1.
Damocles (targeting pod)
–
The Damocles is a 3rd generation targeting pod, modular, eye-safe laser, high performance pod selected by the French Air Force for its attack fighter aircraft fleet. Damocles is made by Thales Group produced in Élancourt, France and it also features a reconnaissance capability with instant transmission of imagery to ground stations. Overall robustness and ease of maintenance have been improved and it is capable of guiding laser weapons to their extreme range and identifying armoured vehicle targets at 27 km also conducting post-strike analysis at the same range. The Royal Saudi Air Force is flying the Damocles on its Tornado, comparative trials involving Damocles and the Ural Optical and Mechanical Plant -produced Sapsan and Solux targeting pods went in favour of the French design
Damocles (targeting pod)
–
A Damocles pod on a Dassault Rafale at the Paris Air Show 2009
2.
Forward looking infrared
–
Forward looking infrared cameras, typically used on military and civilian aircraft, use a thermographic camera that senses infrared radiation. They can be used to help pilots and drivers steer their vehicles at night and in fog, the wavelength of infrared that thermal imaging cameras detect differs significantly from that of night vision, which operates in the visible light and near-infrared ranges. Infrared light falls into two ranges, long-wave and medium-wave. Long-wave infrared cameras, sometimes called far infrared, operate at 8 to 12 μm, and can see heat sources, such as hot engine parts or human body heat, a few miles away. Longer-distance viewing is more difficult with LWIR because the infrared light is absorbed, scattered. Some long-wave cameras require their detector to be cooled, typically for several minutes before use. Many thermal imagers, including some forward-looking infrared cameras are also uncooled, medium-wave cameras operate in the 3-to-5 μm range. These can see almost as well, since those frequencies are affected by water-vapor absorption. Many camera systems use image processing to improve the image quality. Infrared imaging sensor arrays often have wildly inconsistent sensitivities from pixel to pixel, to remedy this, the response of each pixel is measured at the factory, and a transform, most often linear, maps the measured input signal to an output level. Some companies offer advanced fusion technologies that blend a visible-spectrum image with an image to produce better results than a single-spectrum image alone. Thermal imaging cameras, such as the Raytheon AN/AAQ-26, are used in a variety of applications, including vessels, fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters. In warfare, they have three distinct advantages over other imaging technologies, second, it sees radiation in the infrared light spectrum, which is difficult to camouflage. Third, these systems can see through smoke, fog, haze. Pushbroom systems typically have been used on aircraft and satellites, such systems cannot be used for real-time imaging, and must look perpendicular to the direction of travel. In 1972, TI invented the Common Module concept, greatly reducing cost, piloting of aircraft in low visibility conditions Pinpoint sources of ignition during firefighting operations Monitoring active volcanoes. Detecting heat in faulty electrical joints, also, older camera designs used rotating mirrors to scan the image to a small sensor. More modern cameras no longer use this method, the simplification helps reduce cost, uncooled technology available in many EVS products have reduced the costs to fractions of the price of older cooled technology, with similar performance
Forward looking infrared
–
A
Thales Damocles (targeting pod) FLIR Targeting Pod.
Forward looking infrared
–
FLIR imagery from a U.S. Navy helicopter: Alleged drug traffickers are arrested by Colombian naval forces.
Forward looking infrared
–
A FLIR pod on a French Air Force helicopter
Forward looking infrared
–
A FLIR system on a U.S. Air Force helicopter during search and rescue operation
3.
Laser
–
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently, spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances, Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i. e. they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond, Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a great distance. Temporal coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a great distance along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position. Lasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum, most single wavelength lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly differing frequencies, often not in a single polarization. Although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously, there are some lasers that are not single spatial mode and consequently have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit. However, all devices are classified as lasers based on their method of producing light. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies. The word laser started as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, in the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser, this term is now obsolete. A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been noted that the acronym LOSER, for light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation. With the widespread use of the acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as laser amplifiers. The back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning to produce light, especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser. Further use of the laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser
Laser
–
United States Air Force laser experiment
Laser
–
Red (660 & 635 nm), green (532 & 520 nm) and blue-violet (445 & 405 nm) lasers
Laser
–
Laser beams in fog, reflected on a car windshield
Laser
4.
Missiles
–
In modern language, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as a rocket. Missiles have four components, targeting or missile guidance, flight system, engine. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes, surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-air missiles, all known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside a rocket engine, jet engine, or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles. In ordinary British-English usage predating guided weapons, a missile is any thrown object, the word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning to send. In military usage, munitions projected towards a target are broadly categorised as follows, a powered, unguided munition is known as a rocket. Unpowered munitions not fired from a gun are called bombs whether guided or not, munitions that are fired from a gun are known as projectiles whether guided or not. If explosive, they are more specifically as shells or mortar bombs. Powered munitions that travel through water are called torpedoes, hand grenades are not usually classed as missiles. The first missiles to be used operationally were a series of missiles developed by Nazi Germany in World War II, most famous of these are the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, however, these early systems in World War II were only built in small numbers. Guided missiles have a number of different system components, Targeting or missile guidance Flight system Engine Warhead Missiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infrared, lasers or radio waves and this radiation may emanate from the target, it may be provided by the missile itself, or it may be provided by a friendly third party. The first two are known as fire-and-forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV guidance—using either visible light or infrared—in order to see the target, the picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target or by a computer doing much the same job. One of the more bizarre guidance methods instead used a pigeon to steer the missile to its target, many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement. Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target and using a system such as INS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the current position and the position of the target
Missiles
–
A
V-2 missile launch by the
British during
Operation Backfire
Missiles
–
V-1 missile
Missiles
–
Missile Maintainer inspects missile guidance system of the LGM-30G Minuteman ICBM
Missiles
–
An
R-36 ballistic missile launch at a
Soviet silo
5.
Artillery
–
Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company
Artillery
–
French naval piece of the late 19th century
Artillery
–
French soldiers in the
Franco-Prussian War 1870–71.
Artillery
–
British 64 Pounder Rifled Muzzle-Loaded (RML) Gun on a Moncrieff disappearing mount, at Scaur Hill Fort,
Bermuda. This is a part of a fixed battery, meant to protect against over-land attack and to serve as coastal artillery.
Artillery
–
7-person gun crew firing a US
M777 Light Towed Howitzer,
War in Afghanistan, 2009.
6.
Paveway
–
Paveway is a series of laser-guided bombs. Pave or PAVE is sometimes used as an acronym for precision avionics vectoring equipment, literally, electronics for controlling the speed, Laser guidance is a form of Pave. The Paveway series of laser-guided bombs was developed by Texas Instruments starting in 1964, the first test weapon, using a M117 bomb as the warhead, took place in April 1965. Prototype weapons were sent to Vietnam for combat testing starting in 1968, there are front control canards and rear wings for stability. The weapon guides on reflected laser energy, the seeker detects the light of the designating laser. Both Paveway I and Paveway II use a simple control system. This had relatively little effect on accuracy, but expends energy quickly, as a consequence, most users release Paveway I and II weapons in a ballistic trajectory, activating the laser designator only late in the weapons flight to refine the impact point. In 1976, the USAF issued a requirement for a new generation, dubbed Paveway III, the Paveway III system used a much more sophisticated seeker with a wider field of view and proportional guidance, minimizing the energy loss of course corrections. Paveway III has a longer glide range and greater accuracy than Paveway II. Although Paveway III kits were developed for the smaller Mk 82 weapons, Paveway III guidance kits were also used on the GBU-28/B penetration bomb fielded at the close of the 1991 Gulf War. The Paveway III system was used during the Indian offensive in the Kargil War of 1999 by the Indian Air Force with the Mirage 2000 as a launch platform. Raytheon, the provider of Paveway III variants, is currently delivering both standard and enhanced versions to the US Government and foreign customers. Existing LGBs in US service can be upgraded to Dual Mode Laser Guided Bombs by adding GPS receivers which enable all weather employment, Raytheons version, the Enhanced Paveway II, has been contracted both within the US and abroad. Raytheons advanced Paveway IV500 lb bomb has been in service since 2008 with Britains RAF, in 2017 the F-35 program office rushed to field the GBU-49 to use its ability to strike moving targets and fill the gap left by the early retirement of the CBU-103. Developed at the time as GBU-24, with some limited export success. The latest warhead used in the GBU-28/B series is the BLU-122/B, Paveway IV –500 lb bomb GBU-48 Enhanced Paveway II – Mk 831,000 lb bomb. Raytheons Enhanced dual-mode GPS and Laser guided version of the laser-only GBU-16, GBU-49 Enhanced Paveway II – BLU-133500 lb bomb. Raytheons Enhanced dual-mode GPS and Laser guided version of the laser-only GBU-12, gBU-50 Enhanced Paveway II – Mk 84 or BLU-1092,000 lb bomb
Paveway
–
A Paveway III seeker head, at the
RAF Museum in
Hendon,
London.
Paveway
–
Paveway III at
ILA airshow 2006
Paveway
–
Top to bottom: A Paveway 2 computer control group, an Enhanced GBU-12, and a Laser-Guided Training Round, at the
Paris Air Show 2007
Paveway
7.
AGM-114 Hellfire
–
It was originally developed under the name Heliborne, Laser, Fire and Forget Missile, which led to the colloquial name Hellfire ultimately becoming the missiles formal name. It has multi-mission, multi-target precision-strike ability, and can be launched from air, sea. The Hellfire missile is the primary 100-pound class air-to-ground precision weapon for the forces of the United States. The Hellfire can be deployed from rotary- and fixed-wing aircraft, waterborne vessels, most variants are laser guided with one, AGM-114L Longbow Hellfire, being radar guided. The development of the Hellfire Missile System began in 1974 with the U. S. Army requirement for a tank-buster, production of the AGM-114A started in 1982. The Hellfire II, developed in the early 1990s is a missile system with several variants. Predator, Reaper and AH665 Tiger, UCAVs carry the Hellfire II, but the most common platform is the AH-64 Apache helicopter gunship, which can carry up to 16 of the missiles at once. It also works in adverse weather and battlefield obscurants, such as smoke, each Hellfire weighs 47 kilograms, including the 9 kilograms warhead, and has a range of 8,000 metres. The AGM-114R Romeo Hellfire II entered service in late 2012 and it uses a semi-active laser homing guidance system and an integrated blast fragmentation sleeve warhead to engage targets that previously needed multiple Hellfire variants. It will replace AGM-114K, M, N, and P variants in U. S. service, in October 2012, the U. S. ordered 24,000 Hellfire II missiles, for both the U. S. armed forces and foreign customers. The Joint Common Missile was to replace Hellfire II by around 2011, the JCM was developed with a tri-mode seeker and a multi-purpose warhead that would combine the capabilities of the several Hellfire variants. In the budget for FY2006, the U. S. Department of Defense canceled a number of projects that they no longer warranted continuation based on their cost effectiveness. A possible new JCM successor called the Joint Air to Ground Missile is under consideration, the only known operational air-to-air kill with a Hellfire took place on 24 May 2001. A civilian Cessna 152 aircraft entered Israeli airspace from Lebanon, with unknown intentions, an Israeli Air Force AH-64A helicopter fired upon the Cessna, resulting in its complete disintegration. In 2008, the usage of the AGM-114N variant caused controversy in the United Kingdom when it was reported that these thermobaric munitions were added to the British Army arsenal, thermobaric weapons have been condemned by human rights groups. The UK Ministry of Defence refers to the AGM-114N as an enhanced blast weapon, in January 2016 the Wall Street Journal reported that one training missile without a warhead was accidentally shipped to Cuba in 2014 after a training mission in Europe. The dummy missile was later returned, a US official said that this was an inert dummy version of the Lockheed system, known as a Captive Air Training Missile. It is stripped of its warhead, fuse, guidance equipment, AGM-114A Basic Hellfire Target, Tanks, armored vehicles
AGM-114 Hellfire
–
A model of a Hellfire's components
AGM-114 Hellfire
–
Iraqi Air Force AC-208 Cessna Caravan launches a Hellfire missile
AGM-114 Hellfire
–
Hellfire loaded onto the rails of a
United States Marine Corps AH-1W Super Cobra at
Balad Air Base in
Iraq in 2005.
AGM-114 Hellfire
–
Predator launching a Hellfire missile
8.
M712 Copperhead
–
It may be fired from different artillery pieces, such as the M114, M109, M198, M777 and CAESAR howitzers. The projectile has a range of 3 km and a maximum range of 16 km. At 62.4 kilograms and 140 centimetres long, Copperhead is longer and heavier than traditional 155mm ammunition, the warhead assembly consist of a shaped charge loaded with 6.69 kilograms of Composition B. For Copperhead to function, the target must be illuminated with a laser designator, once the laser signal is detected, the on-board guidance system will operate the steering vanes to maneuver the projectile to the target. Copperhead has two modes of operation, Ballistic mode and glide mode, Ballistic mode is used where the cloud ceiling is high and visibility is good. When the projectile is 3,000 meters from the target, the guidance vanes extend, the target is acquired, glide mode is used when the cloud ceiling and/or the visibility is too low to permit the use of the ballistic mode. A glide mode trajectory consists of two phases, a phase and a glide phase. At a predetermined point along the trajectory, the guidance vanes extend, glide phase targeting logic is designed to ensure the largest possible angle of fall permitted by the cloud cover and the visibility. The target is acquired when the projectile is close enough to detect the laser illumination or when the projectile emerges from the cover, whichever event occurs later in the trajectory. Initially the laser designation was intended to be performed by the MQM-105 Aquila pilotless drone, Copperhead was used in Operation Desert Storm, with 90 rounds fired against hardened targets. It was also used in the 2003 Operation Iraqi Freedom
M712 Copperhead
–
M712 Copperhead approaches a target tank
M712 Copperhead
–
M712 Copperhead
9.
United States Air Force
–
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
United States Air Force
–
First
F-35 Lightning II of the
33rd Fighter Wing arrives at
Eglin AFB
United States Air Force
–
Seal of the Department of the Air Force (
United States Air Force portal)
United States Air Force
–
U.S. Air Force airmen from the 720th STG jumping out of a
C-130J Hercules aircraft during water rescue training in the
Florida panhandle
United States Air Force
–
Combat Controllers participating in
Operation Enduring Freedom provide air traffic control to a
C-130 taking off from a remote airfield.
10.
Lockheed Martin
–
Lockheed Martin is an American global aerospace, defense, security and advanced technologies company with worldwide interests. It was formed by the merger of Lockheed Corporation with Martin Marietta in March 1995 and it is headquartered in Bethesda, Maryland, in the Washington, DC, area. Lockheed Martin employs 126,000 people worldwide, Marillyn Hewson is the current President and Chief Executive Officer. Lockheed Martin is one of the largest companies in the aerospace, defense, security and it is the worlds largest defense contractor based on revenue for fiscal year 2014. In 2013, 78% of Lockheed Martins revenues came from sales, it topped the list of US federal government contractors. In 2009 US government contracts accounted for $38.4 billion, foreign government contracts $5.8 billion, Lockheed Martin operates in five business segments, Aeronautics, Information Systems & Global Solutions, Missiles and Fire Control, Rotary and Mission Systems, and Space Systems. The company also invests in healthcare systems, renewable energy systems, intelligent energy distribution, merger talks between Lockheed Corporation and Martin Marietta began in March 1994, with the companies announcing their $10 billion planned merger on August 30,1994. The deal was finalized on March 15,1995, when the two companies approved the merger. The segments of the two companies not retained by the new company formed the basis for the present L-3 Communications, Lockheed Martin also later spun off the materials company Martin Marietta Materials. Both companies contributed important products to the new portfolio, Lockheed products included the Trident missile, P-3 Orion, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-22 Raptor, C-130 Hercules, A-4AR Fightinghawk and the DSCS-3 satellite. Martin Marietta products included Titan rockets, Sandia National Laboratories, Space Shuttle External Tank, Viking 1 and Viking 2 landers, the Transfer Orbit Stage and various satellite models. On April 22,1996, Lockheed Martin completed the acquisition of Loral Corporations defense electronics and system integration businesses for $9.1 billion, the remainder of Loral became Loral Space & Communications. Lockheed Martin abandoned plans for a $8, the development of the spacecraft cost $193.1 million. In May 2001, Lockheed Martin sold Lockheed Martin Control Systems to BAE Systems, on November 27,2000, Lockheed completed the sale of its Aerospace Electronic Systems business to BAE Systems for $1.67 billion, a deal announced in July 2000. This group encompassed Sanders Associates, Fairchild Systems, and Lockheed Martin Space Electronics & Communications. In 2001, Lockheed Martin won the contract to build the F-35 Lightning II, in 2001, Lockheed Martin settled a nine–year investigation conducted by NASAs Office of Inspector General with the assistance of the Defense Contract Audit Agency. The company paid the United States government $7.1 million based on allegations that its predecessor, Lockheed Engineering Science Corporation, submitted false lease costs claims to NASA. On August 31,2006, Lockheed Martin won a $3.9 billion contract from NASA to design and build the CEV capsule, in 2009, NASA reduced the capsule crew requirements from the initial six seats to four for transport to the International Space Station
Lockheed Martin
–
Lockheed Martin's Center For Leadership Excellence (CLE) Building in Bethesda, Maryland
Lockheed Martin
–
C-130 Hercules; in production since the 1950s, now as the C-130J
Lockheed Martin
–
Naval variant of the
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
Lockheed Martin
–
Submarine launch of a Lockheed Trident missile
11.
Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod
–
The system has been designated AN/AAQ-33 in U. S. Military Service as the Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod, further variants are the Sniper Extended Range, as well as the PANTERA export derivative of the Sniper XR. The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is built with the equivalent of the Sniper XR in its onboard sensors, the most modern version is the Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod - Sensor Enhancement. The Sniper is a single, lightweight targeting pod with much lower drag than the systems it replaces. It also supports urban engagements beyond jet noise range for counter-insurgency operations, the pod incorporates a high definition mid-wave FLIR, dual-mode laser, visible-light HDTV, laser spot tracker, laser marker, video data link, and a digital data recorder. Advanced sensors and image processing incorporating image stabilization enable targets to be identified at ranges which minimize exposure to defensive enemy systems, the dual-mode laser offers an eye-safe mode for urban combat and training operations along with a laser-guided bomb designation laser. The pods FLIR allows observation and tracking through smoke and clouds, the CCD camera supports the same operations in visible light for most daylight conditions. As a result, a second, dedicated fighter aircraft isnt needed to provide protection to a dedicated ISR aircraft, for ease of maintenance, Snipers optical bed design, partitioning, and diagnostic capabilities permit two-level maintenance, eliminating costly intermediate-level support. Automated built-in testing allows maintenance personnel to isolate and replace a line unit in under 20 minutes to restore full mission-capable status. In August 2001, the U. S. Air Force announced Lockheed Martins Sniper as the winner of the Advanced Targeting Pod competition. The contract provides for pods and associated equipment, spares and support of the F-16 and F-15E aircraft for the force, active-duty Air Force. The U. S. Air Force initial seven-year contract for Sniper ATP has potential value in excess of $843 million, the Sniper ATP has delivered over 125 pods and the U. S. Air Force plans to procure at least 522 Sniper ATPs. The follow-on Advanced Targeting Pod - Sensor Enhancement contract was split between the Lockheed Martin Sniper and the LITENING, in 2014, the USAF declared initial operational capability for the Sniper ATP-SE which included sensor and networking improvements. The Sniper is used on the U. S. Air Force B-52H Stratofortress, B-1B Lancer, F-15E Strike Eagle, F-16 Fighting Falcon, and A-10 Thunderbolt II. It was also used on the British Harrier GR9 and the Canadian CF-18 Hornet, as well as being in service with Norway, Oman, Poland, Pakistan, Singapore, Canada, Belgium, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Thailand. A team of Lockheed Martin UK, BAE Systems and SELEX Galileo has successfully demonstrated and flown a Sniper ATP on board a Tornado GR4 combat aircraft
Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod
–
A Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod hangs from the underbelly of a B-1B Lancer
Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod
–
Sniper pod
Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod
–
An F-15E Strike Eagle carrying a Sniper pod (under engine intake).
Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod
–
A
B-1B Lancer carrying the Sniper pod.
12.
F-16
–
The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force. Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft, over 4,500 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Although no longer being purchased by the U. S. Air Force, in 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and 11 locations for mounting weapons, the F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations. As of 2015, it is the second most common operational military aircraft in the world. Experiences in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters, boyds work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss, and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, however, the Air Forces leadership understood that its budget would not allow it to purchase enough F-15 aircraft to satisfy all of its missions. The Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX, gained political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard. As a result, in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member and this was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no plans to procure the winner. Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics Model 401 and Northrops P-600 for the prototype development. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia, the high/low mix would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff, defining the relationship of the LWF. The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dynamics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer. The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California and its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. The test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid a potential crash, the slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time
F-16
–
F-16 Fighting Falcon
F-16
–
A right side view of a YF-16 (foreground) and a
Northrop YF-17, each armed with AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles.
F-16
–
YF-16 on display at the
Virginia Air and Space Center
F-16
–
An F-16C of the
Colorado Air National Guard with
AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, an
Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation pod, and a centerline fuel tank (300 gal capacity) after disengaging from a refueling boom.
13.
F-15E
–
The McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle is an American all-weather multirole strike fighter derived from the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. The F-15E was designed in the 1980s for long-range, high speed interdiction without relying on escort or electronic-warfare aircraft, United States Air Force F-15E Strike Eagles can be distinguished from other U. S. Eagle variants by darker aircraft camouflage and conformal fuel tanks mounted along the engine intake ramps, the Strike Eagle has been deployed for military operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Libya, among others. During these operations the F-15E has carried out strikes against high-value targets, combat air patrols. It has also exported to several countries. The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle had been introduced by the United States Air Force as a replacement for its fleet of McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs. In service, the F-15 has been a successful fighter, with over 100 aerial combat victories. Despite a lack of official interest, McDonnell Douglas quietly worked on an F-15-derived interdictor fighter, the company envisaged the aircraft as a replacement for the General Dynamics F-111 and the remaining F-4s, as well as to augment the existing F-15s. In 1978, the USAF initiated the Tactical All-Weather Requirement Study which looked at McDonnell Douglass proposal, TAWRS recommended the F-15E as the USAFs future strike platform. In 1979, McDonnell Douglas and Hughes began a collaboration on the development of the F-15Es air-to-ground capabilities. To assist in the F-15Es development, McDonnell Douglas modified the second TF-15A prototype, AF serial number 71-0291, the aircraft, known as the Advanced Fighter Capability Demonstrator, first flew on 8 July 1980. It was previously used to trial conformal fuel tanks, initially designed for the F-15 under the designation FAST Pack, with FAST standing for Fuel and Sensor and it was subsequently fitted with a Pave Tack laser designator targeting pod to allow the independent delivery of guided bombs. The demonstrator was displayed at the 1980 Farnborough Airshow, in March 1981, the USAF announced the Enhanced Tactical Fighter program to procure a replacement for the F-111. The program was renamed the Dual-Role Fighter competition. The concept envisioned an aircraft capable of launching deep air interdiction missions without requiring additional support by fighter escort or jamming, General Dynamics submitted the F-16XL, while McDonnell Douglas submitted the F-15E. The USAF was initially expected to procure 400 aircraft, a later revised to 392. Construction of the first three F-15Es started in July 1985, the first of these, 86-0183, made its maiden flight on 11 December 1986. Piloted by Gary Jennings, the reached a maximum speed of Mach 0.9
F-15E
–
F-15E Strike Eagle
F-15E
–
The second TF-15A,
designated 71-0291, used as an F-15E demonstrator
F-15E
–
First production F-15E, 86-0183
F-15E
–
An underside view of an F-15E Strike Eagle with
landing gear down.
14.
Rockwell B-1 Lancer
–
The Rockwell B-1 Lancer is a four-engine supersonic variable-sweep wing, jet-powered heavy strategic bomber used by the United States Air Force. It was first envisioned in the 1960s as a bomber with Mach 2 speed. It was developed into the B-1B, primarily a low-level penetrator with long range and it is commonly called the Bone. Designed by Rockwell International, development was delayed multiple times over its history due to changes in the perceived need for manned bombers, the initial B-1A version was developed in the early 1970s, but its production was canceled, and only four prototypes were built. The need for a new once again surfaced in the early 1980s. However, by point, development of stealth technology was promising an aircraft of dramatically improved capability. Production went ahead as the B version would be operational before the Advanced Technology Bomber, the B-1B entered service in 1986 with the USAF Strategic Air Command as a nuclear bomber. It first served in combat during Operation Desert Fox in 1998, the B-1B has supported U. S. and NATO military forces in Afghanistan and Iraq. The USAF had 66 B-1Bs in service in September 2012, the B-1B is expected to continue to serve into the 2030s, with the Long Range Strike Bomber to start supplementing the B-1B in 2030. In 1955 the U. S. Air Force issued requirements for a new bomber combining the payload, in December 1957, the U. S. Air Force selected North American Aviations B-70 Valkyrie for this role. The Valkyrie was a bomber that could cruise at Mach 3 at high altitude. By the late 1950s, however, anti-aircraft surface-to-air missiles could threaten high-altitude aircraft, the USAF Strategic Air Command were aware of these developments and had begun moving its bombers to low-level penetration even before the U-2 downing. Even at somewhat higher altitudes, radar systems of the era were subject to clutter from stray returns from the ground and other objects, bombers flying at low altitudes could remain under these angles simply by keeping their distance from the radar sites. This combination of effects made SAMs of the era ineffective against low-flying aircraft, the switch from high-altitude to low-altitude flight profiles severely affected the B-70, whose design was highly tuned to provide the desired high-altitude performance. Planners outlined a series of low-level profiles for the B-70, the result would be an aircraft with somewhat higher subsonic speed, but less range than the B-52 it was meant to replace. Although never intended for the role, the B-52s flexibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the nature of the air war environment changed. The B-52s huge fuel load allowed it to operate at altitudes for longer times. The much smaller bomb bay of the B-70 would have made it less useful in this role
Rockwell B-1 Lancer
–
B-1 Lancer
Rockwell B-1 Lancer
–
AN/APQ-140 radar for the B-1A
Rockwell B-1 Lancer
–
B-1A Prototype 4 showing its underside in 1981
Rockwell B-1 Lancer
–
B-1A nose section with ejection capsule denoted. Three of the four B-1As were fitted with escape capsules.
15.
B-52
–
The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is an American long-range, subsonic, jet-powered strategic bomber. The B-52 was designed and built by Boeing, which has continued to provide support and it has been operated by the United States Air Force since the 1950s. The bomber is capable of carrying up to 70,000 pounds of weapons, the B-52 took its maiden flight in April 1952. Built to carry weapons for Cold War-era deterrence missions, the B-52 Stratofortress replaced the Convair B-36. A veteran of wars, the B-52 has dropped only conventional munitions in combat. The B-52s official name Stratofortress is rarely used, informally, the aircraft has become referred to as the BUFF. The B-52 has been in service with the USAF since 1955. As of December 2015,58 were in service with 18 in reserve. The B-52 completed sixty years of service with its original operator in 2015. After being upgraded between 2013 and 2015, it is expected to serve into the 2040s, the aircraft was to have a crew of five or more turret gunners, and a six-man relief crew. It was required to cruise at 300 mph at 34,000 feet with a radius of 5,000 miles. The armament was to consist of a number of 20 mm cannon and 10,000 pounds of bombs. On 13 February 1946, the Air Force issued bid invitations for these specifications, with Boeing, Consolidated Aircraft, and Glenn L. Martin Company submitting proposals. On 5 June 1946, Boeings Model 462, an aircraft powered by six Wright T35 turboprops with a gross weight of 360,000 pounds. On 28 June 1946, Boeing was issued a letter of contract for US$1.7 million to build a full-scale mock-up of the new XB-52 and do preliminary engineering and testing. However, by October 1946, the air began to express concern about the sheer size of the new aircraft. In response, Boeing produced Model 464, a smaller version with a 230,000 pound gross weight. Boeing responded with two powered by the T-35 turboprops
B-52
–
B-52 Stratofortress
B-52
–
XB-52 Prototype on flight line (
X-4 in foreground)
B-52
–
Side view of YB-52 bomber, with
bubble canopy similar to that of the
B-47
B-52
–
B-52H (61-0023), configured at the time as a
testbed to investigate structural failures, still flying after its
vertical stabilizer sheared off in severe turbulence on 10 January 1964. The aircraft landed safely
16.
A-10C
–
The Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II is a single-seat, twin turbofan engine, straight wing jet aircraft developed by Fairchild-Republic for the United States Air Force. Commonly referred to by its nicknames Warthog or Hog, its name comes from the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. The A-10 was designed for air support of friendly ground troops, engaging armored vehicles and tanks. It entered service in 1976 and is the only aircraft that has served in the USAF that was designed solely for CAS. Its secondary mission is to forward air controller – airborne support. Aircraft used primarily in this role are designated OA-10, the A-10 was intended to improve on the performance of the A-1 Skyraider and its poor firepower. The A-10 was designed around the 30 mm GAU-8 Avenger rotary cannon and its short takeoff and landing capability permits operation from airstrips close to the front lines, and its simple design enables maintenance with minimal facilities. The A-10 served in the Gulf War, the American intervention against Iraqs invasion of Kuwait, the A-10 also participated in other conflicts such as Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada, the Balkans, Afghanistan, Iraq, and against ISIL in the Middle East. The A-10A single-seat variant was the version produced, though one pre-production airframe was modified into the YA-10B twin-seat prototype to test an all-weather night capable version. In 2005, a program was started to upgrade remaining A-10A aircraft to the A-10C configuration with modern avionics for use of precision weaponry. The U. S. Air Force had stated the F-35 would replace the A-10 as it entered service, but this remains highly contentious within the Air Force and in political circles. With a variety of upgrades and wing replacements, the A-10s service life may be extended to 2040, post-World War II development of conventionally armed attack aircraft in the United States had stagnated. Design efforts for tactical aircraft focused on the delivery of nuclear weapons using high-speed designs like the F-101 Voodoo, designs concentrating on conventional weapons had been largely ignored, leaving their entry into the Vietnam War led by the Korean War-era Douglas A-1 Skyraider. While a capable aircraft for its era, with a large payload and long loiter times. The U. S. Air Force and Marine Corps lost 266 A-1s in action in Vietnam, the A-1 Skyraider also had poor firepower. The lack of conventional attack capability prompted calls for a specialized attack aircraft. The former became the Tactical Fighter Experimental, or TFX, which emerged as the F-111 and it was also expensive to buy and operate, with a flyaway cost of $2 million in FY1965, and operational costs over $900 per hour. After a broad review of its force structure, the U. S. Air Force decided to adopt a low-cost aircraft to supplement the F-4
A-10C
–
A-10 Thunderbolt II
A-10C
–
An A-10A of pre-
glass cockpit design
A-10C
–
A-10 at
RAF Fairford, 2005
A-10C
–
A-10 inboard profile drawing
17.
United States Navy
–
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
United States Navy
United States Navy
–
United States Navy portal
United States Navy
–
USS Constellation vs L'Insurgente during the
Quasi-War
United States Navy
–
USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere during the
War of 1812
18.
LITENING
–
The AN/AAQ-28 LITENING targeting pod is an Israeli-designed precision targeting pod system currently operational with a wide variety of combat aircraft. The thousandth pod was sold in October 2010, LITENING is an integrated targeting pod that mounts externally to the aircraft. The pod also contains a CCD camera used to obtain target imagery in the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. An on-gimbal inertial navigation sensor establishes line-of-sight and automatic boresighting capability, the pod is equipped with a laser designator for precise delivery of laser-guided munitions. A laser rangefinder provides information for various systems, for example, navigation updates, weapon deliveries. These features simplify the functions of detection and recognition. The research and development program began at Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Missiles Division in Israel, in 1995 Northrop Grumman Corporation teamed with Rafael for further development and sales of the LITENING pod. Northrop Grumman and Rafael Advanced Defence Systems subsequently replaced the 320x256 FLIR with a latest technology 640x512 FLIR and this pod, known as LITENING ER, extended the target detection range and was fielded in 2001. The newest version, LITENING AT, is in production and was fielded in 2003 and it further extends target detection and recognition ranges, improves the target coordinate generation accuracy, and provides multi-target cueing. LITENING AT features a plug-and-play bay configured to accept a variety of data-links. Plug and Play II data-link capability offers warfighters increased range, digital data recording, lITENINGs Plug and Play I, introduced in 2003, was the first data-link to be incorporated in a third generation targeting pod. LITENING G4, which began to be delivered to U. S. forces in 2008, added new sensors for improved target identification, the LITENING G4 provides significant enhancements in terms of both recognition range and image quality due to Rafaels AVP imaging capability. The LITENING Gen 4 technology and capability is available in a kit form that allows users to upgrade their currently fielded LITENING pods. The Royal Danish Air Force is the first international partner to take delivery of G4 pods, Rafael Advanced Systems announced on the eve of DefExpo 2014 a large order for 150+ LITENING targeting pods for the Indian Air Forces combat aircraft fleet. LITENING G4 pods have been chosen by the Indian Air Force for its fighter aircraft, including the Su-30 MKI, MiG-29. LITENING SE provides laser ranging and designation in support of weapon delivery, navigational functions and this version includes a Plug-N-Play III digital two-way, data link LRU inside the pod. The pods are being delivered as part of the United States Air Forces Advanced Targeting Pod – Sensor Enhancement program, Rafael sees an increased market in the future because of the move to stealth platforms which must have targeting systems built in. The company is developing a new model to compete for the F-35 requirement, at present prototype F-35s have the equivalent of a Lockheed Martin Sniper XR built in
LITENING
–
LITENING Pod mounted underneath a United States Marine Corps
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.
19.
ATFLIR
–
It is used to provide navigation and targeting for military aircraft in adverse weather and using precision-guided munitions such as laser-guided bombs. It is intended to replace the earlier AN/AAS-38 Nite Hawk pod in US Navy service, ATFLIR is 72 in long, weighs 420 lb, and has a slant range of 40 mi, said to be useful at altitude of up to 50,000 ft. It has fewer parts than many systems, which is intended to improve serviceability. Crews indicate that it much greater target resolution and image accuracy than previous systems. ATFLIR presently is used only by the US Navy on the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and it is normally carried on one of the fuselage hardpoints otherwise used for AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles. 410 pods were delivered to the U. S. Navy, pods have also been delivered to Switzerland and Australia, and six pods will be delivered to Malaysia
ATFLIR
–
AN/ASQ-228 Advanced Targeting Forward-Looking Infrared (ATFLIR) Pod on an
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.
20.
Royal Air Force
–
The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period
Royal Air Force
–
A later version of the
Spitfires which played a major part in the
Battle of Britain.
Royal Air Force
–
Royal Air Force emblem
Royal Air Force
–
The
Avro Lancaster heavy bomber was extensively used during the strategic bombing of Germany.
Royal Air Force
–
The
Handley Page Victor bomber was a
strategic bomber of the RAF's
V bomber force used to carry both conventional and
nuclear bombs.
21.
Forward air control
–
Forward air control is the provision of guidance to close air support aircraft intended to ensure that their attack hits the intended target and does not injure friendly troops. This task is carried out by an air controller. A primary forward air control function is ensuring the safety of troops during close air support. Enemy targets in the front line are often close to friendly forces, the danger is twofold, the bombing pilot cannot identify the target clearly, and is not aware of the locations of friendly forces. Camouflage, a changing situation and the fog of war all increase the risk. Present day doctrine holds that Forward Air Controllers are not needed for air interdiction, a secondary concern of forward air controllers is the avoidance of harm to noncombatants in the strike area. Aircrews had difficulty communicating with the troops, they would drop messages or use messenger pigeons. Colonel Billy Mitchell also equipped his Spad XVI command airplane with a radio, another method of communication was for the pilot to drop messages in a weighted container, and to swoop in and pick up messages hung out by ground troops on a clothesline between poles. The objective was aerial reconnaissance and air attack, using these various methods, the Marine pilots combined the functions of both FAC and strike aircraft, as they carried out their own air attacks on the Sandinistas in Nicaragua in 1927. The commonality of pilots and ground troops belonging to the service led to a close air support role similar to that sought by use of FACs. On 27 October 1927, a Marine patrol used cloth panels to direct an air strike—arguably the first forward air control mission and this distinctive U. S. Marine doctrine of interaction between Marine infantry and aviation would persist, recurring in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. French colonial operations in the Rif War from 1920–1926 used air power similarly to the Marines in Nicaragua against the Sandinistas but in a different environment, the desert. The French Mobile Groups of combined arms not only used aircraft for scouting and air attack and these aerial observers called in artillery fire via radio. The German military noted close air support operations in the Spanish Civil War, by 1939, they had forward air control teams called Ground Attack Teams attached to every headquarters from regiment level upwards. These Teams directed air strikes flown by Luftwaffe close air support units, extensive coordinated training by air and ground troops had raised this system to state of the art by the beginning of World War II. The Air Ground Control Parties functions were to regulate bombing and artillery in close conjunction with the ground troops and they were thus the first of similar units to try to fulfill the functions of the FAC without being airborne. However, these units were plagued by turf wars and cumbersome communications between the respective armies and air forces involved. As a result, it could take hours for an air strike requested by ground troops to show up
Forward air control
–
RAF Regiment Forward Air Controllers from the Air Land Integration Cell, based at
RAF Honington, guide a Typhoon from 6 Squadron onto their target at the Cape Wrath practice range in Scotland.
Forward air control
–
British Mobile Fighter Controllers operating in North Africa during World War II
Forward air control
–
Two USAF
LT-6G of the
6147th TCG over Korea, 1952.
Forward air control
–
A USAF ground FAC conferring with the commander of a US Army
M46 tank.
22.
United States Marine Corps
–
The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
United States Marine Corps
United States Marine Corps
–
United States Marine Corps portal
United States Marine Corps
United States Marine Corps
–
A Marine
Corporal and
Lance Corporal of
3rd Battalion, 6th Marines engaging the enemy during
Operation Moshtarak in Afghanistan's
Helmand Province.
23.
Forward Air Control
–
Forward air control is the provision of guidance to close air support aircraft intended to ensure that their attack hits the intended target and does not injure friendly troops. This task is carried out by an air controller. A primary forward air control function is ensuring the safety of troops during close air support. Enemy targets in the front line are often close to friendly forces, the danger is twofold, the bombing pilot cannot identify the target clearly, and is not aware of the locations of friendly forces. Camouflage, a changing situation and the fog of war all increase the risk. Present day doctrine holds that Forward Air Controllers are not needed for air interdiction, a secondary concern of forward air controllers is the avoidance of harm to noncombatants in the strike area. Aircrews had difficulty communicating with the troops, they would drop messages or use messenger pigeons. Colonel Billy Mitchell also equipped his Spad XVI command airplane with a radio, another method of communication was for the pilot to drop messages in a weighted container, and to swoop in and pick up messages hung out by ground troops on a clothesline between poles. The objective was aerial reconnaissance and air attack, using these various methods, the Marine pilots combined the functions of both FAC and strike aircraft, as they carried out their own air attacks on the Sandinistas in Nicaragua in 1927. The commonality of pilots and ground troops belonging to the service led to a close air support role similar to that sought by use of FACs. On 27 October 1927, a Marine patrol used cloth panels to direct an air strike—arguably the first forward air control mission and this distinctive U. S. Marine doctrine of interaction between Marine infantry and aviation would persist, recurring in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. French colonial operations in the Rif War from 1920–1926 used air power similarly to the Marines in Nicaragua against the Sandinistas but in a different environment, the desert. The French Mobile Groups of combined arms not only used aircraft for scouting and air attack and these aerial observers called in artillery fire via radio. The German military noted close air support operations in the Spanish Civil War, by 1939, they had forward air control teams called Ground Attack Teams attached to every headquarters from regiment level upwards. These Teams directed air strikes flown by Luftwaffe close air support units, extensive coordinated training by air and ground troops had raised this system to state of the art by the beginning of World War II. The Air Ground Control Parties functions were to regulate bombing and artillery in close conjunction with the ground troops and they were thus the first of similar units to try to fulfill the functions of the FAC without being airborne. However, these units were plagued by turf wars and cumbersome communications between the respective armies and air forces involved. As a result, it could take hours for an air strike requested by ground troops to show up
Forward Air Control
–
RAF Regiment Forward Air Controllers from the Air Land Integration Cell, based at
RAF Honington, guide a Typhoon from 6 Squadron onto their target at the Cape Wrath practice range in Scotland.
Forward Air Control
–
British Mobile Fighter Controllers operating in North Africa during World War II
Forward Air Control
–
Two USAF
LT-6G of the
6147th TCG over Korea, 1952.
Forward Air Control
–
A USAF ground FAC conferring with the commander of a US Army
M46 tank.
24.
Close Air Support
–
The requirement for detailed integration because of proximity, fires or movement is the determining factor. CAS may need to be conducted during shaping operations with Special Operations Forces, if the mission requires detailed integration with the fire, the term battlefield air interdiction is not currently used in U. S. joint doctrine. Close air support requires excellent coordination with ground forces, in advanced modern militaries, this coordination is typically handled by specialists such as Joint Fires Observers s, Joint Terminal Attack Controllers s, and Forward Air Controllers s. The use of aircraft in the air support of ground forces dates back to World War I. By that point, the startling and demoralizing effect that attack from the air could have on the troops in the trenches had been made clear, at the Battle of the Somme,18 British armed reconnaissance planes strafed the enemy trenches after conducting surveillance operations. The success of this improvised assault spurred innovation on both sides, in 1917, following the Second Battle of the Aisne the British debuted the first ground-attack aircraft, a modified F. E 2b fighter carrying 20-lb bombs and mounted machine-guns. After exhausting their ammunition the planes returned to base for refuelling and rearming, other modified planes used in this role were the Airco DH.5 and Sopwith Camel—the latter was particularly successful in this role. Aircraft support was first integrated into a plan on a large scale at the 1917 Battle of Cambrai. British doctrine at the time came to two forms of air support, trench strafing, and ground strafing —attacking tactical ground targets away from the land battle. As well as strafing with machine-guns, the planes were modified with bomb racks, the Germans were also quick to adopt this new form of warfare and were able to deploy aircraft in a similar capacity at Cambrai. While the British used single-seater planes, the Germans preferred the use of heavier two-seaters with a machine gunner in the aft cockpit. The Germans adopted the powerful Hannover CL. II and built the first purpose built ground attack aircraft, during the 1918 Spring Offensive the Germans employed 30 squadrons, or Schlasta, of ground attack fighters and were able to achieve some initial tactical success. The British later deployed the Sopwith Salamander as a ground attack aircraft. It was during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of 1918 that Close Air Support was first proven to be an important factor in ultimate victory, combined with a ground assault led by General Edmund Allenby, three Turkish armies soon collapsed into a full rout. In the words of the squadrons official report, No 1 Squadron made six heavy raids during the day. The panic and slaughter beggared description, the close air support doctrine was further developed in the interwar period. Most theorists advocated the adaptation of fighters or light bombers into the role, during this period, airpower advocates crystallized their views on the role of air-power in warfare. Aviators and ground officers developed largely opposing views on the importance of CAS, the inter-war period saw the use of CAS in a number of conflicts, including the Russo-Polish War, the Spanish Civil War, colonial wars in the Middle East and the Gran Chaco War
Close Air Support
–
A
Boeing AH-64 Apache attack helicopter provides close air support to
United States Army soldiers patrolling the
Tigris River southeast of Baghdad, Iraq during the
Iraq War
Close Air Support
–
The
F.E 2d was one of the first aircraft to be used for close air support in 1917 (the observer is demonstrating the use of the rear-firing
Lewis gun).
Close Air Support
–
The
Junkers J.I, a First World War German
ground-attack aircraft
Close Air Support
–
The British used air power extensively during the interwar period to police areas in the
Middle East.
25.
Laser sight
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Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for specialized applications. Laser based lidar technology has application in geology, seismology, remote sensing, lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation, which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. The principles of spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder. Most types of laser are a pure source of light. By careful design of the components, the purity of the laser light can be improved more than the purity of any other light source. This makes the laser a useful source for spectroscopy. Other spectroscopic techniques based on lasers can be used to extremely sensitive detectors of various molecules. Due to the power densities achievable by lasers, beam-induced atomic emission is possible. Heat treating with lasers allows selective surface hardening against wear with little or no distortion of the component, because this eliminates much part reworking that is currently done, the laser systems capital cost is recovered in a short time. An inert, absorbent coating for laser heat treatment has also developed that eliminates the fumes generated by conventional paint coatings during the heat-treating process with CO2 laser beams. One consideration crucial to the success of a heat treatment operation is control of the laser beam irradiance on the part surface, the optimal irradiance distribution is driven by the thermodynamics of the laser-material interaction and by the part geometry. Typically, irradiances between 500-5000 W/cm^2 satisfy the constraints and allow the rapid surface heating and minimal total heat input required. For general heat treatment, a square or rectangular beam is one of the best options. For some special applications or applications where the treatment is done on an edge or corner of the part. When the Apollo astronauts visited the moon, they planted retroreflector arrays to make possible the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment, some laser systems, through the process of mode locking, can produce extremely brief pulses of light - as short as picoseconds or femtoseconds. Such pulses can be used to initiate and analyze chemical reactions, the short pulses can be used to probe the process of the reaction at a very high temporal resolution, allowing the detection of short-lived intermediate molecules
Laser sight
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Laser pointers
Laser sight
–
A target designator
Laser sight
–
Laser sight used by the
Israel Defense Forces during commando training
Laser sight
–
Smith & Wesson revolver equipped with a laser sight mounted on the
trigger guard.
26.
Targeting pods
–
Targeting pods are target designation tools used by ground-attack aircraft for identifying targets and guiding precision guided munitions such as laser-guided bombs to those targets. The first targeting pods were developed in conjunction with the earliest generation of PGMs in the mid-1960s, the design of laser-guided bombs requires a laser spot tracker that locates reflected pulses of laser light from a designated target. This enables an aircrafts targeting system to home in on specific target. The simplest spot trackers have no laser at all, just a laser sensor, some targeting systems incorporate a laser rangefinder, a laser beam that can calculate the precise range to a target and communicate that information to the nav/attack system. Some targeting systems have a laser that can designate a target for laser-guided munitions, LRMTS installations of the 1970s often did not have a laser of sufficient power and slant range to designate targets, although they could provide rangefinding. Such units still required targets to be designated by a ground designator or forward air controller in another aircraft, the basic electro-optical sensor is essentially a closed-circuit television camera, usually with a magnification lens, helping the aircrew to locate and identify targets. For night and adverse weather use, many EO sensors incorporate low-light light-amplification systems, some pods supplement the basic visual EO with forward-looking infra-red to aid in locating and identifying targets in darkness. Such systems are called infrared search and track sensors. Some pods may contain a small set for targeting and navigation. Such a system, for example, was developed for the unsuccessful N/AW version of the USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II, currently, laser and infrared systems are more popular than radar because they are less easily detected by adversaries, providing less warning to the target. Lasers can also more accurate ranging data for aerial gunnery
Targeting pods
–
A
Thales Damocles (targeting pod) target designation pod combined with a
NAVFLIR imager
Targeting pods
–
F-15E
Heads-up display of infrared image from LANTIRN.
Targeting pods
–
AN/ASQ-153 Pave Spike
Targeting pods
–
A
LANTIRN pod aboard an F-15E.
