1.
Venice
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Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
2.
Pirate code
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A pirate code, pirate articles or articles of agreement were a code of conduct for governing pirates. A group of sailors, on turning pirate, would draw up their own code or articles, which provided rules for discipline, division of stolen goods, and compensation for injured pirates. Buccaneers began operating under a set of rules called the Chasse-Partie, Charter Party, Custom of the Coast. These eventually became known as Articles of Agreement, or the pirates code, each crew member was asked to sign or make his mark on the articles, then swear an oath of allegiance or honor. The oath was taken on a Bible, but John Phillips men, lacking a Bible. Legend suggests that other pirates swore on crossed pistols, swords, or on a human skull, or astride a cannon. This act formally inducted the signer into the crew, generally entitling him to vote for officers and on other affairs of moment, to bear arms. The articles having been signed, they were posted in a prominent place. After a piratical cruise began, new recruits from captured ships would sometimes sign the articles, in some cases voluntarily, in other cases under threat of torture or death. Valuable sea artisans, such as carpenters and navigators, were likely to be forced to sign articles under duress. In some cases, even willing recruits would ask the pirates to pretend to them to sign. Generally, men who had not signed the articles had a better chance of acquittal at trial if captured by the law. Pirate articles are related to, and in some cases derived from, privateering articles. By the 19th century, ordinary merchant ships also had articles specifying wages and rules, merchant articles and privateering articles can be traced back to Europe in the Middle Ages when there was a system of joint hands agreements between merchants, owners and seamen to share profits. Four complete or nearly complete sets of articles have survived, chiefly from Charles Johnsons A General History of the Pyrates. A partial code from Henry Morgan is preserved in Alexandre Exquemelins 1678 book The Buccaneers of America, many other pirates are known to have had articles. Few pirate articles have survived, because pirates on the verge of capture or surrender usually burned their articles or threw them overboard, No person to game at cards or dice for money. The lights and candles to be put out at eight oclock at night, if any of the crew, after that hour still remained inclined for drinking, to keep their piece, pistols, and cutlass clean and fit for service
3.
Street light
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A street light, light pole, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road or walkway. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells that activate automatically when light is or is not needed, dusk, dawn and this function in older lighting systems could have been performed with the aid of a solar dial. Many street light systems are being connected underground instead of wiring from one utility post to another, at that time oil lamps were used predominantly as they provided a long-lasting and moderate flame. The Romans had a word lanternarius, which was a term for a responsible for lighting the oil lamps in front of their villas. Before incandescent lamps, candle lighting was employed in cities, the earliest lamps required that a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps. According to some sources, illumination was ordered in London in 1417 by Sir Henry Barton, in 1524, Paris house owners were required to have lanterns with candles lit in front of their houses at night, but the law was often ignored. Following the invention of lanterns with glass windows, which improved the quantity of light. Still, in 1662, it was a practice for travelers to hire a lantern-bearer if they had to move at night through the dark. Lantern bearers were still common in Paris until 1789, in 1667, under King Louis XIV, the royal government began installing lanterns on all the streets. There were three thousand in place by 1669, and twice as many by 1729, lanterns with glass windows were suspended from a cord over the middle of the street at a height of twenty feet and were placed twenty yards apart. A much-improved oil lantern, called a réverbère, was introduced between 1745 and 1749 and these lamps were attached to the top of lampposts, by 1817, there were 4694 lamps on the Paris streets. During the French Revolution, the found that the lampposts were a convenient place to hang aristocrats. The first widespread system of lighting used piped coal gas as fuel. William Murdoch was the first to use the flammability of gas for the application of lighting. He first lit his own house in Redruth, Cornwall in 1792, in 1798, he used gas to light the main building of the Soho Foundry and in 1802 lit the outside in a public display of gas lighting, the lights astonishing the local population. In Paris, gas lighting was first demonstrated in November 1800 at a residence on the rue Saint-Dominique, and was installed on a covered shopping street. The gaslights installed on the boulevards and city monuments in the 19th century gave the city the nickname The City of Light, the first public street lighting with gas was demonstrated in Pall Mall, London on January 28,1807 by Frederick Albert Winsor. In 1812, Parliament granted a charter to the London and Westminster Gas Light and Coke Company, less than two years later, on December 31,1813, the Westminster Bridge was lit by gas
4.
Electric light
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An electric light is a device that produces visible light by the flow of electric current. It is the most common form of lighting and is essential to modern society, providing interior lighting for buildings and exterior light for evening. In technical usage, a component that produces light from electricity is called a lamp. Compact lamps are commonly called light bulbs, for example, the incandescent light bulb, lamps usually have a base made of ceramic, metal, glass or plastic, which secures the lamp in the socket of a light fixture. The electrical connection to the socket may be made with a screw-thread base, before electric lighting became common in the early 20th century, people used candles, gas lights, oil lamps, and fires. Humphry Davy developed the first incandescent light in 1802, followed by the first practical electric arc light in 1806, by the 1870s, Davys arc lamp had been successfully commercialized, and was used to light many public spaces. The energy efficiency of electric lighting has increased radically since the first demonstration of arc lamps, modern electric light sources come in a profusion of types and sizes adapted to myriad applications. Most modern electric lighting is powered by centrally generated electric power, battery-powered light is often reserved for when and where stationary lights fail, often in the form of flashlights, electric lanterns, and in vehicles. *Color temperature is defined as the temperature of a body emitting a similar spectrum. The most efficient source of light is the low-pressure sodium lamp. It produces, for all purposes, a monochromatic orange/yellow light. For this reason, it is reserved for outdoor public lighting usages. Low-pressure sodium lights are favoured for public lighting by astronomers, since the pollution that they generate can be easily filtered. The modern incandescent light bulb, with a filament of tungsten, was commercialized in the 1920s developed from the carbon filament lamp introduced in about 1880. Sri Lanka has already banned importing filament bulbs because of use of electricity. Less than 3% of the energy is converted into usable light. Nearly all of the energy ends up as heat that, in warm climates, must then be removed from the building by ventilation or air conditioning. In colder climates where heating and lighting is required during the cold and dark winter months, halogen lamps are usually much smaller than standard incandescents, because for successful operation a bulb temperature over 200 °C is generally necessary
5.
Lighthouse
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Lighthouses mark dangerous coastlines, hazardous shoals, reefs, and safe entries to harbors, and can assist in aerial navigation. Once widely used, the number of operational lighthouses has declined due to the expense of maintenance, before the development of clearly defined ports, mariners were guided by fires built on hilltops. Since raising the fire would improve the visibility, placing the fire on a platform became a practice that led to the development of the lighthouse. In antiquity, the lighthouse functioned more as a marker to ports than as a warning signal for reefs and promontories. The most famous lighthouse structure from antiquity was the Pharos of Alexandria, coins from Alexandria, Ostia, and Laodicea in Syria also exist. The modern era of lighthouses began at the turn of the 18th century, advances in structural engineering and new and efficient lighting equipment allowed for the creation of larger and more powerful lighthouses, including ones exposed to the sea. The function of lighthouses shifted toward the provision of a warning against shipping hazards. The Eddystone Rocks were a major hazard for mariners sailing through the English Channel. The first lighthouse built there was a wooden structure, anchored by 12 iron stanchions secured in the rock. His lighthouse was the first tower in the world to have been exposed to the open sea. The civil engineer, John Smeaton, rebuilt the lighthouse from 1756–59, his tower marked a step forward in the design of lighthouses. He modelled the shape of his lighthouse on that of an oak tree and he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime, a form of concrete that will set under water, and developed a technique of securing the granite blocks together using dovetail joints and marble dowels. This profile had the advantage of allowing some of the energy of the waves to dissipate on impact with the walls. His lighthouse was the prototype for the lighthouse and influenced all subsequent engineers. One such influence was Robert Stevenson, himself a figure in the development of lighthouse design. His greatest achievement was the construction of the Bell Rock Lighthouse in 1810 and this structure was based upon Smeatons design, but with several improved features, such as the incorporation of rotating lights, alternating between red and white. Stevenson worked for the Northern Lighthouse Board for nearly fifty years during which time he designed and oversaw the construction and he also invented the movable jib and the balance crane as a necessary part for lighthouse construction. Alexander Mitchell designed the first screw-pile lighthouse – his lighthouse was built on piles that were screwed into the sandy or muddy seabed, construction of his design began in 1838 at the mouth of the Thames and was known as the Maplin Sands lighthouse, and first lit in 1841
6.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
7.
Tallinn
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Tallinn is the capital and largest city of Estonia. It is situated on the northern coast of the country, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland,80 km south of Helsinki, east of Stockholm, from the 13th century until 1918, the city was known as Reval. Tallinn occupies an area of 159.2 km2 and has a population of 444,591, approximately 33% of Estonias total population lives in Tallinn. Tallinn was founded in 1248, but the earliest human settlements date back 5,000 years, making it one of the oldest capital cities of Northern Europe. The initial claim over the land was laid by the Danes in 1219 after a raid of Lyndanisse led by Valdemar II of Denmark. Due to its location, the city became a major trade hub, especially from the 14th to the 16th century. Tallinns Old Town is one of the best preserved cities in Europe and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Tallinn is the political, financial, cultural and educational center of Estonia. Often dubbed the Silicon Valley of Europe, it has the highest number of startups per person in Europe and is a birthplace of international companies. The city is to house the headquarters of the European Unions IT agency, providing to the global cybersecurity it is the home to the NATO Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence. It is ranked as a city and has been listed among the top 10 digital cities in the world. The city was a European Capital of Culture for 2011, along with Turku in Finland and it has been suggested that Quwri may have denoted a predecessor of the modern city. The earliest names of Tallinn include Kolyvan, which is known from East Slavic chronicles, up to the 13th century, the Scandinavians and Henry of Livonia in his chronicle called the town Lindanisa (or Lyndanisse in Danish, Lindanäs in Swedish and Ledenets in Old East Slavic. It has been suggested that the archaic Estonian word linda is similar to the Votic word lidna. According to this suggestion, nisa would have the meaning niemi, producing Kesoniemi, another ancient historical name for Tallinn in Finnish is Rääveli. The Icelandic Njals saga mentions Tallinn and calls it Rafala, which is a variant of the name Raphael, after the Danish conquest in 1219, the town became known in the German, Swedish and Danish languages as Reval. The name originated from Revelia Revala or Rävala, the adjacent ancient name of the surrounding area and it is usually thought to be derived from Taani-linn, after the Danes built the castle in place of the Estonian stronghold at Lindanisse. However, it could also have come from tali-linna, or talu-linna, the element -linna, like Germanic -burg and Slavic -grad / -gorod, originally meant fortress, but is used as a suffix in the formation of town names
8.
Estonia
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Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia, across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, covering 45,339 km2 of land and water, and is influenced by a humid continental climate. The territory of Estonia has been inhabited since at least 6500 BC, in 1988, during the Singing Revolution, the Estonian Supreme Soviet issued the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in defiance of Soviet rule, and independence was restored on 20 August 1991. Estonia is a parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties. Its capital and largest city is Tallinn, with a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OECD and Schengen Area. Estonia is a country with an advanced, high-income economy that is among the fastest growing in the EU. Its Human Development Index ranks very highly, and it performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, the 2015 PISA test places Estonian high school students 3rd in the world, behind Singapore and Japan. Citizens of Estonia are provided with health care, free education. Since independence the country has developed its IT sector, becoming one of the worlds most digitally advanced societies. In 2005 Estonia became the first nation to hold elections over the Internet, in the Estonian language, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians was maarahvas, meaning country people or people of the land. The land inhabited by Estonians was called Maavald meaning Country Parish or Land Parish, one hypothesis regarding the modern name of Estonia is that it originated from the Aesti, a people described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania. The historic Aesti were allegedly Baltic people, whereas the modern Estonians are Finno-Ugric, the geographical areas between Aesti and Estonia do not match, with Aesti being further down south. Ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is called in Icelandic. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia, esthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921. Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000 to 11,000 years ago, the oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago, the earliest human inhabitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to Kunda culture, which is named after the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in communities near bodies of water
9.
Paper lantern
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A paper lantern is a lantern made of thin, brightly colored paper. Paper lanterns come in shapes and sizes, as well as various methods of construction. In their simplest form, they are simply a bag with a candle placed inside. Sometimes, other lanterns can be out of colored silk or vinyl. Silk lanterns are also collapsible with a metal expander and are decorated with Chinese characters and/or designs, the vinyl lanterns are more durable, they can resist rain, sunlight, and wind. Paper lanterns do not last very long, they soon break, the gold paper on them will soon fade away to a pale white, and the red silk will become a mix between pink and red. In Japan the traditional styles include bonbori and chōchin and there is a style of lettering called chōchin moji used to write on them. Airborne paper lanterns are called sky lanterns, and are released into the night sky for aesthetic effect at lantern festivals. In China, paper lanterns can be classified into 5 distinct classes, the second class is the Rolling Paper, the tall, cylindrical lanterns often associated with restaurants and bars. The third class is the Tomato Light also known as Big Red, the fourth class is the Crystal Magic, the variously-shaped geometric lamps constructed of many square and triangular panes. The last is known as Buddhas Gastronomy, the large and extra large lanterns used to decorate temples and for show at festivals. Also, there are the traditional Chinese lanterns, primarily red but also in other colours, the color red traditionally symbolizes good fortune and joy. Placing candles or tea lights in a succession of paper bags is a common tradition in Hispanic communities during Christmas. During the Festa della Rificolona held in Florence, Italy, children carry colourful paper lanterns through the streets of the city, high-wattage paper lanterns are commonly used in lighting for motion picture productions. Commonly referred to as China balls, they provide soft, edgeless light to a scene, lantern Sky lantern Color in Chinese culture
10.
Firefly
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The Lampyridae are a family of insects in the beetle order Coleoptera. They are winged beetles, commonly called fireflies or lightning bugs for their conspicuous use of bioluminescence during twilight to attract mates or prey, Fireflies produce a cold light, with no infrared or ultraviolet frequencies. This chemically produced light from the abdomen may be yellow, green, or pale red. About 2,000 species of fireflies are found in temperate, many are in marshes or in wet, wooded areas where their larvae have abundant sources of food. Their larvae emit light and often are called glowworms in Eurasia, in the Americas, glow worm also refers to the related Phengodidae. In many species, both male and female fireflies have the ability to fly, but in species, the females are flightless. Fireflies tend to be brown and soft-bodied, often with the elytra, or front wings, although the females of some species are similar in appearance to males, larviform females are found in many other firefly species. These females can often be distinguished from the larvae only because they have compound eyes, the most commonly known fireflies are nocturnal, although there are numerous species that are diurnal. Most diurnal species are not luminescent, however, some species remain in shadowy areas may produce light. A few days after mating, a female lays her eggs on or just below the surface of the ground. The eggs hatch three to four weeks later, and the feed until the end of the summer. The larvae are called glowworms Lampyrid larvae have simple eyes. Fireflies hibernate over winter during the stage, some species for several years. Some do this by burrowing underground, while others find places on or under the bark of trees, after several weeks of feeding on other insects, snails and worms, they pupate for 1.0 to 2.5 weeks and emerge as adults. The larvae of most species are specialized predators and feed on larvae, terrestrial snails. Some are so specialized that they have grooved mandibles that deliver digestive fluids directly to their prey, adult diet varies, some are predatory, while others feed on plant pollen or nectar. Some, like the European Glow-worm beetle, Lampyris noctiluca, have no mouth, most fireflies are quite distasteful to eat and sometimes poisonous to vertebrate predators. This is due at least in part to a group of steroid pyrones known as lucibufagins, light production in fireflies is due to a type of chemical reaction called bioluminescence
11.
Raise the Red Lantern
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Raise the Red Lantern is a 1991 film directed by Zhang Yimou and starring Gong Li. It is an adaption by Ni Zhen of the 1990 novel Wives and Concubines by Su Tong, the film was later adapted into an acclaimed ballet of the same title by the National Ballet of China, also directed by Zhang. Set in the 1920s, the tells the story of a young woman who becomes one of the concubines of a wealthy man during the Warlord Era. It is noted for its opulent visuals and sumptuous use of colours, the film was shot in the Qiao Family Compound near the ancient city of Pingyao, in Shanxi Province. Although the screenplay was approved by Chinese censors, the version of the film was banned in China for a period. The film is set in 1920s China during the Warlord Era, Songlian soon discovers, however, that not all the concubines in the household receive the same luxurious treatment. Pitted in constant competition against each other, the three concubines are continually vying for their husbands attention and affections, the First Mistress, Yuru, appears to be nearly as old as the master himself. Having borne a son decades earlier, she resigned to live out her life as forgotten. Songlian feigns pregnancy, attempting to garner the majority of the time and, at the same time. Zhuoyun summons the family physician, feigning concern for Songlians pregnancy, doctor Gao, who is secretly having an illicit affair with Third Mistress Meishan, examines Songlian and determines the pregnancy to be a sham. Infuriated, the master orders Songlians lanterns covered with black canvas bags indefinitely. Yaner is punished by having the lanterns burned while she kneels in the snow, in an act of defiance, Yaner refuses to humble herself or apologize, and thus remains kneeling in the snow throughout the night until she collapses. Yaner falls sick and ultimately dies after being taken to the hospital, one of the servants tells Songlian that her former maid died with her mistresss name on her lips. As Songlian retreats further into her solitude, she begins speaking of suicide, following the old customs and traditions, Meishan is dragged to a lone room on the roof of the estate and hanged to death by the masters servants. Songlian, already in agony due to the fruitlessness of her life, the following summer, after the Masters marriage to yet another concubine, Songlian is shown wandering the compound in her old schoolgirl clothes, having gone completely insane. The Razor Digital Entertainment DVD release has been widely criticised, DVD Times states Many other viewers will find this DVD release simply intolerable. DVDTown criticised the release, giving the video quality 1 out of 10. DVDFile adds to this stating this horrible DVD is only recommended to those who love the movie so much, the translation on this version has been also widely criticised for its numerous inaccuracies
12.
Motif (visual arts)
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In art and iconography, a motif is an element of an image. A motif may be repeated in a pattern or design, often many times, the related motif of confronted animals is often seen alone, but may also be repeated, for example in Byzantine silk and other ancient textiles. Ornamental or decorative art can usually be analysed into a number of different elements and these may often, as in textile art, be repeated many times in a pattern. Important examples in Western art include acanthus, egg and dart, many designs in Islamic culture are motifs, including those of the sun, moon, animals such as horses and lions, flowers, and landscapes. Motifs can have effects and be used for propaganda. The idea of a motif has become used more broadly in discussing literature, geometric, typically repeated, Meander, palmette, rosette, gul in Oriental rugs, acanthus, egg and dart, Bead and reel, Pakudos, Sauwastika, Adinkra symbols. Figurative, Master of Animals, confronted animals, velificatio, Death, dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-26869-1 Jones, Owen. Dover Publications, Revised edition, ISBN 0-486-25463-1 Welch, Patricia Bjaaland, chinese art, a guide to motifs and visual imagery. Turtle Publishing, ISBN 0-8048-3864-X Visual motifs Theater of Drawing
13.
Ghost Festival
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The Ghost Festival, also known as the Hungry Ghost Festival in modern day, Zhong Yuan Jie_ or Yu Lan Jie is a traditional Buddhist and Taoist festival held in Asian countries. According to the Chinese calendar, the Ghost Festival is on the 15th night of the seventh month. On the fifteenth day the realms of Heaven and Hell and the realm of the living are open, intrinsic to the Ghost Month is veneration of the dead, where traditionally the filial piety of descendants extends to their ancestors even after their deaths. Elaborate meals would be served with empty seats for each of the deceased in the family treating the deceased as if they are still living. Other festivities may include, buying and releasing miniature paper boats and lanterns on water, in Tang-dynasty China, the Buddhist festival Ullambana and the Ghost Festival were mixed and celebrated together. To Mahayana Buddhists, the lunar month is a month of joy. This is because the day of the seventh month is often known as the Buddhas joyful day. The origins of the Buddhas joyful day can be found in various scriptures, when the Buddha was alive, his disciples meditated in the forests of India during the rainy season of summer. Three months later, on the day of the seventh month, they would emerge from the forests to celebrate the completion of their meditation. Because the number of monks who attained enlightenment during that period was high, in the Ullambana Sutra, there is a descriptive account of a Buddhist monk named Maudgalyāyana, originally a Brahmin youth who later ordained, and later becoming one of the Buddhas chief disciples. Mahāmaudgalyāyana was also known for having clairvoyant powers, an uncommon trait amongst monks, the tale is contained in. a canonical collection of short sutras translated into Chinese by Gautama Samghadeva between 397 and 398. After he attained arhatship, he began to think deeply of his parents and he used his clairvoyance to see where they were reborn and found his father in the heavenly realms i. e. the realm of the gods. However, his mother had been reborn in a realm, known as Avīci. His mother had been greedy with the money he left her and he had instructed her to kindly host any Buddhist monks that ever came her way, but instead she withheld her kindness and her money. It was for this reason she was reborn in the realm of hungry ghosts, Maudgalyāyana eased his mothers suffering by receiving the instructions of feeding pretas from the Buddha. By doing so, the pretas hunger would be relieved, through these merits, his mother was able to be reborn as a dog under the care of a noble family. Maudgalyāyana then sought the Buddhas advice to help his mother gain a human birth, the Buddha established a day after the traditional summer retreat on which Maudgalyāyana was to offer food and robes to five hundred bhikkhus. Through the merits created, Maudgalyāyanas mother finally gained a human birth, the Ghost Festival is held during the seventh month of the Chinese calendar
14.
Lantern Festival
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The Lantern Festival or the Spring Lantern Festival is a Chinese festival celebrated on the fifteenth day of the first month in the lunisolar Chinese calendar. It marks the day of the traditional Chinese New Year celebrations. As early as the Western Han Dynasty, it had become a festival with great significance, during the Lantern Festival, children go out at night to temples carrying paper lanterns and solve riddles on the lanterns. In ancient times, the lanterns were fairly simple, and only the emperor, in modern times, lanterns have been embellished with many complex designs. For example, lanterns are now made in the shape of animals. The lanterns can symbolize the people letting go of their past selves and getting new ones, the lanterns are almost always red to symbolize good fortune. In Hong Kong and Taiwan, it is commercialized as the Chinese equivalent of Valentines Day and it is not to be confused with the Mid-Autumn Festival, which is sometimes also known as the Lantern Festival in locations such as Singapore and Malaysia. Now the Chinese Lantern Festival is becoming popular in Western countries, in London, the United Kingdom has the Magical Lantern Festival. The first month of the Chinese Lunar month is called the yuan month, the fifteenth day is the first full moon of that lunisolar year. People will try to solve puzzles on lanterns, eat lots of food like rice balls named after the festival, (also known as tangyuan. There are many different beliefs about the origin of the Lantern Festival, however, one likely origin is the celebration of the declining darkness of winter and communitys ability to move about at night with human-made light, namely, lanterns. During the Han Dynasty, the festival was connected to Ti Yin, one legend tells us that it was a time to worship Taiyi, the God of Heaven in ancient times. The belief was that the God of Heaven controlled the destiny of the human world and he had sixteen dragons at his beck and call and he decided when to inflict drought, storms, famine or pestilence upon human beings. Beginning with Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, the emperor would ask Taiyi to bring favorable weather and good health to him and his people. Wudi of the Han Dynasty directed special attention to this event, in 104 BCE, he proclaimed it to be one of the most important celebrations and the ceremony would last throughout the night. Another legend associates the Lantern Festival with Taoism, Tianguan is the Taoist god responsible for good fortune. His birthday falls on the day of the first lunar month. It is said that Tianguan likes all types of entertainment, so followers prepare various kinds of activities during which they pray for good fortune, another legend associates the Lantern Festival with an ancient warrior name Lan Moon, who led a rebellion against the tyrannical king in ancient China
15.
Sky lantern
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A sky lantern, also known as Kongming lantern or Chinese lantern, is a small hot air balloon made of paper, with an opening at the bottom where a small fire is suspended. In Asia and elsewhere around the world, sky lanterns have been made for centuries. The name sky lantern is a translation of the Chinese name, in China and Taiwan, sky lanterns are traditionally made from oiled rice paper on a bamboo frame. The source of hot air may be a candle or fuel cell composed of a waxy flammable material. The general design is a thin shell, which may be from about 30 cm to a couple of metres across. The opening is usually about 10 to 30 cm wide, and is surrounded by a collar that serves to suspend the flame source. In Thailand, sky lanterns are traditionally made from oiled rice paper on a bamboo frame. They may also be constructed from other lightweight papers, the source of hot air is usually a small candle or fuel cell composed of a waxy flammable material lit and which usually stays lit despite the surrounding air currents. The Thai name is khom loi, many areas of Asia, however, do not permit sky lanterns because of widespread fire hazards as well as danger to livestock. A design that was fairly common was two pyramids joined by the base sometimes with a cube or prism inserted in the middle, the candle was usually a packet of paraffin or rosin tightly wrapped in cloth and bound with wire. When lit, the heats the air inside the lantern, thus lowering its density. The sky lantern is only airborne for as long as the flame stays alight, traditionally, however, their invention is attributed to the sage and military strategist Zhuge Liang whose reverent term of address was Kongming. He is said to have used a message written on a sky lantern to summon help on an occasion when he was surrounded by enemy troops, for this reason they are still known in China as Kongming lanterns. Sky lanterns are an explanation for some UFO sightings through the years. In ancient China, sky lanterns were used in wars. However, later on, non-military applications were employed as they became popular with children at festivals and these lanterns were subsequently incorporated into festivals like the Chinese Mid-Autumn and Lantern Festivals. Pingxi District in New Taipei City of Taiwan holds an annual Lantern Festival in which sky lanterns are released into the sky with peoples wishes written on the lantern. The Lanna people of northern Thailand use floating lanterns year round, for celebrations, one very important festival in which sky lanterns are used is the Yi Peng festival, which is held on a full moon of the 2nd month of the Lanna calendar
16.
Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
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Processions
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A procession is an organized body of people walking in a formal or ceremonial manner. Processions have in all peoples and at all times been a form of public celebration, as forming an orderly. Connected with the triumph was the pompa circensis, or solemn procession that preceded the games in the circus and it first came into use at the Ludi Romani, when the games were preceded by a great procession from the Capitol to the Circus. The praetor or consul who appeared in the ponipa circensis wore the robes of a triumphing general, there were other local processions connected with the primitive worship of the country people, which remained unchanged, but they were eventually overshadowed by the popular piety of the Church. In this sense it appears to be used by Pope Leo I, as to public processions, these seem to have come into rapid vogue after the recognition of Christianity as the religion of the empire. Those at Jerusalem would seem to have long established when described by the author of the Peregrinatio Sylviae towards the end of the 4th century. Very early were the processions accompanied by hymns and prayers, known as litaniae and it is to such a procession that reference appears to be made in a letter of St Basil, which would thus be the first recorded mention of a public Christian procession. The first mention for the Western Church occurs in St Ambrose, in both these cases the litanies are stated to have been long in use. There is also mention of a procession accompanied by hymns, organized at Constantinople by St John Chrysostom in opposition to a procession of Arians, in Sozomen. In times of calamity litanies were held, in which the people walked in robes of penitence, fasting, barefooted, the cross was carried at the head of the procession and often the gospel and the relics of the saint were carried. So, too, Gregory the Great writes to the Sicilian bishops to hold processions to prevent an invasion of Sicily. A famous instance of these penitential litanies is the litania septiformis ordered by Gregory the Great in the year 590, when Rome had been inundated and pestilence had followed. In this litany seven processions, of clergy, laymen, monks, nuns, matrons, the poor and this litany has often been confused with the litania major, introduced at Rome in 598, but is quite distinct from it. From the time of the emperor Constantine I these processions were of great magnificence, Festivals involving processions were adopted by the Christian Church from the pagan calendar of Rome. The litaniae majores et minores, which are stated by Hermann Usener to have been first instituted by Pope Liberius and it is generally acknowledged that they are the equivalent of the Christian Church of the Roman lustrations of the crops in spring, the Ambarvalia, &c. The litania major, or great procession on St Marks day is shown to both in date and ritual with the Roman Robigalia, which took place ad. The litania major followed the route as far as the Milvian bridge, when it turned off and returned to St Peters. This was already established as a festival by 598, as is shown by a document of Gregory the Great that inculcates the duty of celebrating litaniam
18.
Entrance (liturgical)
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In Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic churches, an entrance is a procession during which the clergy enter into the sanctuary through the Holy Doors. Over the centuries, these processions have grown more elaborate, and nowadays are accompanied by incense, candles and liturgical fans. In the liturgical theology of the Orthodox Church, the angels are believed to enter with the clergy into the sanctuary, as evidenced by the prayers which accompany the various entrances. The bishop has the right to enter and leave the altar through the Holy Doors at any time, during the course of the Divine Liturgy, there are two entrances. The Little Entrance occurs during the portion of the known as the Liturgy of the Catechumens. For unto Thee are due all glory, honour and worship, to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever, and unto the ages of ages. The deacon presents the Gospel Book for the priest to kiss The deacon then points to the Holy Doors with his orarion, and bowing says to the priest, Bless, Master, the holy entrance. The priest blesses with his hand and says, Blessed is the entrance of Thy holy ones, always, now and ever, when the choir finishes singing the Third Antiphon, the deacon lifts up the Gospel Book and says, Wisdom. The choir then sings the Entrance Hymn, Come let us worship, O Son of God, save us who sing to Thee, Alleluia. and the Troparia and Kontakia of the day. Meanwhile, the deacon and priest go in through the Holy Doors, the deacon replaces the Gospel Book on the Holy Table, the priest silently says the Prayer of the Trisagion. Until that point he has been standing upon the episcopal kathedra in the center of the church, also, when a bishop is to be consecrated, the rite takes place at the Little Entrance. This is also the point in the Liturgy when the bishop will bestow ecclesiastical awards, after the troparia and kontakia, the choir begins the Trisagion, Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal One, have mercy on us. The chanting of the Trisagion at the Little Entrance is said to have been revealed to St. Proclus. On certain Great Feasts of the year, the Trisagion is replaced by another hymn. On Feasts of the Cross, the Trisagion is replaced by the hymn, Before Thy Cross, we bow down in worship, O Master, and Thy holy Resurrection we glorify. During the Trisagion, or its alternate hymn, the priest and deacon go to the High Place to prepare for the reading of the Epistle and Gospel. The Little Entrance symbolizes the Incarnation of Christ and his baptism in the Jordan River, the deacon representing John the Baptist, because the first coming of Christ was in humility, the priest is instructed in the rubrics to make the entrance with his hands at his side. They then kiss the Holy Table, and bow to each other, the deacon goes behind the Holy Table to the Table of Oblation and the priest comes out of the Holy Doors to bow to the people, asking their forgiveness
19.
Processional cross
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A processional cross is a crucifix or cross which is carried in Christian processions. Such crosses have a history, the Gregorian mission of Saint Augustine of Canterbury to England carried one before them like a standard. Other sources suggest that all churches were expected to possess one and they became detachable from their staffs, so that the earliest altar crosses were processional crosses placed on a stand at the end of the procession. In large churches the crux gemmata, or richly jewelled cross in metal, was the preferred style. Notable early examples include the Cross of Justin II, Cross of Lothair, in the Eastern Orthodox Church, there are different traditions surrounding the use of the processional cross. On its patronal feast day a church or monastery will often serve a moleben during which a cross-procession will take place around the outside of the church. The processional cross is used at funerals. During an outdoor procession, the cross will usually be preceded by a large processional lantern, religious banners and icons will follow. Then the chanters and clergy, and finally the people, when not in use, the processional cross may be placed in the sanctuary, behind the Holy Table. Some Orthodox processional crosses will have an icon of the Crucifixion on one side, the side with the Resurrection will face forward on Sundays and during the Paschal season, the Crucifixion will face forward on other days. In the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, processional crosses are used in processions preceded by incense, the cross is brought up to the altar by an altar server who has been chosen to serve as crucifer. Among Roman Catholics and High Church Anglicans, the cross will usually be a crucifix. In more Protestant oriented parishes, the cross will usually be an empty cross. The acolytes that follow then bow to the cross at the altar, the Cross represents the Lords presence at the altar
20.
Holy Fire
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The fire is also said to spontaneously light other lamps and candles around the church. Pilgrims and clergy claim that the Holy Fire does not burn them, while the Patriarch is inside the chapel kneeling in front of the stone, there is darkness but far from silence outside. One hears a rather loud mumbling, and the atmosphere is very tense, when the Patriarch comes out with the two candles lit and shining brightly in the darkness, a roar of jubilation resounds in the Church. Thousands of pilgrims as well as local Christians of all denominations gather in Jerusalem to partake, the Holy Fire is taken to certain Orthodox countries, such as Greece, by special flights, being received by church and state leaders. The historian Eusebius writes in his Vita Constantini, which dates from around 328, when the church wardens were about to fill the lamps to make them ready to celebrate the resurrection of Christ, they suddenly noticed that there was no more oil left to pour in the lamps. Upon this, Bishop Narcissus of Jerusalem ordered the candles to be filled with water and he then told the wardens to ignite them. In front of the eyes of all present every single lamp burned as if filled with pure oil, Christian Orthodox tradition holds that this miracle, which predates the construction of the Holy Sepulchre in the fourth century, is related to the Miracle of the Holy Fire. They admit that the two differ, as the former was a one-time occurrence while the Miracle of the Holy Fire occurs every year, however, they have in common the premise that God has produced fire where there, logically speaking, should have been none. Around 385 Egeria, a woman from Spain, traveled to Palestine. Despite these previous instances, the Holy Fire is believed to have been first recorded by the Christian pilgrim, Bernard the Wise, the newcomers evidently had not learnt the knack. In 1238, Pope Gregory IX denounced the Holy Fire as a fraud, similarly, many Christians have remained unconvinced by the occurrence. The Ottoman traveller, Evliya Celebi, claimed that a hidden zinc jar of naphtha was dripped down a chain by a hidden monk. Some Greeks have been critical of the Holy Fire, such as Adamantios Korais and he referred to the event as machinations of fraudulent priests and to the unholy light of Jerusalem as a profiteers miracle. In 2005, in a demonstration on Greek television, Michael Kalopoulos, author and historian of religion. The candles spontaneously ignited after approximately 20 minutes due to the properties of white phosphorus when in contact with air. According to Kalopoulos website, If phosphorus is dissolved in an organic solvent. Repeated experiments showed that the ignition can be delayed for half an hour or more, depending on the density of the solution and the solvent employed. Kalopoulos also points out that chemical reactions of this nature were well known in ancient times, quoting Strabo, the white naphtha is the one that ignites with fire
21.
Church of the Holy Sepulchre
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The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, a few steps away from the Muristan. The tomb is enclosed by the 18th-century shrine, called the Aedicule, within the church proper are the last four Stations of the Via Dolorosa, representing the final episodes of Jesus Passion. The main denominations sharing property over parts of the church are the Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox and Roman Catholic, and to a lesser degree the Egyptian Copts, Syriacs and Ethiopians. According to Eusebius of Caesarea, the Roman emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century AD built a dedicated to the goddess Venus in order to bury the cave in which Jesus had been buried. The first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great, ordered in about 325/326 that the temple be replaced by a church, during the building of the Church, Constantines mother, Helena, is believed to have rediscovered the tomb. Socrates Scholasticus, in his Ecclesiastical History, gives a description of the discovery. The remains are enveloped by a marble sheath placed some 500 years before to protect the ledge from Ottoman attacks. However, there are several thick window wells extending through the marble sheath and they appear to reveal an underlying limestone rock, which may be part of the original living rock of the tomb. The church was starting in 325/326, and was consecrated on 13 September 335. From pilgrim reports it seems that the housing the tomb of Jesus was freestanding at first. Each year, the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates the anniversary of the consecration of the Church of the Resurrection on 13 September and this building was damaged by fire in May of 614 when the Sassanid Empire, under Khosrau II, invaded Jerusalem and captured the True Cross. In 630, the Emperor Heraclius restored it and rebuilt the church after recapturing the city, after Jerusalem came under Arab rule, it remained a Christian church, with the early Muslim rulers protecting the citys Christian sites. A story reports that the Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab visited the church and stopped to pray on the balcony and he feared that future generations would misinterpret this gesture, taking it as a pretext to turn the church into a mosque. Eutychius added that Umar wrote a decree prohibiting Muslims from praying at this location, the building suffered severe damage due to an earthquake in 746. Early in the century, another earthquake damaged the dome of the Anastasis. The damage was repaired in 810 by Patriarch Thomas, in the year 841, the church suffered a fire. In 935, the Orthodox Christians prevented the construction of a Muslim mosque adjacent the Church, in 938, a new fire damaged the inside of the basilica and came close to the rotunda. In 966, due to a defeat of Muslim armies in the region of Syria, the doors and roof were burnt, and the Patriarch John VII was murdered
22.
Great Saturday
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The Paschal cycle in the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches, is the cycle of the moveable feasts built around Pascha. The cycle consists of ten weeks before and seven weeks after Pascha. The ten weeks before Pascha are known as the period of the Triodion and this period includes the three weeks preceding Great Lent, the forty days of Lent, and Holy Week. The 50 days following Pascha are called the Pentecostarion, the Sunday of each week has a special commemoration, named for the Gospel reading assigned to that day. Certain other weekdays have special commemorations of their own, the entire cycle revolves around Pascha. The weeks before Pascha end on Sunday and this is because everything in the Lenten period is looking forward towards Pascha. Starting on Pascha, the weeks again begin on Sunday, while the Pentecostarion closes after All Saints Sunday, the Paschal cycle continues throughout the entire year, until the beginning of the next Pre-Lenten period. The Tone of the Week, the Epistle and Gospel readings at the Divine Liturgy, and the 11 Matins Gospels with their accompanying hymns are dependent on it
23.
Holy Week
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Holy Week in Christianity is the week just before Easter. In the West, it is also the last week of Lent, and includes Palm Sunday, Holy Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday. It does not include Easter Sunday, although traditions observing the Easter Triduum may overlap or displace part of Holy Week or Easter itself within that additional liturgical period, Holy Week in the Christian year is the week immediately before Easter. In this text, abstinence from flesh is commanded for all the days, dionysius Alexandrinus in his canonical epistle, refers to the 91 fasting days implying that the observance of them had already become an established usage in his time. The Codex Theodosianus, however, is explicit in ordering that all actions at law should cease, of the particular days of the great week the earliest to emerge into special prominence was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum Magnum with its vigil, which in the church was associated with an expectation that the second advent would occur on an Easter Sunday. Other writings that refer to related traditions of the early Church include, most notably, The Pilgrimage of Etheria, today, in the Western Christian Church, among Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians and Roman Catholics, the liturgies used for Holy Week are nearly identical. Holy Week begins with Palm Sunday, which may also be known as Passion Sunday in some denominations, traditionally, Palm Sunday commemorates the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, one of the few events described in all four canonical gospels. As described in the accounts, Jesuss entry into Jerusalem was noted by the present who shouted praises. In the Roman Rite, before 1955 it was simply as Palm Sunday. From 1955 to 1971 it was called Second Sunday in Passiontide or Palm Sunday, among Lutherans and Anglicans, the day is known as the Sunday of the Passion, Palm Sunday. In many liturgical denominations, to commemorate the Messiahs entry into Jerusalem to accomplish his paschal mystery, immediately following this great time of celebration over the entrance of Jesus into Jerusalem, he begins his journey to the cross. The blessing is followed by a procession or solemn entrance into the church. The Mass or service of worship includes a reading of the Passion. The palms were then blessed with five prayers, and a procession went out of the church and on its return included a ceremony for the reopening of the doors, after this the normal Mass was celebrated. The days between Palm Sunday and Holy Thursday are known as Holy Monday, Holy Tuesday, and Holy Wednesday. Among them On Monday, some observe the anointing of Jesus at Bethany, other events which the Gospels tell of which may have occurred on this day include cursing the fig tree and the Cleansing of the Temple. On Tuesday, some observe Jesus predictions of his own death, as described in, on Wednesday, some observe the story of Judas arranging his betrayal of Jesus with the high priests
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Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
25.
Heredity
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Heredity is the genetic information passing for traits from parents to their offspring, either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction. This is the process by which a cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism. Through heredity, variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause some species to evolve through the selection of specific phenotype traits. The study of heredity in biology is called genetics, which includes the field of epigenetics, in humans, eye color is an example of an inherited characteristic, an individual might inherit the brown-eye trait from one of the parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the set of genes within an organisms genome is called its genotype. The complete set of traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits arise from the interaction of its genotype with the environment, as a result, many aspects of an organisms phenotype are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a persons phenotype and sunlight, thus, suntans are not passed on to peoples children, heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a polymer that incorporates four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specifies the genetic information, before a cell divides through mitosis, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. A portion of a DNA molecule that specifies a single unit is called a gene. Within cells, the strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes. Organisms inherit genetic material from their parents in the form of homologous chromosomes, the specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles, if a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism. However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by multiple interacting genes within. Recent findings have confirmed important examples of changes that cannot be explained by direct agency of the DNA molecule. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes, Heritability may also occur at even larger scales
26.
House of Habsburg
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The House of Habsburg, also called House of Hapsburg, or House of Austria, was one of the most influential royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740, from the sixteenth century, following the reign of Charles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Although they ruled distinct territories, they maintained close relations. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland, in the canton of Aargau, by Count Radbot of Klettgau. His grandson Otto II was the first to take the name as his own. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, by 1276, Count Radbots seventh generation descendant Rudolph of Habsburg had moved the familys power base from Habsburg Castle to the Duchy of Austria. Rudolph had become King of Germany in 1273, and the dynasty of the House of Habsburg was truly entrenched in 1276 when Rudolph became ruler of Austria, which the Habsburgs ruled until 1918. A series of dynastic marriages enabled the family to expand its domains to include Burgundy, Spain and its colonial empire, Bohemia, Hungary. In the 16th century, the separated into the senior Habsburg Spain and the junior Habsburg Monarchy branches. The House of Habsburg became extinct in the 18th century, the senior Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine, the new successor house styled itself formally as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, although it was often referred to as simply the House of Habsburg. His grandson Radbot, Count of Habsburg founded the Habsburg Castle, the origins of the castles name, located in what is now the Swiss canton of Aargau, are uncertain. There is disagreement on whether the name is derived from the High German Habichtsburg, or from the Middle High German word hab/hap meaning ford, the first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108. The Habsburg Castle was the seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. The Habsburgs expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges, in the 13th century, the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia. They were also able to high positions in the church hierarchy for their members. Territorially, they often profited from the extinction of other families such as the House of Kyburg. By the second half of the 13th century, count Rudolph IV had become one of the most influential territorial lords in the area between the Vosges Mountains and Lake Constance
27.
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
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Charles V was ruler of both the Spanish Empire from 1516 and the Holy Roman Empire from 1519, as well as of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1506. He voluntarily stepped down from these and other positions by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556, through inheritance, he brought together under his rule extensive territories in western, central, and southern Europe, and the Spanish colonies in the Americas and Asia. As a result, his domains spanned nearly four square kilometers and were the first to be described as the empire on which the sun never sets. Charles was the heir of three of Europes leading dynasties, the Houses of Valois-Burgundy, Habsburg, and Trastámara and he inherited the Burgundian Netherlands and the Franche-Comté as heir of the House of Valois-Burgundy. From his own dynasty, the Habsburgs, he inherited Austria and he was also elected to succeed his Habsburg grandfather, Maximilian I, as Holy Roman Emperor, a title held by the Habsburgs since 1440. Charles was the first king to rule Castile and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, the personal union, under Charles, of the Holy Roman Empire with the Spanish Empire resulted in the closest Europe would come to a universal monarchy since the death of Louis the Pious. France recovered and the wars continued for the remainder of Charless reign, enormously expensive, they led to the development of the first modern professional army in Europe, the Tercios. The struggle with the Ottoman Empire was fought in Hungary and the Mediterranean, after seizing most of eastern and central Hungary in 1526, the Ottomans’ advance was halted at their failed Siege of Vienna in 1529. A lengthy war of attrition, conducted on his behalf by his younger brother Ferdinand, in the Mediterranean, although there were some successes, Charles was unable to prevent the Ottomans’ increasing naval dominance and the piratical activity of the Barbary Corsairs. Charles opposed the Reformation and in Germany he was in conflict with the Protestant Princes of the Schmalkaldic League who were motivated by religious and political opposition to him. Once the rebellions were quelled the essential Castilian and Burgundian territories remained mostly loyal to Charles throughout his rule, Charles’s Spanish dominions were the chief source of his power and wealth, and they became increasingly important as his reign progressed. In the Americas, Charles sanctioned the conquest by Castillian conquistadors of the Aztec, Castillian control was extended across much of South and Central America. The resulting vast expansion of territory and the flows of South American silver to Castile had profound long term effects on Spain. Charles was only 56 when he abdicated, but after 34 years of rule he was physically exhausted and sought the peace of a monastery. Upon Charles’s abdications, the Holy Roman Empire was inherited by his younger brother Ferdinand, the Spanish Empire, including the possessions in the Netherlands and Italy, was inherited by Charles’s son Philip II. The two empires would remain allies until the 18th century, Charles was born in 1500 as the eldest son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile in the Flemish city of Ghent, which was part of the Habsburg Netherlands. The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life and he was tutored by William de Croÿ, and also by Adrian of Utrecht. He also gained a decent command of German, though he never spoke it as well as French, a witticism sometimes attributed to Charles is, I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men and German to my horse
28.
Coleman Lantern
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The Coleman Lantern is a line of pressure lamps first introduced by the Coleman Company in 1914. This led to a series of lamps that were made to burn kerosene or gasoline. Current models use kerosene, gasoline, Coleman fuel or propane, over the years more than 50 million of the lanterns have been sold throughout the world. In 1900, William Coffin Coleman was selling high pressure gasoline fueled lamps and these lamps, notably The Efficient Pendant Arc lamp No. 6, were manufactured by Irby & Gilliland in Memphis, Tennessee, however, poor sales led him to acquire the patent for the lamp and redesign it. He began to produce the lamp in 1903, and in 1914 he introduced the Coleman Lantern, the double-mantle models 220 and 228 were amongst the most widespread and were in production from 1927 to 1979
29.
Deutsche Reichsbahn
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The company was founded in 1920 as the Deutsche Reichseisenbahnen, and changed its name to German National Railway on 27 June 1921. DR was founded when the Weimar Republic, formally known as Deutsches Reich, took control of the German railways. In 1924 it was reorganised under the aegis of the Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft, a private railway company. In 1937 the railway was reorganised again as a state authority, after the Anschluss in 1938 the DR also took over the Bundesbahn Österreich. The East and West German states were founded in 1949, East Germany took over the control of the DR on its territory and continued to use the traditional name Deutsche Reichsbahn, while the railway in West Germany became the Deutsche Bundesbahn. The Austrian Österreichische Bundesbahnen was founded in 1945, and was given its present name in 1947, after the end of the First World War this national imperial railway was taken back by France. A similar attempt failed in 1875 as a result of opposition from the middle powers when Albert von Maybach presented a draft Reich Railway Act to the Bundesrat. In the wake of the stipulations of the Weimar Constitution of 11 August 1919 the state treaty on the foundation of the Deutsche Reichseisenbahnen came into force on 1 April 1920. This resulted in the merger of the state railways of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg, Baden. Following the plans publication, on 12 February 1924 the Reich government announced the creation of the Deutsche Reichsbahn as an enterprise under the Reich Ministry of Transport. The aim was to earn profits which, in accordance with the Dawes Plan, were to be used to contribute to Germanys war reparations and these terms were later amended in the Young Plan. Nevertheless, the Great Depression and the payment of war reparations put a considerable strain on the Reichsbahn. Not until the Lausanne Conference of 1932 was the Reichsbahn released from its financial obligations, in total, about 3.87 billion Goldmarks was paid in reparations to the Allied powers. The stock already in use had been inherited from the state railways and comprised a great number of designs. In fact, the DRG was unable to procure new stock in the numbers it wanted to both for reasons and due to delays in upgrading the lines to carry higher axle loads. The locomotive classes taken over from the old railways, especially those from the Prussia. They included, for example, the Prussian P8, Prussian P10, Prussian G12, the Bavarian S 3/6 express locomotive even continued in production until 1930. Not until the procurement programme for the wartime Kriegslokomotiven were new locomotives built in large numbers
30.
Gas mantle
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An incandescent gas mantle, gas mantle or Welsbach mantle is a device for generating bright white light when heated by a flame. The name refers to its heat source in gas lights which filled the streets of Europe and North America in the late nineteenth century. Today it is used in portable camping lanterns, pressure lanterns. Thorium dioxide was commonly a component, being radioactive it has led to concerns about the safety of those involved in manufacturing mantles. Normal use, however, poses minimal health risk, the mantle is a roughly pear-shaped fabric bag, made from silk, ramie-based artificial silk, or rayon. A mantle will glow brightly in the spectrum while emitting little infrared radiation. The rare earth oxides and actinide in the mantle have a low emissivity in the infrared but have high emissivity in the visible spectrum, there is also some evidence that the emission is enhanced by candoluminescence, the emission of light from the combustion products before they reach thermal equilibrium. The mantle aids the process by keeping the flame small. This concentration of combustion inside the mantle improves the transfer of heat from the flame to the mantle, the mantle shrinks after all the fabric material has burned away and becomes very fragile after its first use. For centuries, artificial light has been generated using open flames, limelight was invented in the 1820s, but the temperature required to produce visible light through black body radiation alone was too high to be practical for small lights. Many early attempts used platinum-iridium gauze soaked in metal nitrates, but these were not successful because of the high cost of these materials, the first effective mantle was the Clamond basket in 1881, named after its inventor. This device was made from a cleverly produced matrix of magnesium oxide which did not need to be supported by a wire cage. The modern gas mantle was one of the inventions of Carl Auer von Welsbach, a chemist who studied rare earth elements in the 1880s. Ignaz Kreidl worked with him on his experiments to create the Welsbach mantle. His first process used a mixture of 60% magnesium oxide, 20% lanthanum oxide and 20% yttrium oxide, which he called Actinophor and these original mantles gave off a green-tinted light and were not very successful. Carl Auer von Welsbachs first company established a factory in Atzgersdorf in 1887, after introducing this new mantle commercially in 1892, it quickly spread throughout Europe. The gas mantle remained an important part of lighting until the widespread introduction of electric lighting in the early 1900s. As the heating continues, the nitrites finally decompose into a mesh of solid oxides of very high melting point
31.
Incandescence
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Incandescence is the emission of electromagnetic radiation from a hot body as a result of its temperature. The term derives from the Latin verb incandescere, to glow white, incandescence is a special case of thermal radiation. Incandescence usually refers specifically to visible light, while thermal radiation refers also to infrared or any electromagnetic radiation. For a detailed discussion of the intensity and spectrum of incandescence, see the article and this limit is called the Draper point. The incandescence does not vanish below that temperature, but it is too weak in the spectrum to be perceivable. At higher temperatures, the substance becomes brighter and its changes from red towards white. Incandescence is exploited in incandescent light bulbs, in which a filament is heated to a temperature at which a fraction of the falls in the visible spectrum. The majority of the radiation however, is emitted in the part of the spectrum. If the filament could be hotter, efficiency would increase, however. More efficient light sources, such as fluorescent lamps and LEDs, sunlight is the incandescence of the white hot surface of the sun. The word incandescent is also used figuratively to describe a person who is so angry that they are imagined to glow or burn red hot or white hot, red heat List of light sources Figurative use, Rangers 1 Unirea-Urziceni 4 etc
32.
Coleman fuel
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Coleman fuel is a petroleum naphtha product marketed by The Coleman Company. Historically called white gas, it is a liquid petroleum fuel usually sold in one gallon cans and it is used primarily for fueling lanterns and camp stoves. Additionally, it is a fuel for fire dancing. Originally, it was simply casing-head gas or drip gas which has similar properties, Drip gas was sold commercially at gas stations and hardware stores in North America until the early 1950s. The white gas sold today is a product but is produced at refineries with the benzene removed. Coleman fuel is a mixture of cyclohexane, nonane, octane, heptane, and pentane. Though Coleman fuel has an rating of 50 to 55. And like gasoline, it should not be used as a substitute for kerosene or diesel fuel, naphtha Drip gas White gas Colemans official website
33.
Coleman Company
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Coleman Company, Inc. is an American company that specializes in outdoor recreation products, especially camping gear. It was founded by William Coffin Coleman, who began selling gasoline pressure lamps in 1900 in Kingfisher and he moved to Wichita, Kansas, in 1902. Coleman is currently owned by Newell Brands, in January 2005, Jarden acquired American Household, Inc, for approximately $845 million. The corporation owned the Coleman Company, and Sunbeam Products, Inc, Brands acquired as part of this acquisition included Coleman, First Alert, Sunbeam, Mr. Coffee, and Oster. For background, in March 1998, Sunbeam Corporation acquired The Coleman Company, Inc. in December 2002, Sunbeam Corporation filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy and canceled its common stock. When it emerged from bankruptcy, Sunbeam changed its name to American Household, the Coleman Companys headquarters are in Wichita, and it also has facilities in Texas. There are approximately 3,600 employees but most are not manufacturing jobs, the majority of their goods are now manufactured in China. Throughout its history, Coleman has produced a variety of equipment primarily aimed at the camping. Perhaps their most famous product is the Coleman Lantern, a series of lamps that were made to burn gasoline. Current models use Coleman fuel or propane and use one or two mantles to produce a white light. Company historians claim that in 1905, the company provided a demonstration for the 1905 Cooper vs. Fairmount football game, Coleman gas lamps were provided to play the first night football game west of the Mississippi River. In the past, the company produced a range of cooking stoves. Today, Coleman also manufactures camp stoves, sleeping bags, coolers, hot tubs, generators, watches, sandals, tents, dog toys and they also make a line of small boats, including canoes, pontoon boats, johnboats and the unique scanoe. In the past they also sold pop-up travel trailers, Skiroule snowmobiles, the company has recently started producing a backyard barbecue grill, which is sold at Canadian Tire. A separate company, Coleman Heating and Air Conditioning, sells home heating, Coleman Heating and Air Conditioning is owned by Johnson Controls, and uses the Coleman name and logo under license. Best Family Tents Coleman Weathermaster 6 Person Tent Official website Coleman Company History W. C. Coleman Biography from Kansas Historical Society
34.
Gasoline
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Gasoline /ˈɡæsəliːn/, known as petrol /ˈpɛtrəl/ outside North America, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the distillation of petroleum. On average, a 42-gallon barrel of oil yields about 19 US gallons of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery. The characteristic of a gasoline blend to resist igniting too early is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating, sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons. Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment. Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from tanks, from spills. As an example of efforts to control leakage, many storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens, Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation. The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany, the fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point near 85 °C, it was suited for early carburetors. The development of a spray nozzle carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels, further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking. In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Thomas Midgley Jr. and Boyd and this innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, the 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems, Gasoline is the term that is used in North America to refer to the most popular automobile fuel. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first use to 1863, when it was spelled gasolene and it was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as Cazeline and Gazeline. Variant spellings of gasoline had been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century, Petrol is the preferred term in most Commonwealth countries
35.
Battery (electricity)
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An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow. It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones. According to a 2005 estimate, the battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year. Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work. The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800. This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid. These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells
36.
Fluorescent lamp
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A fluorescent lamp or a fluorescent tube is a low pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor which produces ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp to glow. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into useful light much more efficiently than incandescent lamps, the typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable light output. Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in the same sizes as incandescents and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes. Because they contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste, the United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends that fluorescent lamps be segregated from general waste for recycling or safe disposal, and some jurisdictions require recycling of them. Fluorescence of certain rocks and other substances had been observed for hundreds of years before its nature was understood, by the middle of the 19th century, experimenters had observed a radiant glow emanating from partially evacuated glass vessels through which an electric current passed. The explanation relied on the nature of electricity and light phenomena as developed by the British scientists Michael Faraday in the 1840s and James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s. Little more was done with this phenomenon until 1856 when German glassblower Heinrich Geissler created a vacuum pump that evacuated a glass tube to an extent not previously possible. Geissler invented the first gas-discharge lamp, the Geissler tube, consisting of an evacuated glass tube with a metal electrode at either end. When a high voltage was applied between the electrodes, the inside of the lit up with a glow discharge. By putting different chemicals inside, the tubes could be made to produce a variety of colors, more important, however, was its contribution to scientific research. One of the first scientists to experiment with a Geissler tube was Julius Plücker who systematically described in 1858 the luminescent effects that occurred in a Geissler tube and he also made the important observation that the glow in the tube shifted position when in proximity to an electromagnetic field. Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observed in 1859 that certain substances gave off light when they were placed in a Geissler tube and he went on to apply thin coatings of luminescent materials to the surfaces of these tubes. Fluorescence occurred, but the tubes were very inefficient and had an operating life. Inquiries that began with the Geissler tube continued as even better vacuums were produced, the most famous was the evacuated tube used for scientific research by William Crookes. That tube was evacuated by the highly effective mercury vacuum pump created by Hermann Sprengel, Research conducted by Crookes and others ultimately led to the discovery of the electron in 1897 by J. J. Thomson and X-rays in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen. While Becquerel was interested primarily in conducting research into fluorescence. Although Edison lost interest in fluorescent lighting, one of his employees was able to create a gas-based lamp that achieved a measure of commercial success
37.
LED
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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
38.
Propane
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Propane is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula C3H8, a gas, at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is used as a fuel for engines, oxy-gas torches, portable stoves. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases, the others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof. Propane was first identified as a component in gasoline by Walter O. Snelling of the U. S. Bureau of Mines in 1910. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as wild because of the vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, the New York Times reported on Snellings work with liquefied gas and that a steel bottle will carry enough gas to light an ordinary home for three weeks. It was during this time that Snelling, in cooperation with Frank P. Peterson, Chester Kerr, together, they established American Gasol Co. the first commercial marketer of propane. Snelling had produced relatively pure propane by 1911, and on March 25,1913, a separate method of producing LP gas through compression was created by Frank Peterson and its patent granted on July 2,1912. The 1920s saw increased production of LP gas, with the first year of recorded production totaling 223,000 US gallons in 1922. In 1927, annual marketed LP gas production reached 1 million US gallons, and by 1935, major industry developments in the 1930s included the introduction of railroad tank car transport, gas odorization, and the construction of local bottle-filling plants. The year 1945 marked the first year that annual LP gas sales reached a billion gallons, by 1947, 62% of all U. S. homes had been equipped with either natural gas or propane for cooking. In 1950,1,000 propane-fueled buses were ordered by the Chicago Transit Authority, in 2004 it was reported to be a growing $8-billion to $10-billion industry with over 15 billion US gallons of propane being used annually in the U. S. The prop- root found in propane and names of compounds with three-carbon chains was derived from propionic acid. Propane is produced as a by-product of two processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil. The supply of propane cannot easily be adjusted to meet increased demand, about 90% of U. S. propane is domestically produced. The United States imports about 10% of the propane consumed each year, with about 70% of that coming from Canada via pipeline, the remaining 30% of imported propane comes to the United States from other sources via ocean transport. After it is produced, North American propane is stored in salt caverns
39.
Algeciras
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Algeciras is a port city in the south of Spain, and is the largest city on the Bay of Gibraltar. The Port of Algeciras is one of the largest ports in Europe and it is situated 20 km north-east of Tarifa on the Río de la Miel, which is the southernmost river of the Iberian peninsula and continental Europe. In 2015, it had a population of 118,920, the area of the city has been populated since prehistory, and the earliest remains belong to Neanderthal populations from the Paleolithic. Recently it has proposed that the site of Iulia Transducta was the Villa Vieja of Algeciras. After being destroyed by the Goths and their Vandal allies, the city was founded again in April 711 by the invading Moors, as the first city created by the Amazigh on the occupied Spanish soil. In the year 859 AD Viking troops on board 62 drekars and commanded by the leaders Hastein, after looting the houses of the rich, they burnt the Aljama mosque and the Banderas mosque. Reorganized near the medina, the managed to recover the city and make the invaders run away. It enjoyed a period of independence as a taifa state from 1035-1058. It was named al-Jazirah al-Khadra after the offshore Isla Verde, the name is derived from this original Arabic name. In 1278, Algeciras was besieged by the forces of the Kingdom of Castile under the command of Alfonso X of Castile and his son and this siege was the first of a series of attempts to take the city and ended in failure for the Castilian forces. An armada sent by Castile was also annihilated whilst trying to blockade the citys harbor, after many centuries of Muslim rule, the tide of the reconquista arrived at Algeciras. In July 1309 Ferdinand IV of Castile laid siege to Algeciras as well as Gibraltar, the latter fell into Christian hands, but Muslim Algeciras held on for the following three decades, until Alfonso XI of Castile resumed its siege. In March 1344, after years of siege, Algeciras surrendered. On winning the city, Alfonso XI made it the seat of a new diocese, established by Pope Clement VIs bull Gaudemus et exultamus of 30 April 1344, no longer a residential bishopric, Aliezira is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. The city was retaken by the Moors in 1368 and it was destroyed on the orders of Muhammed V of Granada. The site was abandoned, but was refounded in 1704 by refugees from Gibraltar following the territorys capture by Anglo-Dutch forces in the War of the Spanish Succession. It was fortified to guard against British raids with installations such as the Fuerte de Isla Verde built to guard key points, the city was rebuilt on its present rectangular plan by Charles III of Spain in 1760. In July 1801, the French and Spanish navies fought the British Royal Navy offshore in the Battle of Algeciras, the city became the scene for settling a major international crisis as it hosted the Algeciras Conference in 1906
40.
Andalusia
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Andalusia is an autonomous community in southern Spain. It is the most populated and the second largest in area of the communities in the country. The Andalusian autonomous community is recognised as historical nationality. The territory is divided into eight provinces, Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga and its capital is the city of Seville. Andalusia is the only European region with both Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines, the small British overseas territory of Gibraltar shares a three-quarter-mile land border with the Andalusian province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar. The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, in the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spains Meseta Central. To the south the geographic subregion of Upper Andalusia lies mostly within the Baetic System, the name Andalusia is derived from the Arabic word Al-Andalus. Including an intense relationship with Naples, Italy, Andalusia has been a traditionally agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. However, the growth of the community especially in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain, the region has, however, a rich culture and a strong cultural identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin and these include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles. Andalusias hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with cities like Córdoba, Late evening temperatures can sometimes stay around 35 °C until close to midnight, with daytime highs of over 40 °C common. Seville also has the highest average temperature in mainland Spain and mainland Europe. Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia. However, the etymology of the name Al-Andalus is disputed, the Spanish place name Andalucía was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya, the form of the Arabic language al-Andalus. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated, but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this came under Muslim rule. Like the Arabic term al-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the territory designated by these terms today. To designate the territories the Christians had regained by that time in the Guadalquivir valley and in the Kingdoms of Granada, in a document from 1253, Alfonso X styled himself Rey de Castilla, León y de toda Andalucía
41.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
42.
Light fixture
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A light fixture, light fitting, or luminaire is an electrical device used to create artificial light by use of an electric lamp. All light fixtures have a body and a light socket to hold the lamp. Fixtures may also have a switch to control the light, either attached to the body or attached to the power cable. Permanent light fixtures, such as dining room chandeliers, may use a switch to turn them on and off, as such. Fixtures require a connection to a power source, typically AC mains power. Permanent lighting fixtures may be directly wired, moveable lamps have a plug and cord so that they can be plugged into a wall socket. A wide variety of light fixtures are created for use in the automotive lighting industry, aerospace. Portable light fixtures are often called lamps, as in table lamp or desk lamp, in technical terminology, the lamp is the light source, which is typically called the light bulb. The term luminaire is recommended by the International Electrotechnical Commission for technical use, fixture manufacturing began soon after production of the incandescent light bulb. Light fixtures are classified by how the fixture is installed, the function or lamp type. Table lamp fixtures, standard lamp fixtures, and office task light luminaires, balanced-arm lamp is a spot light with an adjustable arm such as anglepoise or Luxo L1. Gooseneck lamp Nightlight Floor Lamp Torch lamp or torchières are floor lamps with an upward facing shade and they provide general lighting to the rest of the room. These can be flush mount fixtures which are mounted right up against the ceiling, the ceiling-mounted version is often called a downlight. Cans with a variety of lamps — this term is jargon for inexpensive downlighting products that are recessed into the ceiling, the name comes from the shape of the housing. The term pot lights is often used in Canada and parts of the US, cove light — recessed into the ceiling in a long box against a wall. Troffer — recessed fluorescent light fixtures, usually rectangular in shape to fit into a drop ceiling grid, track lighting fixture — individual fixtures can be positioned anywhere along the track, which provides electric power. Under-cabinet light — mounted below kitchen wall cabinets Display Case or Showcase light — shows merchandise on display within a case such as jewelry, grocery stores. Ceiling fan - May sometimes have a light, often referred to as a light kit mounted to it
43.
Landscape lighting
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Since the 17th centurys introductions of new interior illumination fuels, the technology has then been used outdoors and in gardens. As menstruall systems were developed for their delivery, Gas lighting of the 19th century and electric light of the 20th century became part of exterior functioning. Conventionally generated and sourced electricity remains the most used source for lighting in the early twenty-first century. The increasing use of LEDs, solar power, low voltage fixtures, energy efficient lamps, step lights - recessed into catherine risers rope lighting - fiber optics MR16 - 10w, 20w, 35w, 50w. Come in a variety of angles from narrow spot. Bi Pin - 10w, 20w, 35w, 50w
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