1.
Winchester
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Winchester is a city and the county town of Hampshire, England. The city lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a government district. It is situated 61 miles south-west of London and 13.6 miles from Southampton, at the time of the 2011 Census, Winchester had a population of 45,184. The wider City of Winchester district which includes such as Alresford. Winchester developed from the Roman town of Venta Belgarum, which in turn developed from an Iron Age oppidum. Winchesters major landmark is Winchester Cathedral, one of the largest cathedrals in Europe, with the distinction of having the longest nave and overall length of all Gothic cathedrals in Europe. The city is home to the University of Winchester and Winchester College, the area around Winchester has been inhabited since prehistoric times, with three Iron Age hillforts, Orams Arbour, St. Catherines Hill, and Worthy Down all in the nearby vicinity. In the Late Iron Age, an urban settlement type developed, known as an oppidum. It was overrun by the confederation of Gaulish tribes known as the Belgae sometime during the first century BCE and it seems to have been known as Wentā or Venta, from the Brittonic for town or meeting place. After the Roman conquest of Britain, the settlement served as the capital of the Belgae and was distinguished as Venta Belgarum, Venta of the Belgae. Although in the years of the Roman province it was of subsidiary importance to Silchester and Chichester. At the beginning of the century, Winchester was given protective stone walls. At around this time the city covered an area of 144 acres, there was a limited suburban area outside the walls. Like many other Roman towns however, Winchester began to decline in the fourth century. Ford identifies the community as the Cair Guinntguic listed by Nennius among the 28 cities of Britain in his History of the Britains, amid the Saxon invasions of Britain, cemeteries dating to the 6th and 7th centuries suggest a revival of settlement. The city became known as Wintan-ceastre in Old English, in 648, King Cenwalh of Wessex erected the Church of SS Peter and Paul, later known as the Old Minster. This became a cathedral in the 660s when the West Saxon bishopric was transferred from Dorchester-on-Thames, the citys first mint appears to date from this period. In the early tenth century there were two new establishments, the convent of Nunnaminster, founded by Alfreds widow Ealhswith
2.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
3.
Montclair, New Jersey
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Montclair is a township in Essex County, New Jersey, United States. As of 2010, it was the 60th-most-populous municipality in New Jersey, Montclair was first formed as a township on April 15,1868, from portions of Bloomfield Township, so that a second railroad could be built to Montclair. After a referendum held on February 21,1894, Montclair was reincorporated as a town and it derives its name from the French mont clair, meaning clear mountain or bright mountain. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 6.315 square miles. Montclair is on the east side of the First Mountain of the Watchung Mountains, some higher locations in the township provide excellent views of the surrounding area and of the New York City skyline about 12 miles away. Named localities in the township include Frog Hollow, Montclair Heights, South End, Upper Montclair, Montclair citizens use two main ZIP codes. The central and southern parts of the township are designated 07042, Upper Montclair lies north of Watchung Avenue and has a separate ZIP code,07043. Because the ZIP codes do not exactly match municipal boundaries, a few homes near the borders with neighboring towns fall into the ZIP codes for those communities. A few homes in some adjoining municipalities use one of the two ZIP codes assigned to Montclair, as does HackensackUMC Mountainside, whose campus straddles the border with Glen Ridge, small areas in the southeast of the township fall into the Glen Ridge ZIP code 07028. Yantacaw and Toneys brooks are dammed in parks to create ponds, wigwam, Nishuane, and Toneys brooks flow into the Second River, and the others flow into the Third River. Montclair lies just north of the northernmost extent of the Rahway River watershed, the southern border of Montclair is a straight line between Eagle Rock, on the ridge of the First Watchung Mountain, and the point where Orange Road crosses Nishuane Brook. The eastern border is roughly a line between that point and a point just southwest of where Broad Street crosses the Third River. The western border runs roughly along the ridge of the First Watchung Mountain between Eagle Rock and the Essex County/Passaic County border, the northern border is the border between those two counties. Montclair has a climate, with warm-to-hot, humid summers and cool to cold winters. January tends to be the coldest month, with high temperatures in the upper 30s Fahrenheit. July, the warmest month, features high temperatures in the mid-80s and lows in the 70s, from April to June and from September to early November, Montclair experiences temperatures from the lower 60s to the lower 70s. Montclair gets approximately 50 inches of rain per year, above the United States average of 39 inches, snowfall is common from December to early March, and totals about 30 inches annually. The number of each year in Montclair with any measurable precipitation is 90
4.
Green-Wood Cemetery
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Green-Wood Cemetery was founded in 1838 as a rural cemetery in Kings County, New York. Like other early rural cemeteries, Green-Wood was founded in a time of rapid urbanization when churchyards in New York City were becoming overcrowded. Located in Greenwood Heights, Brooklyn, the cemetery lies several blocks southwest of Prospect Park, the gates of the cemetery were designated a New York City landmark in 1966, and the Weir Greenhouse, used as a visitors center, in 1982. The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997 and was granted National Historic Landmark status in 2006 by the U. S. Department of the Interior. The Fort Hamilton Parkway Gate and the chapel were designated as landmarks by New York City in 2016. The popularity of Green-Wood Cemetery inspired a competition to design a Central Park for NYC, the winners were Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted. It essentially inspired the creation of Central Park and Prospect Park, Battle Hill, the highest point in Brooklyn, is on cemetery grounds, rising approximately 200 feet above sea level. It was the site of an important action during the Battle of Long Island on August 27,1776, a Revolutionary War monument by Frederick Ruckstull, Altar to Liberty, Minerva, was erected there in 1920. From this height, the bronze Minerva statue gazes towards the Statue of Liberty across New York Harbor, the cemetery was the idea of Henry Evelyn Pierrepont, a Brooklyn social leader. The Pierrepont papers deposited at the Brooklyn Historical Society contain material about the organizing of Green-Wood Cemetery and it was a popular tourist attraction in the 1850s and by early 1860s, it became the popular tourist place 2nd to Niagara Falls. It was the place most famous New Yorkers who died during the half of the nineteenth century were buried. Green-Wood Cemetery is still operating with approximately 600,000 graves and 7000 trees spread out over 478 acres, the rolling hills and dales, several ponds and an on-site chapel provide an environment that still draws visitors. This incorporates a sculpture of the ship, half-submerged by the waves, as well as a Civil War Memorial, during the Civil War, Green-Wood Cemetery created the Soldiers Lot for free veterans burials. The gates were designed by Richard Upjohn in Gothic Revival style, the main entrance to the cemetery was built in 1861-65 of Belleville, New Jersey brownstone. A Designated Landmarks of New York plaque was erected on it in 1958 by the New York Community Trust, several wooden shelters were also built, including one in a Gothic Revival style, one resembling an Italian villa, and another resembling a Swiss chalet. A descendent colony of parakeets that are believed to have escaped their containers while in transit now nests in the spires of the gate. On December 5,1876, the Brooklyn Theater Fire claimed the lives of at least 278 individuals, out of that total,103 unidentified victims were interred in a common grave at Green-Wood Cemetery. An obelisk near the entrance at Fifth Avenue and 25th Street marks the burial site
5.
Actor-manager
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It is a method of theatrical production and management which has been in use consistently since the 16th-century, but which was particularly common in 19th-century England and the United States. The first actor-managers, such as Robert Browne, appeared in the late 16th century, to be followed by another Robert Browne, in the 18th century, actor-managers such as Colley Cibber and David Garrick gained prominence. In the 19th century, the reputation of actors was largely reversed. The rise of the actor as celebrity provided the transition, as audiences flocked to their favorite stars, a new role emerged for the actor-managers who formed their own companies and controlled the actors, the production, and the financing. When successful, they built up a permanent clientele that flocked to their productions and they could enlarge their audience by going on tour across the country, Performing a repertoire of well-known plays, such as Shakespeare. The newspapers, private clubs, pubs and coffee shops rang with lively debates palming the relative merits of the stars of their productions, henry Irving was the most successful of the British actor-managers. Irving was renowned for his Shakespearean roles, and for such innovations as turning out the lights so that attention could focus more on the stage. His company toured across Britain, as well as Europe and the United States, demonstrating the power of star actors and his knighthood in 1895 indicated full acceptance into the higher circles of British society. The 19th-century repertoire usually consisted of a combination of the works of Shakespeare, popular melodramas, the era of the actor-manager was geared to star performances, such as Irving’s role in the 1871 play The Bells. The system of actor-management waned in the early 20th century, as actor-managers were replaced first by stage managers, the Actor Managers Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London Thomas, James. The Art of the Actor-Manager, Wilson Barrett and the Victorian Theatre Bowker Pearson, the Last Actor-Managers Methuen and Co Ltd
6.
Our American Cousin
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Our American Cousin is a three-act play by English playwright Tom Taylor. The play first premiered at Laura Keenes Theatre in New York City on October 15,1858, among Our American Cousins cast was British actor Edward Askew Sothern, playing Lord Dundreary, a caricature of a brainless English nobleman. Sothern had already achieved fame on the New York stage in the play Camille in 1856, and had been reluctant to take on the role because he felt that it was too small and unimportant. He mentioned his qualms to his friend Joseph Jefferson, who had been cast in the lead role and our American Cousin premiered in New York on October 15,1858. After several weeks of performances, Sothern began portraying the more broadly, as a lisping, skipping, eccentric. His ad-libs were a sensation, earning good notices for his comedy and spawning much imitation. Sothern gradually expanded the role, adding gags and business until it became the figure of the play. The most famous scene involved Dundreary reading a letter from his even sillier brother, the play ran for 150 nights, which was very successful for a New York run at the time. Sothern made his London debut in the role when the play ran for 496 performances at the Haymarket Theatre in 1861, the Athenaeum wrote, it is certainly the funniest thing in the world. A vile caricature of a nobleman, intensely ignorant. Dundrearyisms, twisted aphorisms in the style of Lord Dundreary, enjoyed a brief vogue, and the characters style of beard — long, bushy sideburns — gave the English language the word dundrearies. Dundreary became a recurring character, and Sothern successfully revived the play many times. It was not long before the success of this inspired a imitation. None of the characters from the play appeared in this comedy. A number of plays to Our American Cousin were written, all featuring several characters from the original. The first was Charles Gaylers Our American Cousin at Home, or, later sequels included Henry James Byrons Dundreary Married and Done For, and John Oxenfords Brother Sam, a play about Dundrearys brother. Asa Trenchard – Joseph Jefferson Sir Edward Trenchard – Edwin Varrey Florence Trenchard – Laura Keene Mary Meredith – Sara Stevens Lord Dundreary – E. A. Sothern Mr. Coyle – J. G. Florence Trenchard, a young beauty, loves Lieutenant Harry Vernon of the Royal Navy
7.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
8.
Ford's Theatre
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Fords Theatre is a theater in Washington, D. C. used for various stage performances beginning in the 1860s. It is also the site of the assassination of U. S. President Abraham Lincoln on April 14,1865, after being shot, the mortally wounded president was carried across the street to the Petersen House, where he died the next morning. The theater was used as a warehouse and office building. It was renovated and re-opened as a theater in 1968, during the 2000s, it was renovated again, opening on February 12,2009, in commemoration of the bicentennial of Lincolns birth. A related Center for Education and Leadership museum experience opened February 12,2012 next to Petersen House, Fords Theatre is located at 511 10th Street, NW. The site was originally a house of worship, constructed in 1833 as the meeting house of the First Baptist Church of Washington. In 1861, after the congregation moved to a built structure. Ford bought the church and renovated it into a theater. He first called it Fords Athenaeum, the famous actor John Wilkes Booth, desperate to aid the dying Confederacy, stepped into the box where the presidential party was sitting and shot Lincoln. Booth then jumped onto the stage, and cried out Sic semper tyrannis just before escaping through the back of the theater, between 1866 and 1887, the theater was taken over by the U. S. In 1887, the building became a clerks office for the War Department. On June 9,1893, the front part of the building collapsed, killing 22 clerks and this led some people to believe that the former church turned theater and storeroom was cursed. The building was repaired and used as a government warehouse until 1911, in 1928, the building was turned over from the War Department Office to the Office of Public Buildings and Parks of the National Capital. A Lincoln museum opened on the first floor of the building on February 12. In 1933, the building was transferred to the National Park Service, hildreth first suggested to Young the need for its restoration in 1945. Through extensive lobbying of Congress, a bill was passed in 1955 to prepare a study for the reconstruction of the building. In 1964 Congress approved funds for its restoration, which began that year and was completed in 1968, on January 21,1968, Vice President Hubert Humphrey and 500 others dedicated the restored theater. The theater reopened on January 30,1968, with a gala performance, the theater was again renovated during the 2000s
9.
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
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Lincoln was the third American president to die in office, and the first to be murdered. An unsuccessful attempt had made on Andrew Jackson 30 years prior, in 1835. The assassination of Lincoln was planned and carried out by the stage actor John Wilkes Booth. By simultaneously eliminating the top three people in the administration, Booth and his co-conspirators hoped to disrupt the United States government. As the President was watching the play, Booth shot Lincoln from behind at a distance of three or four feet, hitting him in the back of the head. At 7,22 a. m. the following day, the rest of the conspirators plot failed, Powell only managed to wound Seward, while Atzerodt, Johnsons would-be assassin, lost his nerve and fled. Booth made an escape, resulting in a lengthy manhunt that ended in his death. Several other conspirators were tried and hanged. The funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln was a period of extended national mourning, John Wilkes Booth, originally from Maryland, was a proud Southerner and an outspoken Confederate sympathizer. In late 1860, Booth was initiated in the pro-Confederate Knights of the Golden Circle in Baltimore, born into a family of well-known stage actors, Booth had become a famous actor and a nationally recognized celebrity in his own right by the time of the assassination. In March 1864, Ulysses S. Grant, the general of all the Unions armies. As harsh as it may have been on the prisoners of both sides, Grant realized the exchange was prolonging the war by returning soldiers to the outnumbered and manpower-starved South. John Wilkes Booth conceived a plan to kidnap President Lincoln and deliver him to the Confederate Army, Booth recruited Samuel Arnold, George Atzerodt, David Herold, Michael OLaughlen, Lewis Powell, and John Surratt to help him. Surratts mother, Mary Surratt, left her tavern in Surrattsville, Maryland and moved to a house in Washington, while Booth and Lincoln were not personally acquainted, Lincoln had seen Booth in The Marble Heart at Fords on November 9,1863. Subsequently Lincoln sent a invitation backstage inviting Booth to visit the White House, afterwards, actor Frank Mordaunt stated that Booth evaded multiple invitations from the president. Lincoln was an admirer of the man who assassinated him and that actor was John Wilkes Booth. Booth attended Lincolns second inauguration on March 4,1865, as the invited guest of his secret fiancée Lucy Hale, daughter of John P. Hale, soon to become United States Ambassador to Spain. Booth afterwards wrote in his diary, What an excellent chance I had, if I wished, on March 17,1865, Booth informed his conspirators that Lincoln would be attending a play, Still Waters Run Deep, at Campbell Military Hospital
10.
Elizabeth Yates (actress)
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Elizabeth Yates was an English actress. She appeared on the stage under the names Miss Brunton, Elizabeth Brunton, Elizabeth Yates, Mrs. Yates, Elizabeth Brunton was born at Norwich on 21 January 1799 to a theatrical family. Her grandfather, John Brunton, acted at Covent Garden in 1774, her father, also John Brunton, went on the stage in 1795, additionally, Brunton managed theaters, including those in Brighton, Birmingham, and Lynn. Brunton was also niece of Louisa Brunton, Brunton married Frederick Henry Yates, a fellow actor with whom she worked at Drury Lane, in November 1823. Elizabeth Brunton made her debut in 1815, in her fathers theater at Lynn. Her father thought her talents more suited to comedy, and she next played Letitia Hardy in the Belles Stratagem. Elliston hired Brunton for his theatre at Birmingham, she played in Worcester, Shrewsbury. Brunton made her London debut at Covent Garden in 1817 in the role of Letitia Hardy, the Theatrical Inquisitor gave some praise to her Letitia, but pronounced her Rosalind a failure. She played the original Rosalia in Frederick Reynoldss Duke of Savoy and she had an original part in A Word for the Ladies, and was the first Jeanie Deans in Daniel Terrys adaptation of Walter Scotts The Heart of Midlothian. Brunton played with her now-husband at Cheltenham, and made her first appearance at Drury Lane as Violante in 1824, in the 1825-1826 season, Yates played the first Guido in Massaniello, the first Agnes in Knowless William Tell, Mrs. After 1828, Yates played primarily at Drury Lane, throughout the 1830s, she played leading roles in plays by Buckstone, including in Wreck Ashore, Victorine, Henriette the Forsaken and Isabelle. Yates played in Surrey in 1839, as Margaret Mammon in Thomas Herbert Reynoldsons Curse of Mammon, after the death of her husband, in June 1842, Yates tried a years management at the Adelphi Theatre with Gladstane, but found the task too much for her. She played one season at the Lyceum in 1848-9, where she played Tilburina in the Critic, Yates then withdrew from the stage, and, after a long and painful illness, died on 30 August 1860. A miniature by Samuel John Stump of Cork Street was in the possession of her son, a portrait of her as Eugenia in Sweethearts and Wives accompanied a memoir in the Theatrical Times,28 November 1846. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Yates
11.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
12.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
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His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 put him in the top rank of Britains military heroes. Wellesley was born in Dublin, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland and he was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons and he was a colonel by 1796, and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, following Napoleons exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the army which defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellesleys battle record is exemplary, he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Wellington is famous for his defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, after ending his active military career, Wellington returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as part of the Tory party, from 1828 to 1830 and he oversaw the passage of the Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the figures in the House of Lords until his retirement. As such, he belonged to the Protestant Ascendancy and his biographers mostly follow the contemporary newspaper evidence in saying that he was born 1 May 1769, the day that he was baptised. He was most likely born at his parents townhouse,24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, but his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. He spent most of his childhood at his familys two homes, the first a house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle,3 miles north of Summerhill on the Trim Road in County Meath. In 1781, Arthurs father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his fathers earldom and he went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whytes Academy when in Dublin, and Browns School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton, where he studied from 1781 to 1784, moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of funds due to his fathers death, forced the young Wellesley. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew concerned at his idleness, stating. A year later, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, upon returning to England in late 1786, he astonished his mother with his improvement
13.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
14.
Prison ship
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The vessels were a common form of internment in Britain and elsewhere in the 18th and 19th centuries. Charles F. Campbell writes that around 40 ships of the Royal Navy were converted for use as prison hulks, other hulks were anchored off Woolwich, Portsmouth, Chatham, Deptford, and Plymouth-Dock/Devonport. Private companies owned and operated some of the British hulks holding prisoners bound for penal transportation to Australia, HMP Weare was used by the British as a prison ship between 1997 and 2006. It was towed across the Atlantic from the United States in 1997 to be converted into a jail and it was berthed in Portland Harbour in Dorset, England. During the American War of Independence, more Colonist Americans died as prisoners of war on British prison ships through intentional neglect than died in battle of the war combined. This is now commemorated by the Prison Ship Martyrs Monument in Fort Greene Park, there was 8 died of a day while I was there. In 1778, Robert Sheffield of Stonington, Connecticut, escaped from one of the prison ships and he was one of 350 prisoners held in a compartment below the decks. The heat was so intense that they were all naked, which served well to get rid of vermin. The air was so foul that at times a lamp could not be kept burning, a clear distinction must be made between the use of hulks by the British for the accommodation of Prisoners of war during the Napoleonic Wars and their simultaneous use to hold criminal prisoners. Prisoners of war were held in hulks at Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth and this has resulted in the perpetuation of a myth that the hulks were a device for the extermination of prisoners and that conditions on board were intolerable. These topics are brought up to date in the commentary to the version of Louis Garnerays The Floating Prison. The first British use of a ship was the privately owned Tayloe, engaged by the Home Office in 1775 via contract with her owner. Tayloe was moored in the Thames with the intention that she be the point for all inmates whose sentences of transportation to the Americas had been delayed by the War of Independence. Prisoners began arriving from January 1776, by December 1776 all prisoners aboard Tayloe had been pardoned, enlisted or died, and the contract ceased. While the Tayloe was still in use, the British Government was simultaneously developing a plan for the use of transportees. In April and May 1776, legislation was passed to convert sentences of transportation to the Americas. In July 1776, Tayloes owner Duncan Campbell was named Overseer of Convicts on the Thames and awarded a contract for the housing of transportees and use of their labour. Campbell provided three ships for these purposes, the 260-ton Justitia, the 731-ton former French frigate Censor and a condemned East Indiaman
15.
Olympic Theatre
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The Olympic Theatre, sometimes known as the Royal Olympic Theatre, was a 19th century London theatre, opened in 1806 and located at the junction of Drury Lane, Wych Street and Newcastle Street. The theatre specialised in comedies throughout much of its existence, along with three other Victorian theatres, the Olympic was eventually demolished in 1904 to make way for the development of the Aldwych. Newcastle and Wych streets also vanished, the first Olympic theatre was built in 1806 on the site of Drury House, for the impresario Philip Astley, a retired cavalry officer. The original name of the house was the Olympic Pavilion and it was said to be built from the timbers of the French warship Ville de Paris. It opened on 1 December 1806 as a house of public exhibition of horsemanship, in 1813, Astley sold the theatre to Robert William Elliston, who refurbished the interior and renamed it the Little Drury Lane, reflecting its proximity to the large Drury Lane Theatre nearby. Elliston had the theatre rebuilt and reopened it with William Thomas Moncrieffs comedy Rochester – or. John Scott purchased the playhouse at Ellisons bankruptcy auction in 1826, in 1830, Lucia Elizabeth Vestris leased the house, becoming the first female actor-manager in the history of London theatre. She had already made her fortune as a singer, a dancer, many were written by J. R. Planché and Charles Dance, featuring Vestris in breeches roles, and the popular comedian of the day, John Liston. While Vestris licence only allowed the performance of extravaganzas and burlesques, the 1840s were a period of decline for the theatre. A fire in 1849 is characterised by the Victorian Web as suspicious, the 1850s were a more successful decade for the theatre. Dion Boucicaults Broken Vow was staged in 1851, Planché began writing for the Olympic again, other playwrights featured at the Olympic in the 1850s were Robert B. Brough, Francis Burnand, John Stirling Coyne, John Oxenford, Mrs Alfred Phillips, John Palgrave Simpson, Tom Taylor, the theatre was managed by the actor-manager Alfred Wigan from 1853 to 1857. The staples of the repertoire in the 1850s and 1860s continued to be comedies, many featuring the great actor, a notable exception was Tom Taylors celebrated 1863 social melodrama, The Ticket-of-Leave Man, based on a French dramatic tale, Le Retour de Melun. It starred Henry Neville, who went on to play in over 2000 performances of the work, nellie Farren spent two productive years at the theatre early in her career. The capacity of the theatre was at this time 889, the Olympic reopened with performances of The Girl I Left Behind Me and The Hidden Hand and My Wifes Bonnet in November 1864. Burnands contributions in the 1860s included Fair Rosamond – The Maze, The Maid, and The Monarch, Deerfoot, Robin Hood – or, The Forresters Fate. Cupid and Psyche – or, Beautiful as a Butterfly, Acis and Galatæa – or, The Nimble Nymph and the Terrible Troglodyte. and King of the Merrows – or, The Prince and the Piper. Mortons plays included Ticklish Times, A Husband to Order, A Regular Fix. in 1870, W. S. Gilbert became another of the theatres notable authors, producing The Princess
16.
Lyceum Theatre, London
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The Lyceum Theatre is a 2, 100-seat West End theatre located in the City of Westminster, on Wellington Street, just off the Strand. The origins of the date to 1765. From 1816 to 1830, it served as The English Opera House, after a fire, the house was rebuilt and reopened on 14 July 1834 to a design by Samuel Beazley. The building was unique in that it has a balcony overhanging the dress circle and it was built by the partnership of Peto & Grissell. The theatre then played opera, adaptations of Charles Dickens novels and James Planchés fairy extravaganzas, from 1871 to 1902, Henry Irving appeared at the theatre in, especially, Shakespeare, usually starring opposite Ellen Terry. In 1904 the theatre was almost completely rebuilt and richly ornamented in Rococo style by Bertie Crewe and it played mostly melodrama over the ensuing decades. The building closed in 1939 and was set to be demolished, but it was saved and converted into a Mecca Ballroom in 1951, styled the Lyceum Ballroom, the Lyceum was closed in 1986 but restored to theatrical use in 1996 by Holohan Architects. Since 1999, the theatre has hosted The Lion King, the building was then leased out for dances and other entertainments, including musical entertainments by Charles Dibdin. Famed actor David Garrick also performed there, in 1794, the composer Samuel Arnold Sr rebuilt the interior of the building, making it into a proper theatre, but through the opposition of the existing patent theatres, he was not granted a patent. Therefore, he leased it to other entertainments again, including Philip Astley and it was also used as a chapel, a concert room, and for the first London exhibition of waxworks displayed by Madame Tussaud in 1802. It staged one of the earliest tableaux vivants, as part of William Dimonds The Peasant Boy in 1811, in 1816, Samuel Arnold rebuilt the house to a design by Beazley and opened it as The English Opera House, but it was destroyed by fire in 1830. The house was famous for hosting the London première of Mozarts opera Così fan tutte, during this period, the Sublime Society of Beef Steaks, which had been founded in 1735 by theatre manager Henry Rich, had its home at the theatre for over 50 years until 1867. The members, who never exceeded twenty-four in number, met every Saturday night to eat beefsteaks, in 1834, the present house opened slightly to the west, with a frontage on Wellington Street, under the name Theatre Royal Lyceum and English Opera House. The theatre was designed by Beazley and cost £40,000. The new house championed English opera rather than the Italian operas that had played earlier in the century, composer John Barnett produced a number of works in the first few years of the theatre, including The Mountain Sylph, credited as the first modern English opera. It was followed by Fair Rosamund in 1837 and Farinelli in 1839, in 1841–43, composer Michael Balfe managed the theatre and produced National Opera here, but the venture was ultimately unsuccessful. For instance, an adaptation of Dickens Martin Chuzzlewit ran for over 100 performances from 1844–45 here, the Lyceum was later managed by Madame Lucia Elizabeth Vestris and Charles James Mathews from 1847–55, who produced James Planchés extravaganzas featuring spectacular stage effects. Their first big success was John Maddison Mortons Box and Cox, tom Taylors adaptation of A Tale of Two Cities, with Dickens himself as consultant, played in 1860, shortly after end of its serialisation and volume publication
17.
Lucia Elizabeth Vestris
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Lucia Elizabeth Vestris was an English actress and a contralto opera singer, appearing in works by Mozart and Rossini. While popular in her time, she was notable as a theatre producer and manager. She also produced his work at other theatres she managed and she was born Elizabetta Lucia Bartolozzi in London in 1797, the first of two daughters of German pianist Theresa Jansen Bartolozzi and art dealer Gaetano Stefano Bartolozzi. He was a musician and son of the immigrant Francesco Bartolozzi, Gaetano Bartolozzi was a successful art dealer, and the family moved to Europe in 1798 when he sold off his business. They spent time in Paris and Vienna before reaching Venice where they found that their estate had been looted during the French invasion and they returned to London to start over and Gaetano taught drawing. The couple separated in London and Therese gave piano lessons to support her daughters, Lucia studied music and was noted for her voice and dancing ability. She was married at age 16 to the French dancer, Auguste Armand Vestris, a scion of the family of dancers of Florentine origin. Nevertheless, since she had started singing and acting professionally as Madame Vestris and she also sang in 1816 in Martín y Solers Una cosa rara and performed the roles of Dorabella and Susanna in Mozarts operas Così fan tutte, and The Marriage of Figaro. She had immediate success in both London and Paris, in the French capital city she occasionally appeared at the Théâtre-Italien and various other theatres. A legend that she performed as an actress at the Théâtre-Français playing Camille opposite François-Joseph Talma in Corneilles Horace has however turned out to be untrue. Finally, the legend has been refuted by modern biographers of Madame Vestris, from then on she remained an extraordinary favourite in opera, musical farces, and comedies until her retirement in 1854. She was credited with popularizing such new songs as Cherry Ripe, Meet Me by Moonlight Alone, Ive been roaming, in 1830, having accumulated a fortune from performing, she leased the Olympic Theatre from John Scott. There she began presenting a series of burlesques and extravaganzas—for which she made this house famous and she produced numerous works by the contemporary playwright James Planché, with whom she had a successful partnership, which included him contributing ideas for staging and costumes. She married in 1838 for the time, to the British actor Charles James Mathews. They cooperated in their subsequent managerial ventures, including the management of the Lyceum Theatre, mme Vestris and Mathews inaugurated their management of Covent Garden with the first-known production of Loves Labours Lost since 1605, Vestris played Rosaline. In 1840 she staged one of the first relatively uncut productions of A Midsummer Nights Dream and this began a tradition of female Oberons that lasted in the British theatre for seventy years. In 1841 Vestris produced the highly successful Victorian farce London Assurance by Dion Boucicault, the play has been popular ever since, receiving its most recent revival at the National Theatre in 2010. She also introduced the soprano Adelaide Kemble to the theatre in Bellini’s Norma, a daughter of John Kemble, actor-manager, and one of the theatre’s owners, and niece of Sarah Siddons, Adelaide had a sensational but short career before retiring into marriage
18.
James William Wallack
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James William Wallack was an Anglo-American actor and manager, born in London, and brother of Henry John Wallack. Wallacks parents were comedians, who performed at the London minor playhouses and his first appearance on the stage was as a child at the Surrey Theatre in London. Soon afterward he performed in juvenile characters at Drury Lane, and he also acted in the British provinces and in Ireland, gradually winning his way to popularity as a useful representative of drama and comedy. In 1823 he played Victor Frankenstein in Presumption, or, the Fate of Frankenstein at the English Opera House, in 1824 Wallack became stage manager at Drury Lane, and rose to the performance of secondary roles in tragedy. Later he played at the Haymarket Theatre, and officiated as stage manager at the Princesss Theatre, on the occasion of his first visit to the United States, in 1818, he played Macbeth at the Park Theatre, New York. He also played Romeo, Shylock, Coriolanus, Hamlet, and Richard III, but in the principal roles in The Stranger, Pizarro and The Gamester he closely copied the manner of Kemble and attracted favorable consideration. From 1818 until 1845 Wallack performed at intervals in all the cities of the United States. Among his roles were the characters in The Brigand, The Rent-Day, The Wonder, Don Cassar de Bazan, Wild Oats and the refined comedy parts of Mercutio, Jaques. Loves Ritornello, as sung by him in The Brigand, was hummed from one end of the country to the other, in 1822 Wallack met with an accident, in which his leg was fractured by the overturning of a stagecoach between New York and Philadelphia. This mishap retired him from life for about eighteen months. From 1837 until its destruction by fire, Wallack conducted the New York National Theatre, there he presented a repertory of the best plays in the English language, rendered by a company such as never before had been seen in this country. He settled permanently in New York City in 1852, in that year, he assumed management of an 1850 theatre two doors south of Broome Street on the west side of Broadway, called Broughams Lyceum, renaming it Wallacks Lyceum. In 1861 he built a new Wallacks Theatre at 13th Street and his son opened the third Wallacks Theatre in 1882. Wallack was an actor of the old school, thackeray praised his performance as Shylock, and Joseph Jefferson his Don Caesar de Bazan. As a performer he was endowed with a personality, his voice was highly melodious, set off by flexibility and careful elocution. In refined and eccentric comedy Wallack had few superiors, some of his roles in the romantic dramas of his own creation were entirely unequalled, and have died with him. Wallack married the daughter of John Henry Johnstone, a tenor and stage Irishman. Their son, Lester Wallack, was also a famous actor, a History of the New York Stage from the First Performance in 1732 to 1901
19.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
20.
Wallack's Theatre
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Four New York City theaters have borne the name Wallacks Theatre. Each has had other names before or after, or both, the last was one of the ten theaters which in the early 20th century made one block of 42nd Street internationally famous for its concentration of playhouses. The earlier three played an important part in the history of American theater, as the homes of the stock company managed by actors James W. Wallack and his son. During its 35-year lifetime, from 1852 to 1887, that company developed, James W. Actor-managers, such as the Wallacks, were members of their own company. Often, a manager leased a theater from its owner, and since the building was deemed an important part of the playgoer’s experience, sometimes a manager was able to have a theater built to his specifications, as did John Brougham. Earlier in 1850, he had built the new “Lecture Room” of Barnum’s American Museum, the performances at the new theater were principally burlesques and farces. Brougham was an actor, but this enterprise failed. After two seasons, James W. Wallack leased the house and, following custom, renamed it for himself, age 57, he was a well-known and well-respected British-American actor who had proved himself as a manager at the National Theater from 1837 until it burned down in 1839. After extensive renovation, he opened his new theater on September 8,1852, with The Way to Get Married and his sons, Lester, age 32, and Charles, were stage-manager and treasurer, respectively. Theodore Moss, who was to become an associate of the Wallacks, was assistant treasurer and later became treasurer. Admissions were fifty and twenty-five cents, English comedy and domestic dramas form the chief attractions at Wallack’s, and the house is generally full. The utmost order and decorum are maintained…and everything offensive to the most delicate taste carefully excluded from the stage. For the two seasons 1856–58 Wallack leased the house to William Stuart, who managed it with Lester Wallack as stage manager, Dion Boucicault as general director, Stuart, an Irishman whose real name was Edmund OFlaherty, had been a Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom. An alleged embezzler, he fled to New York in 1854 and he later managed the Winter Garden, and then the Park Theatre, on Broadway between 21st and 22nd Streets, and was widely popular socially. The elder Wallack performed October 20 through November 22,1856, Wallack did not perform during the 1857–58 season, and he resumed management of the theater in fall 1858. He managed the house for two more seasons, in 1861, Wallack moved his company. On April 1,1867, Wood transferred the lease to Barney Williams, the Broadway Theatre was soon torn down and replaced by the extant building comprising a store and lofts. As the city northward, James Wallack sought to follow
21.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
22.
Catherine Norton Sinclair
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Catherine Norton Sinclair was an actress-manager who worked with such notable actors as Junius Brutus Booth, Edwin Booth, and Laura Keene. Her sensational divorce from Edwin Forrest captivated the American public in the mid-1800s, Sinclair was born in London, the eldest of John and Catherine Sinclairs four children. The Sinclairs were originally from Edinburgh, Scotland, mr. Sinclair became a successful drummer in the militia and later a well-known singer, who toured the U. S. in the early 1830s. She was well-educated, and welcomed in the social and cultural circles of London society, at age nineteen, Sinclair attended a performance of The Gladiator, starring the popular American actor, Edwin Forrest, as Spartacus. She arranged to meet him and on June 23,1837 they were married at a church in Covent Garden, shortly thereafter, the Forrests moved to New York and lived there for the next twelve years. By many accounts, the Forrests lived as a married couple in New York from 1837-1849. Forrest became one of the prominent actors of his time, especially after his success in London, where previously American actors were not taken seriously. Forrests acting work took him throughout the U. S. sometimes accompanied by Mrs. Forrest, unfortunately, the Forrests had four children die during or immediately after childbirth. Mrs. Forrests parents and sisters also spent considerable time in the U. S. one sister, Mrs. Voorheis, lived with her husband in NYC. Whenever Forrest toured outside of NYC, Mrs. Voorheis usually stayed with her at the Forrest home on 22nd St, Mrs. Forrest was an intellectual and a captivating conversationalist, who was quickly accepted into the social circle of the literary and artistic elite of NYC. The literati discussed such works as George Sands novel, Consuelo, Mrs. Forrest was known to socialize at home with other members of this social circle while Forrest was working onstage, either in New York or in other venues around the country. Forrest himself did not participate and did not enjoy home company, the Forrests marriage began to unravel in 1848 when Forrest began to suspect that his wife had been unfaithful to him. The event that led to the Forrests separation and divorce trial concerned Mrs. Forrests relationship with George W. Jamieson, while on tour in Cincinnati, Forrest left his wife in the company of Jamieson while running an errand. Apparently suspicious, he returned ahead of schedule and encountered Jamieson performing an amateur phrenological study of Mrs. Forrests head. Forrest accepted this explanation but later took advantage of Mrs. Forrests absence from home to read a letter Jamieson wrote to her in the form of George Sands novel, Consuelo. According to Mrs. Forrest, who defended the novel, she had challenged Jamieson to write a letter that rivaled Mrs. Sands work in the novel. Mr. Forrest was unconvinced and immediately asked for a separation from Mrs. Forrest, the Forrests made a pledge to avoid publicizing the reasons for their separation, but by December 1849/January 1850 they both made public accusations about infidelity. Forrest sued for divorce in Pennsylvania with Mrs. Forrest filing a countersuit in New York shortly thereafter, Forrests suit was rejected for reasons of non-residency in the state of Pennsylvania
23.
Edwin Booth
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Edwin Thomas Booth was a 19th-century American actor who toured throughout America and the major capitals of Europe, performing Shakespearean plays. In 1869 he founded Booths Theatre in New York, a theatre that was quite modern for its time. Some theatrical historians consider him the greatest American actor, and the greatest Prince Hamlet and his achievements are often overshadowed by his relationship with his brother, John Wilkes Booth, the man who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln. Booth was born in Bel Air, Maryland, into the English American theatrical Booth family and he was the illegitimate son of another famous actor, Junius Brutus Booth, an Englishman, who named Edwin after Edwin Forrest and Thomas Flynn, two of Junius colleagues. He was the brother of John Wilkes Booth, himself a successful actor who gained notoriety as the assassin of President Lincoln. In early appearances, Booth usually performed alongside his father, making his debut as Tressel or Tressil in Colley Cibbers version of Richard III in Boston in 1849. His first appearance in New York City was in the character of Wilford in The Iron Chest, a year later, on the illness of the father, the son took his place in the character of Richard III. After his fathers death in 1852, Booth went on a tour, visiting Australia and Hawaii. Before his brother assassinated Lincoln, Edwin had appeared with his two brothers, John Wilkes and Junius Brutus Booth Jr. in Julius Caesar in 1864, John Wilkes played Marc Antony, Edwin played Brutus, and Junius played Cassius. It was a performance, and the only time that the three brothers appeared together on the same stage. The funds were used to erect a statue of William Shakespeare that still stands in Central Park just south of the Promenade, from 1863 to 1867, Booth managed the Winter Garden Theatre in New York City, mostly staging Shakespearean tragedies. In 1863, he bought the Walnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, after John Wilkes Booths assassination of President Lincoln in April 1865, the infamy associated with the Booth name forced Edwin Booth to abandon the stage for many months. Edwin, who had been feuding with John Wilkes before the assassination, disowned him afterward and he made his return to the stage at the Winter Garden Theatre in January 1866, playing the title role in Hamlet, which would eventually become his signature role. In 1867, a fire damaged the Winter Garden Theatre, resulting in the subsequent demolition. Elaborate productions followed, but the theatre never became a profitable or even stable financial venture, the panic of 1873 caused the final bankruptcy of Booths Theatre in 1874. After the bankruptcy, Booth went on another tour, eventually regaining his fortune. Booth was married to Mary Devlin from 1860 to 1863, the year of her death and they had one daughter, Edwina, born on December 9,1861, in London. He later remarried, wedding his acting partner Mary McVicker in 1869, in 1869, Edwin acquired his brother Johns body after repeatedly writing to President Andrew Johnson pleading for it
24.
William Evans Burton
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William Evans Burton, who often went by the nickname Billy, was an English actor, playwright, theater manager and publisher who relocated to the United States. Intended for a career in the church, Burton was a pupil at St. Pauls School in London, an institution associated also with the dramatic names of Robert William Elliston and Charles Mathews. At the age of 18, in consequence of the death of his father, the youth was called to take charge of the printing office and his first effort was to establish a monthly magazine. The attempt was a failure, but it brought him theatrical acquaintances, the first step in his theatrical career, as usual, was to join an amateur dramatic society, and it is said that about this time he gave a performance of Hamlet somewhere on the Strand. In 1825 he was associated with a provincial company acting at Norwich, and elsewhere in England, and he played low comedy. His aspirations at the start were for the tragic, and it is known that late in life he still at times entertained the fancy that nature had intended him to be a tragedian. Burton was one of the funniest creatures that lived, but his interior nature was thoughtful. He thought, felt, and understood tragedy, but when he came to act, at the outset of his career he led the usual life of an itinerant actor. There is a tradition that in the course of his wanderings he once played before George IV at Windsor. John Liston was then the favorite in London, and next to Liston stood John Reeve. His talents as a writer likewise displayed themselves at an early age, Burton went on to a large number of plays during his career. On 10 April 1823 Burton had married Elizabeth Loft, by whom in 1824 he had a son. The marriage was not a success, and partly due to this in 1834 Burton relocated to the United States, where he appeared in Philadelphia as Dr. Ollapod in The Poor Gentleman. He took a prominent place, both as actor and manager, in New York City, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the theatre which he leased in New York being renamed Burtons Theatre. He was very successful as Captain Cuttle in John Broughams dramatization of Dombey and Son, in 1837 in Philadelphia he established the Gentlemens Magazine, of which Edgar Allan Poe was for some time the editor. His magazine was intended for an audience, incorporating the standard fare of poetry and fiction. For the September 1837 issue Burton wrote an early example of the story, The Secret Cell, detailing a London policemans efforts to trace an abducted girl. Burton likely served as a critic himself for the magazine
25.
Winter Garden Theatre (1850)
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Initially known as Triplers Hall or Metropolitan Hall, it burned down in 1854 and was rebuilt as The New York Theatre. Although it burned to the several times, it rose from the ashes under different managers, bearing various names. Throughout its seventeen-year history, The Winter Garden Theatre played a significant role in the history of the American theatre, the theatre was originally planned in 1850 for the first engagement of the famous singer from Sweden, Jenny Lind, known as the Swedish Nightingale. Delays in construction meant that the theatre wasnt finished in time for Linds first show and she arrived to great fanfare and a reported gathering of over 40,000, but without the theatre being built for her, instead, Miss Lind opened at New York Citys Castle Garden. There were a few exceptions to these theatrical diversions, demonstrating that Tripler Hall had a more legitimate reputation during this period. That same year William Thackeray concluded a tour with a lecture at Tripler Hall. The theatre went through several different managers during this period, each manager naming the theatre as he or she pleased, the immense floor, the aisles, the galleries before the stage, and beside the doors, were crowded to excess. On December 27,1855, the actress and manager Laura Keene reopened the theatre as Laura Keenes Varieties with Old Heads and Young Hearts. Here the leading impresario of New York produced an eclectic form of entertainment which she would perfect in subsequent productions such as the musical Seven Sisters five years later. This etching, from the point of view, gives a rare glimpse into theatrical production on the American stage in the pre-Civil War era. Despite the success of the theatre under the management of Laura Keene and this house was reopened Sept.8,1856 as Burtons New Theatre, managed by William Evans Burton, with The Rivals. In 1858, Joseph Jefferson performed in the burlesque Mazeppa by F. A. Brady in which he was drawn across the stage atop a Crandall horse, boucicault effectively turned the theatre into a winter garden in the fall of the year. Among Boucicaults stable of actors were Joseph Jefferson, Agnes Robertson. The Octoroon, dealing with people of mixed white and African heritage, caused nothing short of a sensation, to see on the stage a drama that provoked discussions about race and politics. On February 21,1863, Edwin Booth took on the management of the Winter Garden Theatre with the intention of shifting the focus from musicals, tickets went for sale for a astounding price of five dollars. In the handbill promoting the production, it stated there would appear, for one night only. As their mother watched on from a box on the aisle and it seemed that there was a fire next door in the Lafarge House which threatened to engulf The Winter Garden Theatre. Before panic could consume the audience, Edwin stepped to the footlights to calm the audience, at the Lafarge House, someone had set fires in the front parlor and had emptied a bottle of phosphorus on the furniture throughout a room on the third floor
26.
National Museum of American History
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Among the items on display is the original Star-Spangled Banner. The museum is part of the Smithsonian Institution and located on the National Mall at 14th Street and Constitution Avenue NW in Washington, the museum opened in 1964 as the Museum of History and Technology. It was one of the last structures designed by the architectural firm McKim Mead & White. In May 2012, John Gray was announced as the new director, the museum underwent an $85 million renovation from September 5,2006 to November 21,2008, during which time it was closed. Skidmore, Owings and Merrill provided the architecture and interior design services for the renovation, major changes made during the renovation include, A new, five-story sky-lit atrium, which is surrounded by displays of artifacts that showcase the breadth of the museums collection. A new, grand staircase that links the museums first and second floors, a new welcome center, and the addition of six landmark objects to orient visitors. New galleries, such as the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Hall of Invention, an environmentally controlled chamber to protect the original Star-Spangled Banner. In 2012, the museum began a $37 million renovation of the west wing to add new spaces, public plazas. The renovation will also include panoramic windows overlooking the National Mall on all three floors and new features to the exhibits. The first floor of the west wing reopened on July 1,2015 with the second and third floors of the west wing reopening in 2016 and 2017, each wing of the museums three exhibition floors is anchored by a landmark object to highlight the theme of that wing. These include the John Bull locomotive, the Greensboro, North Carolina lunch counter, landmarks from pre-existing exhibits include the 1865 Vassar Telescope, a George Washington Statue, a Red Cross ambulance, and a car from Disneylands Dumbo Flying Elephant ride. Artifact walls,275 feet of glass-fronted cases, line the first, the lower level of the museum displays Taking America to Lunch, which celebrates the history of American lunch boxes. The museums food court, the Stars and Stripes Café, the first floors East Wing has exhibits that feature transportation and technology, they include America on the Move and Lighting a Revolution. The John Bull locomotive is the signature artifact, the exhibits in the West Wing address science and innovation. They include Science in American Life featuring Robots on the Road, spark. Lab is a hands-on exhibit of the Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation. The Vassar Telescope is the signature artifact, a café and the main museum store are also located on the first floor. The first floor contains the Constitution Avenue lobby, as well as a space for a temporary exhibit. The exhibitions in 2 East, the east wing of the floor, consider American ideals
27.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
28.
Mary Todd Lincoln
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Mary Ann Todd Lincoln was the wife of the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, and was First Lady of the United States from 1861 to 1865. She dropped the name Ann after her sister, Ann Todd, was born. A member of a large, wealthy Kentucky family, Mary was well educated, after living in the Todd House and finishing school during her teens, she moved to Springfield, Illinois, where she lived with her married sister Elizabeth Edwards. Before she married Abraham Lincoln, Mary was courted by his political opponent Stephen A. Douglas. She and Lincoln had four sons together, only one of whom outlived her and their home of about 17 years still stands at Eighth and Jackson Streets in Springfield, Illinois. She supported her throughout his presidency. She witnessed his fatal shooting when they were together in the Presidents Box at Fords Theatre on Tenth Street in Washington, Mary was involuntarily institutionalized for psychiatric disease ten years after her husbands murder. She also complained of physical symptoms during her adult life. Mary was born in Lexington, Kentucky as the fourth of seven children of Robert Smith Todd, a banker and her family were slaveholders, and Mary was raised in comfort and refinement. When Mary was six, her mother died, two years later, her father married Elizabeth Betsy Humphreys and they had nine children together. Mary had a relationship with her stepmother. From 1832, Mary and her family lived in what is now known as the Mary Todd Lincoln House, Marys paternal great-grandfather, David Levi Todd, was born in County Longford, Ireland, and immigrated through Pennsylvania to Kentucky. Her great-great maternal grandfather Samuel McDowell was born in Scotland, other Todd ancestors came from England. At an early age Mary was sent to Madame Mantelles finishing school and she learned to speak French fluently and studied dance, drama, music, and social graces. By age 20, she was regarded as witty and gregarious, like her family, she was a Whig. Mary began living with her sister Elizabeth Porter Edwards in Springfield, Elizabeth, married to Ninian W. Edwards, son of a former governor, served as Marys guardian. Mary Todd married Abraham Lincoln on November 4,1842, at her sister Elizabeths home in Springfield and she was 23 years old and he was 33 years of age. Their four sons, all born in Springfield, were, Robert Todd Lincoln, -– lawyer, diplomat, businessman
29.
John Wilkes Booth
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John Wilkes Booth was an American actor and assassin, who murdered President Abraham Lincoln at Fords Theatre in Washington, D. C. on April 14,1865. Booth was a member of the prominent 19th-century Booth theatrical family from Maryland and and he was also a Confederate sympathizer, vehement in his denunciation of Lincoln, and strongly opposed to the abolition of slavery in the United States. Of the conspirators, only Booth was completely successful in carrying out his part of the plot and he shot Lincoln once in the back of the head, and the President died the next morning. Seward was severely wounded but recovered, and Vice-President Johnson was never attacked at all, following the assassination, Booth fled on horseback to southern Maryland, eventually making his way to a farm in rural northern Virginia 12 days later, where he was tracked down. Booths companion gave himself up, but Booth refused and was shot by Boston Corbett, eight other conspirators or suspects were tried and convicted, and four were hanged shortly thereafter. Booths parents were noted British Shakespearean actor Junius Brutus Booth and his mistress Mary Ann Holmes and they purchased a 150-acre farm near Bel Air, Maryland, where John Wilkes Booth was born in a four-room log house on May 10,1838, the ninth of ten children. He was named after English radical politician John Wilkes, a distant relative, Junius wife Adelaide Delannoy Booth was granted a divorce in 1851 on grounds of adultery, and Holmes legally wed Junius on May 10,1851, the youths 13th birthday. As a boy, Booth was athletic and popular, and he became skilled at horsemanship, each day he rode back and forth from farm to school, taking more interest in what happened along the way than in reaching his classes on time. At the Milton school, students recited classical works by authors as Cicero, Herodotus. Students at St. Timothys wore military uniforms and were subject to a regimen of daily formation drills, Booth left school at 14, after his fathers death. His sister recalled that Booth wrote down the palm-readers prediction, showed it to his family and others, Booth aspired to follow in the footsteps of his father and his actor brothers Edwin and Junius Brutus, Jr. He began practicing elocution daily in the woods around Tudor Hall, the editors introduction of the 1874 memoir of Booths sister Asia Booth Clarke states that no individual church was preeminent in the Booth household during her childhood. Booths mother was Episcopalian, and his father was described as a spirit who was open to the great teachings of all religions. On January 23,1853, the 14-year-old Booth was baptized at St. Timothys Protestant Episcopal Church, the Booth family had traditionally been Episcopalian. Clergyman Charles Chiniquy, however, stated that Booth was really a convert to Roman Catholicism later in life, historian Constance Head also declared that Booth was of this religion. Testimony given at the trial of John Surratt showed that at his death, Booth had a Catholic medal on his person, Court evidence showed his attending a Roman Catholic church service on at least two occasions. Like his sister Asia, he received education at a school established by an official of the Catholic Church, Constance Head states, In any case, it seems certain that Booth did not publicize his conversion during his lifetime. Booth made his debut at age 17 on August 14,1855 in the supporting role of the Earl of Richmond in Richard III at Baltimores Charles Street Theatre
30.
Dion Boucicault
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Dionysius Lardner Boursiquot, commonly known as Dion Boucicault, was an Irish actor and playwright famed for his melodramas. By the later part of the 19th century, Boucicault had become known on both sides of the Atlantic as one of the most successful actor-playwright-managers then in the English-speaking theatre, the New York Times heralded him in his obituary as the most conspicuous English dramatist of the 19th century. Dionysius Lardner Boursiquot was born and educated in Dublin where he lived on Gardiner Street and his mother was Anne Darley, sister of the poet and mathematician George Darley. The Darleys were an important Dublin family influential in many fields, Anne was married to Samuel Smith Boursiquot, of Huguenot ancestry, but the identity of the boys father is questionable. He was probably Dionysius Lardner, a lodger at his mothers house at a time when she was separated from her husband. Dion went to London and was enrolled at University College School at the age of 13, after a year in London, Boursiquot/Boucicault left to pursue acting in Cheltenham. The young actor used the stage name Lee Morton and he joined William Charles Macready and made his first appearance upon the stage with Benjamin Webster at Bristol, England. Soon afterwards he began to write plays, occasionally in conjunction and his first play, A Legend of the Devils Dyke, opened in Brighton in 1838. Three years later he found success as a dramatist with London Assurance. Produced at Covent Garden on 4 March 1841, its cast included such actors as Charles Mathews, William Farren, Mrs Nesbitt. The last two plays were adaptations of French plays, in his play The Vampire, Boucicault made his début as a leading actor as the vampire Sir Alan Raby. Although the play itself had mixed reviews, Boucicaults characterisation was praised as a dreadful, in 1854 he wrote and played the title character in Andy Blake, or, The Irish Diamond. From 1854 to 1860, Boucicault resided in the United States, Boucicault and his actress wife, Agnes Robertson, toured America. He also wrote successful plays there, acting in most of them. These included the popular Jessie Brown, or, The Relief of Lucknow in 1858, in the summer of 1859, Boucicault took over as manager of Burtons New Theatre on Broadway just below Amity Street. After extensive remodelling, he renamed his new showplace the Winter Garden Theatre, there on 5 December 1859, he premiered his new sensation, the anti-slavery potboiler The Octoroon, in which he also starred. This was the first play to treat seriously the Black American population, on his return to England, he produced at the Adelphi Theatre a dramatic adaptation of Gerald Griffins novel, The Collegians, entitled The Colleen Bawn. This play, one of the most successful of the times, was performed in almost every city of the United Kingdom, although it made its author a handsome fortune, he lost it in the management of various London theatres
31.
Chestnut Street Theatre
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The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was the first theater in the United States built by entrepreneurs solely as a venue for paying audiences. Wignell had not yet formed his company when the New Theatre was being set up to be built, the New Theaters design, modeled after the Theatre Royal, Bath, was made possible by John Inigo Richards, Wignells brother-in-law, who obtained architect Thomas Greenway’s original plans. The New Theatre was built on Chestnut Street near the corner of Sixth Street across from Congress Hall, $30,000 was raised for the construction of the building and the finale touches were not completed until 1805 under architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe. The stage ran with a depth of seventy-one feet and had a width of thirty feet, the three tiers of boxes could hold nine hundred people, the theatre itself was able to hold an audience of two thousand. There were multiple dressing rooms, two rooms, and for the first time in America a large well-stocked wardrobe. There were two different entrances from the street for the patrons, those going to the pit. The entryway to the pit was only eighteen inches wide, a trap in the event of a fire. Like English theatres the New Theatre on Chestnut Street had all the essentials, a proscenium with proscenium doors in the proscenium walls with a balcony overhead. Not long after its construction the New Theatre was often referred to as one of the Seven Wonders of America, over the following twenty-seven years the theater would become a showcase for works by local and national dramatist of the day. In 1816 the New Theatre became the first American theater to be illuminated by gas rather than candlelight or oil lamps. Four years later a fire destroyed the theater along with its library, music, scenery. The cause of the fire remained a mystery since the building had been vacant for several days while the company was engaged in Baltimore, two years later, the second Chestnut Street Theatre rose from the ashes of the first. The façade was made of Italian-style marble with an arcade supported by a row of columns with a plain entablature. The entrance stood between two wings whose niches held statues of Tragedy and Comedy by William Rush, below the statues were semi-circular recesses containing basso relievos of tragic and comic muses. The Chestnut Street Theatre was once consumed in a fire in 1856. The third Chestnut Street Theatre was built in 1862, seven blocks to the west of its original location, where once again it found favor with Philadelphia audiences as a fashionable night spot. It closed its doors for the last time in 1913 after the fell on the final act of Sir Arthur Wing Pineros The Second Mrs. Tanqueray. Mrs. French Chestnut St. Theatre at the Historical Society of Philadelphia
32.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
33.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
34.
New York Herald
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The New York Herald was a large distribution newspaper based in New York City that existed between May 6,1835, and 1924. The first issue of the paper was published by James Gordon Bennett, by 1845, it was the most popular and profitable daily newspaper in the United States. In 1861, it circulated 84,000 copies and called itself the most largely circulated journal in the world, Bennett stated that the function of a newspaper is not to instruct but to startle and amuse. His politics tended to be anti-Catholic and he had tended to favor the Know-Nothing faction, during the American Civil War, his policy as expressed by the newspaper was to staunchly support the Democratic Party. Frederic Hudson served as managing editor of the paper from 1846–1866, Bennett turned over control of the paper to his son James Gordon Bennett, Jr. in 1866. Under Gordon Bennett Jr. the paper financed Henry Morton Stanleys expeditions into Africa to find David Livingstone, the paper also supported Stanleys trans-Africa exploration, and in 1879 supported the ill-fated expedition of George W. DeLong to the arctic region. On October 4,1887, Bennett Jr. sent Julius Chambers to Paris, Bennett himself later moved to Paris, but the New York Herald suffered from his attempt to manage its operation in New York by telegram. In 1924, after Bennett Jr. s death, the New York Herald was acquired by its rival the New York Tribune. In 1959, the New York Herald Tribune and its European edition were sold to John Hay Whitney, in 1966, the New York paper ceased publication. The Washington Post and the New York Times acquired joint control of the European edition, when the Herald was still under the authority of its original publisher Bennett, it was considered to be the most invasive and sensationalist of the leading New York papers. Its ability to entertain the public with timely daily news made it the leading circulation paper of its time, the New York Evening Telegram was founded in 1867 by the junior Bennett, and was considered by many to be an evening edition of the Herald. Frank Munsey acquired the Telegram in 1920, which ceased its connection to the Herald, New Yorks Herald Square is named after the New York Herald newspaper, in the north side of the square there is a sculpture commemorating the Bennetts. The statue of Minerva, the Bellringers, and Owls by Antonin Carles originally graced the New York Herald building and rang every hour until it was moved to Herald Square, the chorus of Give My Regards to Broadway includes the phrase, emember me to Herald Square. North of Herald Square is Times Square, which is named after rival The New York Times, New York Herald Tribune Three months with the New York Herald, or, Old news on board of a homeward. By John Henry Potter Photographs and architectural sketches of the New York Herald Building
35.
Internet Broadway Database
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The Internet Broadway Database is an online database of Broadway theatre productions and their personnel. It was conceived and created by Karen Hauser in 1996 and is operated by the Research Department of The Broadway League, the website also has a corresponding app for both the IOS and Android. This comprehensive history of Broadway provides records of productions from the beginnings of New York theatre in the 18th century up to today, details include cast and creative lists for opening night and current day, song lists, awards and other interesting facts about every Broadway production. Other features of IBDB include an archive of photos from past and present Broadway productions, headshots, links to cast recordings on iTunes or Amazon, gross. Its mission was to be an interactive, user-friendly, searchable database for League members, journalists, researchers, the League recently added Broadway Touring shows to the database for ease of tracking shows that play in theatres across the country. It is managed by Karen Hauser, Michael Abourizk, and Mark Smith of the Broadway League, Internet Theatre Database – ITDb Internet Movie Database – IMDb Internet Book Database – IBookDb Lortel Archives – IOBDb The Broadway League Official website Broadway League website
36.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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