom and Ireland and superannuation plans in Australia and New Zealand. Retirement pensions are typically in the form of a life annuity. A pension created by an employer for the benefit of an employee is commonly referred to as an occupational or employer pension, labor unions, the government, or other organizations may also fund pensions. Occupational pensions are a form of deferred compensation, usually advantageous to employee, many pensions also contain an additional insurance aspect, since they often will pay benefits to survivors or disabled beneficiaries. Other vehicles may provide a stream of payments. The common use of the pension is to describe the payments a person receives upon retirement. A recipient of a retirement pension is known as a pensioner or retiree, a retirement plan is an arrangement to provide people with an income during retirement when they are no longer earning a steady income from employment. Often retirement plans require both the employer and employee to contribute money to a fund during their employment in order to receive defined benefits upon retirement and it is a tax deferred savings vehicle that allows for the tax-free accumulation of a fund for later use as a retirement income. Funding can be provided in other ways, such as labor unions, government agencies. Pension plans are therefore a form of deferred compensation, a SSAS is a type of employment-based Pension in the UK. Some countries also grant pensions to military veterans, military pensions are overseen by the government, an example of a standing agency is the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. Ad hoc committees may also be formed to investigate specific tasks, Commission on Veterans Pensions in 1955–56. In early 2017, the Wall Street Journal reported the percentage of American private-sector workers who have a pension is 13%. Many countries have created funds for their citizens and residents to provide income when they retire, typically this requires payments throughout the citizens working life in order to qualify for benefits later on. A basic state pension is a contribution based benefit, and depends on an individuals contribution history, for examples, see National Insurance in the UK, or Social Security in the United States of America. Many countries have put in place a social pension. These are regular, tax-funded non-contributory cash transfers paid to older people, over 80 countries have social pensions
Pensions
–
Financial market participants
12.
Aerarium militare
–
The aerarium militare was the military treasury of Imperial Rome. It was instituted by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, as a permanent revenue source for pensions for veterans of the Imperial Roman army, the praefecti aerarii militaris were the three prefects who oversaw the treasury. The Imperial biographer and historian Suetonius saw the aerarium militare as a response to the uncertainty of retired military men in need who might be inclined to support a coup or foment unrest. A state-supported benefit helped redirect the former soldiers loyalty from his commanding officer to the Roman state as a whole. Under Augustus, monetary grants replaced land redistributions, and were received by the upper classes. Augustus included the aerarium militare among the accomplishments in his Res Gestae, in addressing the Senate on the subject, Augustus had stated his intention to provide for military personnel from enlistment through retirement. A soldier earned a one-time praemium or discharge benefit upon completing his service, at the end of Augustuss reign, the pension for a Praetorian guard was 20,000 sesterces, and that of a legionary 12,000. In the 1st century, a legionarys retirement benefit would have amounted to about 12 years of service pay, the praemium remained stable until the time of Caracalla, who increased it to 20,000 HS for a legionary and a higher but unrecorded amount for a Praetorian guard. When the treasury experienced a shortfall, the emperor might avoid paying pensions by arbitrarily extending the length of military service, the aerarium militare was part of an Augustan fiscal initiative that was at first greeted with hostility. In 6 AD, Augustus capitalized the pension fund with 170 million sesterces of his own money, along with contributions from client kings. The amount was insufficient, and after soliciting proposals on revenue enhancement from senators, all of which he rejected, inheritances left to members of the deceaseds immediate family were exempted, as were estates below a certain valuation. The other source of tax revenue for the military treasury—a sales tax of 1 percent on goods sold at auction —is less attested, the military treasury was located on the Capitoline Hill at the time of Nero, as attested by a military diploma dating to 65 AD. It is unclear whether it was a storehouse for coins brought to the capital in payment of taxes. The treasury was administered by three prefects, who were former praetors at first chosen by lot for a term of three years, later they were appointed by the emperor. Their precise duties are unclear, though they were not charged with collecting the taxes and they may have served mainly to provide financial management and security. Each senatorial prefect was assigned two lictors and other staff, but the later imperially-appointed prefects had no lictors, the change to appointment by the emperor may have been made as early as the reign of Claudius. The younger Pliny was a prefect of the military treasury appointed by Domitian, Rome, the Greek World, and the East, Government, Society and Culture in the Roman Empire. University of North Carolina Press,2004, the Augustan Succession, An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dios Roman History Books 55–56
Aerarium militare
13.
Augustus
–
Augustus was the founder of the Roman Principate and considered the first Roman emperor, controlling the Roman Empire from 27 BC until his death in AD14. He was born Gaius Octavius into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia and his maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavius was named in Caesars will as his adopted son and heir, then known as Octavianus. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar, following their victory at the Battle of Philippi, the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators. The Triumvate was eventually torn apart by the ambitions of its members. Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position, in reality, however, he retained his autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator. By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including supreme military command, and it took several years for Augustus to develop the framework within which a formally republican state could be led under his sole rule. He rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself Princeps Civitatis, the resulting constitutional framework became known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire. The reign of Augustus initiated an era of peace known as the Pax Romana. Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, expanding into Germania, beyond the frontiers, he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. Augustus died in AD14 at the age of 75 and he probably died from natural causes, although there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son Tiberius, Augustus was known by many names throughout his life, At birth, he was named Gaius Octavius after his biological father. Historians typically refer to him simply as Octavius between his birth in 63 until his adoption by Julius Caesar in 44 BC, upon his adoption, he took Caesars name and became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in accordance with Roman adoption naming standards. He quickly dropped Octavianus from his name, and his contemporaries referred to him as Caesar during this period, historians. In 27 BC, following his defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra and it is the events of 27 BC from which he obtained his traditional name of Augustus, which historians use in reference to him from 27 BC until his death in AD14. While his paternal family was from the town of Velletri, approximately 40 kilometres from Rome and he was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. He was given the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus, his cognomen possibly commemorating his fathers victory at Thurii over a band of slaves. Due to the nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his fathers home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavius only mentions his fathers equestrian family briefly in his memoirs and his paternal great-grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War
Augustus
–
The statue known as the
Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century
Augustus
–
The Death of Caesar, by
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1867). On 15 March 44 BC, Octavius's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by
Marcus Junius Brutus and
Gaius Cassius Longinus.
Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore.
Augustus
–
A statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated ca. 30 BC
Augustus
–
Bust of Augustus in
Musei Capitolini, Rome
14.
Denarius
–
In the Roman currency system, the dēnārius, plural, dēnāriī was a small silver coin first minted about 211 BC during the Second Punic War. It is the origin of modern words such as the currency name dinar, it is also the origin for the common noun for money in Italian denaro, in Portuguese dinheiro. Its symbol is X̶, a x with stroke. A predecessor of the denarius was first struck in 267 BC, five years before the first Punic War with a weight of 6.81 grams. Contact with the Greeks prompted a need for coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using during that time. The predecessor of the denarius was a Greek-styled silver coin, very similar to the didrachm and drachma struck in Metapontion and these coins were inscribed for Rome but closely resemble their Greek counterparts. They were most likely used for purposes and were seldom used in Rome. The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC, Rome overhauled its coinage around 211 BC and introduced the denarius alongside a short-lived denomination called the victoriatus. This denarius contained an average 4.5 grams, or 1⁄72 of a Roman pound of silver and it formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman republic. The denarius began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period, under the rule of Augustus, its silver content fell to 3.9 grams. It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero, debasement of the coins silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors reduced its content to 3 grams around the third century. The value at its introduction was 10 asses, giving the denarius its name, in about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in weight of the as. The denarius continued to be the coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the antoninianus in the middle of the third century. The last issuance of this occurred in bronze form by Aurelian. For more details, see Denarius, in A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins, the denarius has a link from the Roman times to the British penny and US1 cent piece. It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was different. Classical historians often say that in the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire the daily wage for an unskilled laborer and common soldier was 1 denarius or about US$2. 8$ in bread
Denarius
–
Top row left to right: 157 BC
Roman Republic, A.D 73
Vespasian, A.D 161
Marcus Aurelius, A.D 194
Septimius Severus; Second row left to right: A.D 199
Caracalla, A.D 200
Julia Domna, A.D 219
Elagabalus, A.D 236
Maximinus Thrax
Denarius
–
Flavia Domitilla, wife of
Vespasian and mother of
Titus and
Domitian.
Denarius
–
Quintus Antonius Balbus (c. 82-83 BC)
15.
Caracalla
–
Caracalla, formally Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Augustus, was Roman emperor from AD198 to 217. A member of the Severan Dynasty, he was the eldest son of Septimius Severus, Caracalla reigned jointly with his father from 198 until Severus death in 211. Caracalla then ruled jointly with his younger brother Geta, with whom he had a fraught relationship, Caracallas reign was marked by domestic instability and external invasions from the Germanic people. Caracallas reign was notable for the Antonine Constitution, also known as the Edict of Caracalla, the edict gave all the enfranchised men Caracallas adopted praenomen and nomen, Marcus Aurelius. Towards the end of his rule, Caracalla began a campaign against the Parthian Empire and he did not see this campaign through to completion due to his assassination by a disaffected soldier in 217. He was succeeded as emperor by Macrinus after three days, Caracalla is presented in ancient sources as a tyrant and cruel leader, an image that has survived into modernity. Dio Cassius and Herodian present Caracalla as a soldier first and emperor second, in the 12th century, Geoffrey of Monmouth started the legend of Caracallas role as the king of Britain. Later, in the 18th century, Caracallas memory was revived in the works of French artists due to the parallels between Caracallas apparent tyranny and that of King Louis XVI, Modern works continue to portray Caracalla as a psychopathic and evil ruler. His rule is remembered as being one of the most tyrannical of all Roman emperors, Caracalla was born Lucius Septimius Bassianus. He was renamed Marcus Aurelius Antoninus at the age of seven as part of his fathers attempt at union with the families of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. According to Aurelius Victor in his Epitome de Caesaribus, he became known by the agnomen Caracalla after a Gallic hooded tunic that he habitually wore and he may have begun wearing it during his campaigns on the Rhine and Danube. Dio generally referred to him as Tarautas, after a famously diminutive, Caracalla was born in Lugdunum, Gaul, on 4 April 188 to Septimius Severus and Julia Domna. He had a younger brother, Geta, who would briefly rule as co-emperor alongside him. Caracallas father, Septimius Severus, appointed Caracalla joint Augustus and full emperor from the year 198 onwards and his brother Geta was granted the same title in 210. In 202 Caracalla was forced to marry the daughter of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, Fulvia Plautilla, by 205 Caracalla had succeeded in having Plautianus executed for treason, though he had probably fabricated the evidence of the plot himself. It was then that he banished his wife, whose later killing might have carried out under Caracallas orders. Caracallas father, Septimius Severus, died on 4 February 211 at Eboracum while on campaign in Caledonia, Caracalla and his brother, Publius Septimius Antoninus Geta, jointly inherited the throne upon their fathers death. Caracalla and Geta ended the campaign in Caledonia after concluding a peace with the Caledonians that returned the border of Roman Britain to the line demarcated by Hadrians Wall
Caracalla
–
Caracalla
Caracalla
–
O: laureate head of Caracalla ANTONINVS PIVS
AVG GERM
Caracalla
–
This medallion exemplifies the typical manner in which Caracalla was depicted.
Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore.
16.
New South Wales
–
New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
New South Wales
–
286 kg (630 lb) gold nugget unearthed in 1872 from
Hill End during the Gold Rush
New South Wales
–
Flag
New South Wales
–
Japanese POW camp in Cowra, 1944, several weeks before the
Cowra breakout
New South Wales
–
A short-lived
South Maitland Railway (SMR) Railcar travelling between
Weston and
Abermain, 1962. The SMR is notable for being the second last system in Australia to use steam haulage.
17.
Lachlan Macquarie
–
Major-General Lachlan Macquarie CB was a British Army officer and colonial administrator from Scotland. Macquarie served as the fifth and last autocratic Governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821, an inscription on his tomb in Scotland describes him as The Father of Australia. Lachlan Macquarie was born on the island of Ulva off the coast of the Isle of Mull in the Inner Hebrides, a chain of islands off the West Coast of Scotland. He was a gentleman of the Scottish Highland family clan MacQuarrie which possessed Ulva, Staffa, and a region of the Isle of Mull for over one thousand years, and his forebears were buried on Iona. Governor Macquaries father, a man of Intelligence, polite, and much of the world, supposedly attained the age of 103 years and his mother was the daughter of a Maclaine chieftain who owned a castle on the Isle of Mull. Macquarie left the island at the age of 14, if he did attend the Royal High School of Edinburgh, as tradition has it, it was only for a very brief period because, at the same age, he volunteered for the army. Macquarie joined the 84th Regiment of Foot on 9 April 1777, as a new recruit on the way to America he participated in the Battle of the Newcastle Jane. This battle was the first naval victory for a British merchant ship over an American privateer and he was initially stationed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and was commissioned as an ensign five months after his arrival. On 18 January 1781, he was promoted to lieutenant and transferred to the 71st Regiment of Foot, and served them in New York City, Charleston. In June 1784 he returned to Scotland as a half-pay lieutenant, three years later, on Christmas Day 1787 he received his commission as lieutenant in the 77th Regiment, where he saw service with the army in India and Egypt. Macquarie became a Freemason in January 1793 at Bombay, in Lodge No.1 and he was promoted Captain on 9 November 1789, Major on 12 March 1801. Two years later,1803, he was in London, as Assistant Adjutant General to Lord Harrington, in 1803 and 1804 saw him on active service in India. In 1793 he married Jane Jarvis, daughter of the Chief Justice of Antigua, three years later she died of tuberculosis. In November 1807, Macquaries cousin Elizabeth Henrietta Campbell became his second wife, in April 1809 Macquarie was appointed Governor of New South Wales. At the head of troops he was unchallenged by the New South Wales Corps whose members had become settled in farming, commerce. Macquarie was promoted to Colonel in 1810, Brigadier in 1811 and Major-General in 1813, the Macquaries departed from England in May 1809 aboard HMS Dromedary, accompanied by HMS Hindostan. They reached Sydney on 28 December 1809 and he started as a governor on 1 January 1810 and he appointed John Campbell as his secretary. The first task Macquarie had to tackle was to restore orderly, lawful government, Macquarie was ordered by the British government to arrest both John Macarthur and Major George Johnston, two of the leaders of the Rum Rebellion
Lachlan Macquarie
–
Major-General Lachlan Macquarie
CB
Lachlan Macquarie
–
An illustration from 1888
Lachlan Macquarie
–
Brass breast plate presented to the Aboriginal leader Coborn Jackey of the Burrowmunditory tribe by the squatter James White in the district of present-day
Young, New South Wales
Lachlan Macquarie
–
Macquarie Mausoleum
18.
Rum Rebellion
–
The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history. During the 19th century, it was referred to as the Great Rebellion. William Bligh, well known for his overthrow in the mutiny on the Bounty, was a naval officer and he succeeded Governor Philip Gidley King in 1805, having been offered the position by Sir Joseph Banks. It is likely that he was selected by the British Government as governor because of his reputation as a hard man and he stood a good chance of reining in the maverick New South Wales Corps, something that his predecessors had not been able to do. Bligh left for Sydney with his daughter, Mary Putland, even before his arrival, Blighs style of governance led to problems with his subordinates. The Admiralty gave command of the storeship Porpoise and the convoy to the lower ranked Captain Joseph Short and this led to quarrels which eventually resulted in Captain Short firing across Blighs bow in order to force Bligh to obey his signals. When this failed, Short tried to give an order to Lieutenant Putland, Blighs son-in-law, Bligh boarded the Porpoise and seized control of the convoy. The president of the court, Sir Isaac Coffin, wrote to the Admiralty and made several accusations against Bligh. Blighs wife obtained a statement from one of the officers denying this and Banks, supplies were divided up according to those most in need and provisions were made for loans to be drawn from the store based on capacity to repay. This earned Bligh the gratitude of the farmers but the enmity of traders in the Corps who had been profiting greatly from the situation. Bligh, under instructions from the Colonial Office, attempted to normalise trading conditions in the colony by prohibiting the use of spirits as payment for commodities, Bligh communicated his policy to the Colonial Office in 1807, with the advice that his policy would be met with resistance. Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Secretary of State for War, the instructions were to stop the barter of spirits and H. V. Evatt concludes in his history of the Rebellion that, Evatt argues that the enmity of the monopolists within the colony stemmed from this and other policies which counteracted the power of the rich and promoted the welfare of the poor settlers. Bligh also dismissed Thomas Jamison from the magistracy, describing him in 1807 as being inimical to good government, Jamison was the highly capable Surgeon-General of New South Wales. He had accumulated significant personal wealth as a trader and was a friend. Jamison never forgave Bligh for sacking him as a magistrate and interfering with his business activities. It is clear that Bligh had made enemies of some of the most influential people in the colony and he also antagonised some of the less wealthy when he ordered those who had leases on government land within Sydney to remove their houses. Macarthur had arrived with the New South Wales Corps in 1790 as a lieutenant and he had quarrelled with Blighs predecessor governors and had fought three duels
Rum Rebellion
–
Bligh in 1792
Rum Rebellion
–
Watercolour drawing of Government House, ca. 1809
Rum Rebellion
–
A
propaganda cartoon created within hours of
William Bligh 's arrest, portraying him as a coward
19.
Thomas Brisbane
–
Major General Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, 1st Baronet, GCB GCH FRS FRSE, was a British soldier, administrator, and astronomer. Upon the recommendation of the Duke of Wellington, with whom he had served, a keen astronomer, he built Australias first observatory and encouraged scientific and agricultural training. Rivals besmirched his reputation and the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Bathurst, recalled Brisbane, Brisbane, a new convict settlement, was named in his honour and is now among the largest cities in Australia. Brisbane was born at Brisbane House in Noddsdale, near Largs in Ayrshire, Scotland and he was educated in astronomy and mathematics at the University of Edinburgh. He joined the British Army the 38th Regiment of Foot in 1789 and had a career in Flanders. He served under the Duke of Wellington, and in 1813 he was promoted to Major-General and he saw much action during the Peninsular War, including leading a brigade in the 3rd Division that broke through at the Battle of Vitoria. During the battle, he used the Charles C. Platt Homestead as his headquarters, in November 1819 he married Anna Maria Hay Makdougall of Makerstoun, Roxburghshire, Scotland. On his father-in-laws death, Brisbane assumed the surname, becoming Makdougall Brisbane. In 1821, on the recommendation of Wellington, Brisbane was appointed Governor of New South Wales, Brisbane took over the government on 1 December 1821, and at once proceeded to carry out some of the reforms recommended in the report of John Bigge. While Governor he tackled the problems of a rapidly growing and expanding colony. He worked to improve the land system and to reform the currency. He also set up the first agricultural training college in New South Wales and was the first patron of the New South Wales Agricultural Society and he conducted experiments in growing tobacco, cotton, coffee and New Zealand flax in the colony. However, Brisbane did not always receive loyal support from his officers, and in particular from Frederick Goulburn. A reference to Brisbanes dispatch to Earl Bathurst dated 14 May 1825 shows that Bigges recommendations had been considered. Brisbane did not limit his attention to Bigges report, early in April 1822 he discovered with some surprise the ease with which grants of land had hitherto been obtained. He immediately introduced a new system under which every grant had the stipulation that for every 100 acres granted the grantee would maintain free of expense to the crown one convict labourer. He also encouraged agriculture on government land, streamlined granting of tickets of leave and pardons and introduced, in 1823, a system of calling for supplies by tender. When Dr. Robert Wardell and William Wentworth brought out their paper the Australian in 1824, in 1823 Brisbane sent Lieutenant John Oxley to find a new site for convicts who were repeat offenders
Thomas Brisbane
–
Sir Thomas Brisbane, Governor of New South Wales
Thomas Brisbane
–
The Brisbane family vault in Largs.
20.
Land grants in the Swan River Colony
–
The Swan River Colony, established in June 1829, was the only British colony in Australia established on the basis of land grants to settlers. Under the conditions stipulated by the Colonial Office, settlers would be granted land in proportion to the value of assets, to ensure productive use of land, settlers were not given full title to their grants until they had been sufficiently improved. The system of land continued until 1832, after which crown land was disposed of by sale at auction. Under the initial land grant conditions, settlers were granted 40 acres of land for every £3 of assets invested in the colony, assessment of the value of assets was left to the discretion of the authorities, whose valuations were inaccurate and inconsistent. One settler observed a tendency to overvalue cattle while undervaluing general cargo, for the purposes of assessing land entitlements, assets had to be physical capital applicable to land use, money was not assessed. In consequence, many settlers maximised their land entitlements by arriving with large amounts of expensive capital and this gross overcapitalisation caused the financial ruin of many early emigrants, and had a lasting deleterious effect on the colonys economy. Moreover, much of the machinery that was imported was useless in Western Australian conditions. Settlers were also entitled to 200 acres of land for every adult introduced at their expense and this condition had the effect of encouraging settlers to bring out indentured servants, and some brought out more than they were capable of employing and supporting in the long term. When the first settlers arrived at the colony, it was discovered that the quantity of good land had been greatly exaggerated. To ensure that land holdings were used productively, and to discourage speculation, settlers were initially granted only right of occupation. Full ownership of the land, including the right to sell, was withheld until every acre had been improved by at least one shilling and six pence, through clearing, fencing, cultivation, and so on. Settlers who failed to improve at least a quarter of their grant within three years could be fined, and land not wholly improved within ten years would be resumed by the crown. Settlers were not permitted to average their improvements over their grant, despite the conditions, some settlers found creative ways to retain their land without working it. Although the land grants to settlers were conditional on their meeting improvement conditions, a number of important officials and capitalists were granted large areas of land as reward for service, James Stirling, Charles Fremantle and Thomas Peel were all recipients of such grants. In addition, military personnel were permitted to land in lieu of pay. Much of the obtained in this way was not developed. The large amounts of land tied up in this way was often blamed later for the slow progress of the colony. Land grant conditions changed a number of times in the following years, at the end of 1830 the new settlement had granted over 1 million acres to settlers, of which only 169 acres were actively being farmed
Land grants in the Swan River Colony
–
The "Arrowsmith map": an 1839 map of the land grants in the Swan River Colony, drawn by John Arrowsmith from the survey data of
John Septimus Roe.
21.
Midland Railway of Western Australia
–
The Midland Railway of Western Australia was a railway company that built and operated the Midland line in Western Australia. It was listed on the London Stock Exchange, although having its headquarters in London, it had no association with the English Midland Railway. The agreement was signed on 27 February 1886, with commencing a few days later. Under the land grant scheme,12,000 acres of land was granted for every mile of railway completed, the consortium was able to select land within 40 miles of the new railway. Financing problems delayed construction with construction being suspended in June 1887, the Government tried to rescind the contract, but could not as the consortium had until 1890 to complete the first 160 kilometres of the line. The first section from Midland Junction to Gingin opened on 9 April 1891, the rest of the line opened in stages until the two sections met on 1 November 1894. Between 1905 and 1918, the company pursued a scheme of land classification and settlement led by land agent. The first subdivision was auctioned at Moora on 22 June 1906, by 1911,16 subdivisions between Midland Junction and Dongara had been classified and auctioned. In 1910, Gardiner instigated and managed the Ready Made Farms Scheme, the townsites of Coorow, Winchester and Carnamah formed the backbone of the scheme. The scheme was advertised widely to British citizens and was moderately successful, in 1915, the Western Australian Government Railways opened the parallel, but longer Northern Railway route about 50 kilometres further east via Wongan Hills and Mullewa. Between 1914 and 1917, business declined rapidly and the company operated at a loss, in 1918, the scheme was wound up. In 1922, the MRWA made the first of a number of proposals for the Western Australian Government Railways to purchase it, in December 1962, with much of the track and rolling stock in need of replacement, the company entered negotiations for the WAGR to purchase the business. This was concluded in December 1963, with the sale effective 1 August 1964, up until it cessation, a weekly passenger service operated over the line. In 1946, the Midland Railway Company began operating a bus service between Perth and Geraldton, in 1948, it began operating Wildflower Study Tours from Perth and along roads to and from Geraldton through the northern wheatbelt. Also in 1948, it began operating truck services, by 1962, seven road coaches, six trucks and two prime movers were operated. The Midland Railway established its workshops and headquarters at Midland Junction, later on, in 1904, the WAGR relocated their workshops from its overcrowded site at Fremantle to Midland also. The site of the Midland Railway Company Workshops, at the time of the sale, the MRWA operated nine diesel locomotives,10 passenger carriages and 602 freight wagons. The MRWA operated nine A, nine B, five C, all were withdrawn from service in the 1950s
Midland Railway of Western Australia
–
B6 with a mixed train at
Watheroo, ca 1910
Midland Railway of Western Australia
–
Map of the
Midland line
Midland Railway of Western Australia
–
A26 at
Gingin in 1943
Midland Railway of Western Australia
–
C16 at
Midland Junction in 1949
22.
Geraldton
–
Geraldton is a coastal city in the Mid West region of Western Australia, located 424 kilometres north of Perth. At June 2015 Geraldton had an urban population of 39,825. Geraldton is the seat of government for the City of Greater Geraldton, the Port of Geraldton is a major west coast seaport. Geraldton is an important service and logistics centre for mining, fishing, wheat, sheep. The local Aboriginal people native to the region surrounding Geraldton are known as Yamatji or Wajarri people, Wajarri country is inland from Geraldton and extends as far south and west as Mullewa, north to Gascoyne Junction and east to Meekatharra. Yamatji art is a style of painting, using thousands of dots of ochre and other earth-based pigments to create patterns. The Western Australia Museum at the marina in Geraldton hosts a permanent exhibit on Yamatji/Wajarri culture, many European mariners encountered, or were wrecked on, the Houtman Abrolhos islands 60 kilometres west of Geraldton during the 17th and 18th centuries. Although two mutineers from the Batavia were marooned on the mainland in 1629 there is no surviving evidence that made landfall at or near the site of the current town. The explorer George Grey, while on his second expedition along the Western Australian coast. A decade later, explorer Augustus Gregory travelled through the area, a member of his party, James Perry Walcott, discovered lead ore in 1848 in the bed of the Murchison River. The Geraldine mine was established, named after the County Clare family home of Charles FitzGerald. The town of Geraldton, named after Governor FitzGerald, was surveyed in 1850, the economic output generated within Greater Geraldton, the 12, 626-square-kilometre local government area incorporating Geraldton, is estimated at $5.072 billion. Greater Geraldton represents 47. 65% of the $10.645 billion in output generated in Mid West Region and 1. 01% of the $501.018 billion in output generated in Western Australia. The major exports from the Geraldton port in 2012/2013 were, iron ore, grain, mineral sands, copper concentrate, zinc concentrate, nickel concentrate, in 2012/2013 the Geraldton port serviced 328 bulk haulage vessels. The Geraldton Visitor Centre is located in the historical Geraldton railway station, the Point Moore Lighthouse, located south of the Geraldton Port is a cultural and historical attraction. It is the oldest surviving Commonwealth lighthouse in Western Australia and was also the first steel tower to be constructed on the mainland of Australia, the Point Moore lighthouse stands 35m tall and its 1000w Tungsten Halogen Lamp can be seen for 23 nautical miles. The project was completed in 2008, Geraldton is a regular port of call for cruise ships with visits occurring approximately ten times per year. Volunteers, organised by the City of Greater Geraldton, greet visitors on arrival to provide information on activities, the memorial for the World War II cruiser HMAS Sydney is located on Gummer Avenue, at the summit of Mount Scott
Geraldton
–
Geraldton Marina
Geraldton
–
Memorial to
HMAS Sydney
Geraldton
–
St Georges Beach
Geraldton
–
St Francis Xavier Cathedral
23.
Roebuck Bay
–
Roebuck Bay is a bay on the coast of the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Its entrance is bounded in the north by the town of Broome and it is named after HMS Roebuck, the ship captained by William Dampier when he explored the coast of north-western Australia in 1699. The Broome Bird Observatory lies on the northern coast of the bay, Roebuck Bay is a 550 km2 tropical, marine embayment. It has red sandy beaches and areas of mangroves, with the edge of the bay being made up of linear tidal creeks. It is surrounded by grasslands and pindan woodland, the northern shore of the bay is dominated by a long and low red cliff, 2–6 m in height, of pindan soil which gives the beaches there their distinctive red colouration. It overlies yellowish-red Broome Sandstone of Cretaceous age which, when exposed at the base of the cliff, Roebuck Bay experiences a hot semi-arid climate. The wet season spans the austral summer, with most of the annual precipitation falling during this period. Annual precipitation totals vary locally across the bay, they range from 300 to 550 mm a year. The bay has a large tidal range which exposes around 160 km2 of mudflats, 45% of the total bay area. Most of the mudflats are inundated each high tide, spring tides or cyclones may also flood adjoining coastal flats. The tidal system is semi-diurnal with an amplitude of 5.7 m. These tidal conditions dominate the intertidal ecology, Roebuck Bay lies in the traditional country of the Jukun and Yawuru Aboriginal peoples. The bay was important for seasonal meetings, exchanging gifts, arranging marriages, many shellfish middens, marking former camping sites, are visible along the coastal cliffs and dunes. Indigenous people continue to make use of the bays natural resources by gathering shellfish. In 1942 several Dutch flying boats arrived with refugees from the Dutch East Indies, while laying at anchor in this bay they were attacked by Japanese Zero-fighter planes on 3 March 1942. The flying boats were defenceless and they were attacked and sprayed with bullets from machine-guns. A hundred men, women and children were killed, many of them drowned, the wrecks are still in situ, and several of them are visible a few days each year at extreme low tide. On 7 June 1990 some 34,219 ha of the bay and its surrounds were designated as a wetland of international importance, Ramsar Site 479
Roebuck Bay
–
The red sand beaches of northern Roebuck Bay
Roebuck Bay
–
Waders in flight across Roebuck Bay
Roebuck Bay
–
Waders roosting on Campsite Beach, Roebuck Bay
24.
Western Australia
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Western Australia is a state occupying the entire western third of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Great Australian Bight and Southern Ocean to the south, the state has about 2.6 million inhabitants, around 11% of the national total. 92% of the lives in the south-west corner of the state. The first European visitor to Western Australia was the Dutch explorer Dirk Hartog, the first European settlement of Western Australia occurred following the landing by Major Edmund Lockyer on 26 December 1826 of an expedition on behalf of the New South Wales colonial government. This was followed by the establishment of the Swan River Colony in 1829, including the site of the present-day capital, york was the first inland settlement in Western Australia. Situated 97 kilometres east of Perth, it was settled on 16 September 1831, Western Australia achieved responsible government in 1890, and federated with the other British colonies in Australia in 1901. Today its economy relies on mining, agriculture and tourism. The state produces 46% of Australias exports, Western Australia is the second-largest iron ore producer in the world. The International Hydrographic Organization designates the body of water south of the continent as part of the Indian Ocean, the total length of the states eastern border is 1,862 km. There are 20,781 km of coastline, including 7,892 km of island coastline, the total land area occupied by the state is 2.5 million km2. Most of the state is a low plateau with an elevation of about 400 metres, very low relief. This descends relatively sharply to the plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment. The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile, even soils derived from granitic bedrock contain an order of magnitude less available phosphorus and only half as much nitrogen as soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains or ironstone are even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and also deficient in zinc, copper, molybdenum, the infertility of most of the soils has required heavy application by farmers of chemical fertilisers, particularly superphosphate, insecticides and herbicides. These have resulted in damage to invertebrate and bacterial populations, the grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted in compaction of soils and great damage to the fragile soils. Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora, large areas of the states wheatbelt region have problems with dryland salinity and the loss of fresh water. The southwest coastal area has a Mediterranean climate and it was originally heavily forested, including large stands of karri, one of the tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, thanks to the offshore Leeuwin Current, the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerly coral reefs in the world
Western Australia
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The
black swan is the state bird of Western Australia
Western Australia
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Flag
Western Australia
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The
Red and green kangaroo paw is the floral emblem of Western Australia
Western Australia
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John Forrest was the first Premier of Western Australia.
25.
Northern Territory
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The Northern Territory is a federal Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. It shares borders with Western Australia to the west, South Australia to the south, to the north, the territory is bordered by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Despite its large area—over 1,349,129 square kilometres, the Northern Territorys population of 244,000 makes it the least populous of Australias eight major states and territories, having fewer than half as many people as Tasmania. The archaeological history of the Northern Territory begins over 40,000 years ago when Indigenous Australians settled the region, makassan traders began trading with the indigenous people of the Northern Territory for trepang from at least the 18th century onwards. The coast of the territory was first seen by Europeans in the 17th century, the British were the first Europeans to attempt to settle the coastal regions. After three failed attempts to establish a settlement, success was achieved in 1869 with the establishment of a settlement at Port Darwin. Today the economy is based on tourism, especially Kakadu National Park in the Top End and the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in central Australia, the capital and largest city is Darwin. The population is not concentrated in regions but rather along the Stuart Highway. The other major settlements are Palmerston, Alice Springs, Katherine, Nhulunbuy, residents of the Northern Territory are often known simply as Territorians and fully as Northern Territorians, or more informally as Top Enders and Centralians. With the coming of the British, there were four attempts to settle the harsh environment of the northern coast. The Northern Territory was part of colonial New South Wales from 1825 to 1863, except for a time from February to December 1846. It was part of South Australia from 1863 to 1911, under the administration of colonial South Australia, the overland telegraph was constructed between 1870 and 1872. A railway was built between Palmerston and Pine Creek between 1883 and 1889. The economic pattern of raising and mining was established so that by 1911 there were 513,000 cattle. Victoria River Downs was at one time the largest cattle station in the world, gold was found at Grove Hill in 1872 and at Pine Creek, Brocks Creek, Burrundi, and copper was found at Daly River. On 1 January 1911, a decade after federation, the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia, alfred Deakin opined at this time To me the question has been not so much commercial as national, first, second, third and last. Either we must accomplish the peopling of the territory or submit to its transfer to some other nation. In late 1912 there was growing sentiment that the name Northern Territory was unsatisfactory, the names Kingsland, Centralia and Territoria were proposed with Kingsland becoming the preferred choice in 1913
Northern Territory
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Thomas Baines with Aborigines near the mouth of the
Victoria River.
Northern Territory
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Flag
Northern Territory
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Letters Patent annexing the Northern Territory to South Australia, 1863
Northern Territory
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The northern coast of Australia is on the left with Melville Island in the lower right.
26.
South Australia
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South Australia is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country, with a total land area of 983,482 square kilometres, it is the fourth-largest of Australias states and territories. Other population centres in the state are relatively small, the state comprises less than 8 percent of the Australian population and ranks fifth in population among the six states and two territories. The majority of its people reside in Adelaide, most of the remainder are settled in fertile areas along the south-eastern coast and River Murray. The states colonial origins are unique in Australia as a settled, planned British province. Official settlement began on 28 December 1836, when the colony was proclaimed at the Old Gum Tree by Governor John Hindmarsh, as with the rest of the continent, the region had been long occupied by Aboriginal peoples, who were organised into numerous tribes and languages. The first British settlement to be established was Kingscote, Kangaroo Island, on 26 July 1836, the guiding principle behind settlement was that of systematic colonisation, a theory espoused by Edward Gibbon Wakefield that was later employed by the New Zealand Company. The goal was to establish the province as a centre of civilisation for free immigrants, promising civil liberties, although its history is marked by economic hardship, South Australia has remained politically innovative and culturally vibrant. Today, it is known for its wine and numerous cultural festivals. The states economy is dominated by the agricultural, manufacturing and mining industries, the state has an increasingly significant finance sector as well. Evidence of human activity in South Australia dates back as far as 20,000 years, with flint mining activity, in addition wooden spears and tools were made in an area now covered in peat bog in the South East. Kangaroo Island was inhabited long before the island was cut off by rising sea levels, thijssen named his discovery Pieter Nuyts Land, after the highest ranking individual on board. The complete coastline of South Australia was first mapped by Matthew Flinders, the land which now forms the state of South Australia was claimed for Britain in 1788 as part of the colony of New South Wales. Although the new colony included almost two-thirds of the continent, early settlements were all on the eastern coast and it took more than forty years before any serious proposal to establish settlements in the south-western portion of New South Wales were put forward. In 1834, the British Parliament passed the South Australia Act 1834, the act stated that 802,511 square kilometres would be allotted to the colony and it would be convict-free. In contrast to the rest of Australia, terra nullius did not apply to the new province, although the patent guaranteed land rights under force of law for the indigenous inhabitants it was ignored by the South Australian Company authorities and squatters. Settlement of seven vessels and 636 people was made at Kingscote on Kangaroo Island. The first immigrants arrived at Holdfast Bay in November 1836, the Colonisation Commissioners intended to establish a police service as soon as misconduct within the increasing population warranted it
South Australia
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European settlers with Aborigines, 1850
South Australia
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Flag
South Australia
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Satellite image of eastern South Australia. Note the dry lakes (white patches) in the north
South Australia
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Lake Albert, a freshwater lake near the mouth of the
Murray River
27.
Oodnadatta
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It can be reached by an unsealed road from Coober Pedy or via the unsealed Oodnadatta Track from Marree to Marla or from the north via Finke, Northern Territory. The name is derived from Arrernte utnadata, meaning mulga blossom, the population was 229 in 1976 and decreased to 160 in 1986. The 2006 census reported a population of 277, john McDouall Stuart explored the region in 1859. The route mapped by Stuart in his journeys of 1857 to 1862 was adopted as part of the Overland Telegraph Line route, there was no township at Oodnadatta in those days. It was called the Yellow Waterhole, or Angle Pole, camels were the only pack animals capable of taking on a six-week journey in often extreme heat, through sandy terrain. When train travel arrived, many of these camels were left to run wild in the outback where they number in the tens of thousands today, many Afghan men and their families eventually settled in Oodnadatta and Maree, some marrying into the Aboriginal community. Oodnadatta became the terminus of the Great Northern Railway in 1890, the line became known as the Central Australian Railway and the train service on the line was known as the Ghan in honour of the Afghan cameleers. The railway was built with narrow tracks, train traffic was frequently disrupted by washouts and other damage to the trackbed leading to a slow. The railway through Oodnadatta was closed in 1981, a new standard line was built to the west bypassing Oodnadatta. Oodnadattas busiest era was World War II when Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force set up facilities to service troop trains. Increasing tourist traffic along the Oodnadatta Track and a mining industry keep the village alive. The Aboriginal school is the biggest employer, both the historic Oodnadatta railway station, now a museum, and the nearby Algebuckina Bridge are listed on the South Australian Heritage Register. Oodnadatta has a hot climate and has also recorded the highest reliably measured maximum temperature in Australia,50.7 °C on 2 January 1960. There is a sign in Oodnadatta claiming the town is The driest town. The name Oodnadatta has been used as a name for a crater on the planet Mars, the Pink Roadhouse is a focal point for the town, providing petrol, a general store, meals, post office facilities and canoe hire. Although they really do have canoes, it is not clear where to use them in the area unless the local waterholes are recently filled. Oodnadatta is serviced weekly by the Coober Pedy Oodnadatta One Day Mail Run. The OKA mail truck carries some general freight and passengers
Oodnadatta
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The Pink Roadhouse at Oodnadatta
Oodnadatta
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Oodnadatta Track sign
Oodnadatta
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Canoe hire
28.
Darwin, Northern Territory
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Darwin /ˈdɑːrwᵻn/ is the capital city of the Northern Territory of Australia. Situated on the Timor Sea, Darwin is the largest city in the sparsely populated Northern Territory and it is the smallest and most northerly of the Australian capital cities, and acts as the Top Ends regional centre. Darwins proximity to South East Asia makes it a link between Australia and countries such as Indonesia and East Timor, the Stuart Highway begins in Darwin, ending at Port Augusta in South Australia. The city itself is built on a low bluff overlooking the harbour and its suburbs spread out over some area, beginning at Lee Point in the north and stretching to Berrimah in the east. Past Berrimah, the Stuart Highway goes on to Darwins satellite city, Palmerston, the Darwin region, like the rest of the Top End, has a tropical climate, with a wet and a dry season. Prone to cyclone activity during the wet season, Darwin experiences heavy monsoonal downpours, during the dry season, the city is met with blue skies and gentle sea breezes from the harbour. The greater Darwin area is the home of the Larrakia people. On 9 September 1839, HMS Beagle sailed into Darwin harbour during its surveying of the area, John Clements Wickham named the region Port Darwin in honour of their former shipmate Charles Darwin, who had sailed with them on the ships previous voyage which had ended in October 1836. The settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, and was renamed Darwin in 1911. The city has been almost entirely rebuilt four times, following devastation caused by the 1897 cyclone, the 1937 cyclone, Japanese air raids during World War II, the Aboriginal people of the Larrakia language group are the traditional custodians and the first inhabitants of the greater Darwin area. They had trading routes with Southeast Asia, and imported goods from as far afield as South, established songlines penetrated throughout the country, allowing stories and histories to be told and retold along the routes. The extent of shared songlines and history of multiple groups within this area is still contestable. The Dutch visited Australias northern coastline in the 1600s and landed on the Tiwi Islands only to be repelled by the Tiwi peoples, the Dutch created the first European maps of the area. This accounts for the Dutch names in the area, such as Arnhem Land, the first British person to see Darwin harbour appears to have been Lieutenant John Lort Stokes of HMS Beagle on 9 September 1839. The ships captain, Commander John Clements Wickham, named the port after Charles Darwin, in 1863, the Northern Territory was tranferred from New South Wales to South Australia. In 1864 South Australia sent B. T. Finniss north as Government Resident to survey, Finniss chose a site at Escape Cliffs, near the entrance to Adelaide River, about 60 km northeast of the modern city. This attempt was short-lived, however, and the settlement abandoned by 1865, on 5 February 1869, George Goyder, the Surveyor-General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 people at Port Darwin between Fort Hill and the escarpment. Goyder named the settlement Palmerston, after the British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, in 1870, the first poles for the Overland Telegraph were erected in Darwin, connecting Australia to the rest of the world
Darwin, Northern Territory
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The Darwin skyline seen from
Bayview
Darwin, Northern Territory
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Remains of the Darwin Post Office after the first Japanese raid in 1942
Darwin, Northern Territory
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Remains of Palmerston Town Hall, destroyed by
Cyclone Tracy
29.
Port Darwin
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Port Darwin as the port of Darwin, Northern Territory has operated in a number of locations including Stokes Hill Wharf, Cullen Bay and East Arm Wharf. Stokes Hill Wharf operated as the location of Port Darwin. East Arm Wharf, opened in 2000, panamax sized ships of a maximum length of 274 meters and a DWT of up to 80,000 tonnes are able to use the location. Electoral division of Port Darwin Port Darwin FC
Port Darwin
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The Darwin skyline seen from
Bayview
Port Darwin
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Remains of the Darwin Post Office after the first Japanese raid in 1942
Port Darwin
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Remains of Palmerston Town Hall, destroyed by
Cyclone Tracy
Port Darwin
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Lyons Cottage, c. 1925, office of the British Australian Telegraph Company
30.
Alice Springs
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Alice Springs /ˌælᵻs ˈsprɪŋz/ is the third largest town in the Northern Territory of Australia. Popularly known as the Alice or simply Alice, Alice Springs is situated roughly in Australias geographic centre. The area is known as Mparntwe to its inhabitants, the Arrernte. The name Alice Springs was given by surveyor William Whitfield Mills after Lady Alice Todd, Alice Springs has a population of 27,972, which makes up 8.7 percent of the territorys population. Alice Springs is nearly equidistant from Adelaide and Darwin, the town straddles the usually dry Todd River on the northern side of the MacDonnell Ranges. The surrounding region is known as Central Australia, or the Red Centre, the Aboriginal name for Alice Springs is Mparntwe. Many Arrernte people also live in communities outside of Alice Springs, three major groups, the Western, Eastern and Central Arrernte people live in Central Australia, their traditional land including the area of Alice Springs and MacDonnell Ranges. They have also referred to as Aranda, Arrarnta, Arunta. There are five dialects of the Arrernte language, South-eastern, Central, Arrernte country is rich with mountain ranges, waterholes and gorges, which create a variety of natural habitats. The numerous sites of importance in and around Alice Springs include Anthwerrke, Akeyulerre, Ntaripe, Atnelkentyarliweke. A white settlement was started ten years later with the construction of a station on the Overland Telegraph Line. The OTL was completed in 1872 and it traced Stuarts route and opened up the interior for permanent settlement. The Alice Springs Telegraph Station was sited near what was thought to be a permanent waterhole in the normally dry Todd River, the settlement was optimistically named Alice Springs after the wife of the former Postmaster General of South Australia, Sir Charles Todd. The Todd River was named after Sir Charles and it was not until alluvial gold was discovered at Arltunga,100 kilometres east of the present Alice Springs, in 1887 that any significant European settlement occurred. The towns first substantial building was the Stuart Town Gaol in Parsons Street which was built in 1909 when the town had a European population of fewer than 20 people, many of the gaols first prisoners were first contact aboriginal men incarcerated for killing cattle. The first aircraft, piloted by Francis Stewart Briggs landed in 1921, Central Australias first hospital, Adelaide House, was built in 1926 when the European population of the town was about 40. It was not until 1929 when the line to Alice was built. Aboriginal Centralians outnumbered European Centralians until the mid-1930s, until 31 August 1933, the town was officially known as Stuart
Alice Springs
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View of Alice Springs CBD from Anzac Hill.
Alice Springs
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The "springs" that give the town its name
Alice Springs
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Telegraph station
Alice Springs
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Panorama of Alice Springs
