1.
Printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
2.
Platen
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A platen is a flat platform with a variety of roles in printing or manufacturing. It can be a metal plate pressed against a medium to cause an impression in letterpress printing. In office copiers and scanners, the platen is a glass surface on which operators place papers or books for scanning. The platen is called the flatbed. Platens are also used in printers, such as the Dot-matrix printer. In semiconductor manufacturing, specifically chemical-mechanical planarization, a flat, rotating platen covered with a pad is used to polish semiconductor wafers, in textile screen printing, a platen is a flat board onto which the operator slides the garment. It is generally made of either a plywood laminate or aluminum with a rubber laminate, often the platen will be pretreated with a spray adhesive. This allows the garment to effectively become a rigid immobile substrate, the screen is brought parallel and close to the garment and the squeegee pressure then brings the screen into contact with the garment so that the ink transfer may occur. In woodworking, wide belt sanders use platens to press the paper into contact with the wood being sanded. The platen sits between two rolls which deliver the moving force to the sanding belt. Sanding heads with a platen are used on finish sanding with papers of finer grits, stock is fed into and out of the machine on a conveyor belt. In metal forming processes, a platen is the component that houses the mold for forging the required shape, the platen tends to be the heaviest and strongest part of the press due to the massive forces that it has to withstand. A platen for a 5000-ton press can weigh up to 350 tons, in manufacturing, a platen is a flat plate of a press utilized in laminate, plastic and forest product industries. A platen is typically heated with oil, water, steam or electricity and is used in the production of furniture, tires, gaskets, particle board, composite heaters and plywood. In high frequency welding products, platens are used to put lines on PVC binders and folders down the spine lines, platens are utilized in impact testing in research, a specimen is crushed between platens. The platen also refers to the part of a linear motor
3.
Relief printing
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Relief printing is a process where protruding surface faces of the printing plate or block are inked, recessed areas are ink free. Printing the image is therefore a simple matter of inking the face of the matrix. A printing-press may not be needed as the back of the paper can be rubbed or pressed by hand with a tool such as a brayer or roller. The matrix in relief printing is classically created by starting with a flat original surface, the remaining areas of the original surface receive the ink. The relief family of techniques includes woodcut, metalcut, wood engraving, relief etching, linocut, rubber stamp, foam printing, potato printing, traditional text printing with movable type is also a relief technique. This meant that woodcuts were much easier to use as book illustrations, intaglio illustrations, such as engravings, had to be printed separately. Relief printing is one of the families of printmaking techniques, along with the intaglio. Modern developments have created other types, in contrast, in the intaglio process the recessed areas are the printed areas. The whole matrix is inked, and the ink then wiped away from the surface, much greater pressure is then needed to force the paper into the channels containing the ink, and a high-pressure press will normally be required. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, and drypoint, with planographic techniques, such as lithography, the entire surface of the matrix is flat, and some areas are treated to create the print image. Normally relief and intaglio techniques can only be mixed with others of the family in the same work. See also Relief printing techniques as used and described by French printmaker Dominique Lecomte
4.
Movable type
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Movable type is the system and technology of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document usually on the medium of paper. In 1377, currently the oldest extant movable metal print book, the diffusion of both movable-type systems was, however, limited. Around 1450 Johannes Gutenberg made another version of a metal printing press in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix. The more limited number of characters needed for European languages was an important factor, Gutenberg was the first to create his type pieces from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony—and these materials remained standard for 550 years. For alphabetic scripts, movable-type page setting was quicker than woodblock printing, the metal type pieces were more durable and the lettering was more uniform, leading to typography and fonts. The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible established the superiority of movable type in Europe, the printing press may be regarded as one of the key factors fostering the Renaissance and due to its effectiveness, its use spread around the globe. The 19th-century invention of hot metal typesetting and its successors caused movable type to decline in the 20th century, the technique of imprinting multiple copies of symbols or glyphs with a master type punch made of hard metal first developed around 3000 BC in ancient Sumer. These metal punch types can be seen as precursors of the letter punches adapted in later millennia to printing with metal type. Cylinder seals were used in Mesopotamia to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay and they were used to sign documents and mark objects as the owners property. By 650 BC the ancient Greeks were using larger diameter punches to imprint small page images onto coins and tokens, seals and stamps may have been precursors to movable type. A few authors even view the disc as technically meeting all definitional criteria to represent an early incidence of movable-type printing, recently it has been alleged by Jerome Eisenberg that the disk is a forgery. The Prüfening dedicatory inscription is medieval example of movable type stamps being used, yet copying books by hand was still labour-consuming. Not until the Xiping Era, towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty did sealing print and it was soon used for printing designs on fabrics, and later for printing texts. Woodblock printing, invented by about the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty, then carvers cut away the parts of the board that were not part of the character, so that the characters were cut in relief, completely differently from those cut intaglio. When printing, the characters would have some ink spread on them. With workers’ hands moving on the back of paper gently, characters would be printed on the paper, by the Song Dynasty, woodblock printing came to its heyday. Although woodblock printing played a role in spreading culture, there remained some apparent drawbacks. Firstly, carving the printing plate required considerable time, labour and materials, secondly, it was not convenient to store these plates, with woodblock printing, one printing plate could be used for tens of hundreds of books, playing a magnificent role in spreading culture
5.
Ink
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Ink is a liquid or paste that contains pigments or dyes and is used to color a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing or writing with a pen, brush, thicker inks, in paste form, are used extensively in letterpress and lithographic printing. Ink can be a medium, composed of solvents, pigments, dyes, resins, lubricants, solubilizers, surfactants, particulate matter, fluorescents. The components of inks serve many purposes, the carrier, colorants. Pigments are solid, opaque particles suspended in ink to provide color, pigment molecules typically link together in crystalline structures that are 0. 1–2 µm in size and comprise 5–30 percent of the ink volume. Qualities such as hue, saturation, and lightness vary depending on the source, dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based inks and can produce much more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, making the ink less efficient. To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, other methods include harder paper sizing and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks used in non-industrial settings, another technique involves coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the charge, it is attracted to and retained by this coating. Cellulose, the material most paper is made of, is naturally charged. Such a compound is used in ink-jet printing inks. A more recent development in dye-based inks are dyes that react with cellulose to permanently color the paper, such inks are not affected by water, alcohol, and other solvents. As such, their use is recommended to prevent frauds that involve removing signatures and this kind of ink is most commonly found in gel inks and in certain fountain pen inks. Many ancient cultures around the world have discovered and formulated inks for the purposes of writing and drawing. The knowledge of the inks, their recipes and the techniques for their production comes from archaeological analysis or from written text itself. Evidence for the earliest Chinese inks, similar to modern inksticks, is around 256 BC in the end of the Warring States period and produced from soot, the best inks for drawing or painting on paper or silk are produced from the resin of the pine tree. They must be between 50 and 100 years old, the Chinese inkstick is produced with a fish glue, whereas Japanese glue is from cow or stag
6.
Wood engraving
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Wood engraving is a printmaking and letterpress printing technique, in which an artist works an image or matrix of images into a block of wood. Functionally a variety of woodcut, it uses relief printing, where the artist applies ink to the face of the block and prints using relatively low pressure. By contrast, ordinary engraving, like etching, uses a metal plate for the matrix, and is printed by the method, where the ink fills the valleys. As a result, wood engravings deteriorate less quickly than copper-plate engravings, Thomas Bewick developed the wood engraving technique at the end of the 18th century. His work differed from earlier woodcuts in two key ways, first, rather than using woodcarving tools such as knives, Bewick used an engravers burin. With this, he could create thin delicate lines, often creating large areas in the composition. Second, wood engraving traditionally uses the woods end grain—while the older technique used the side grain. The resulting increased hardness and durability facilitated more detailed images, wood-engraved blocks could be used on conventional printing presses, which were going through rapid mechanical improvements during the first quarter of the 19th century. The blocks were made the same height as, and composited alongside, the combination of this new wood engraving method and mechanized printing drove a rapid expansion of illustrations in the 19th century. Further, advances in stereotype let wood-engravings be reproduced onto metal, by the mid-19th century, many wood engravings rivaled copperplate engravings. In 15th and 16th-century Europe, woodcuts were a technique in printmaking and printing. They were still made for printing press work such as newspapers or almanacs. The beginnings of modern wood engraving techniques developed at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, Bewick generally engraved harder woods, such as boxwood, rather than the woods used in woodcuts, and he engraved the ends of blocks instead of the side. Finding a woodcutting knife not suitable for working against the grain in harder woods, Bewick used a burin, from the beginning of the nineteenth century Bewicks techniques gradually came into wider use, especially in Britain and the United States. Alexander Anderson introduced the technique to the United States, Bewicks work impressed him, so he reverse engineered and imitated Bewicks technique—using metal until he learned that Bewick used wood. This was, in ways a unnatural application, since engravers had to cut away almost all the surface of the block to produce the printable lines of the artists drawing. Nonetheless, it became the most common use of wood engraving, in the United States, wood-engraved publications also began to take hold, such as Harpers Weekly. A single design was divided into a grid, and each worked on a square
7.
Stereotype (printing)
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The composition of individual cast metal types into lines with leading and furniture, tightly locked into a forme, was labor-intensive and costly. The printer would incur further expense through loss of the type for other uses while held in formes, publishers who did not accurately predict sales were forced into the expense of paying for the type to be reset for subsequent editions. English sources often describe the process as having been invented in 1725 by William Ged, however, Count Canstein had been publishing stereotyped Bibles in Germany since 1712 and an earlier form of stereotyping from flong was described in Germany in 1702. It is even possible that the process was used as early as the century by Johannes Gutenberg or his heirs for the Mainz Catholicon. Wide application of the technique, with improvements, is attributed to Charles Stanhope in the early 1800s, printing plates for the Bible were stereotyped in the US in 1814. Over time, stereotype became a metaphor for any set of ideas repeated identically or with minor changes. In fact, cliché and stereotype were both originally printers words, and in their printing senses became synonymous, the term stereotype derives from Greek στερεός solid, firm and τύπος blow, impression, engraved mark and in its modern sense was coined in 1798. The Era of Charles Mahon, Third Earl of Stanhope, Stereotyper, wet Mat Stereotyping in Germany in 1690. Historical Treatises, Abstracts, and Papers on Stereotyping
8.
Electrotyping
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Electrotyping is a chemical method for forming metal parts that exactly reproduce a model. The method was invented by Moritz von Jacobi in Russia in 1838, in art, several important bronze sculptures created in the 19th century are actually electrotyped copper, and not bronze at all, sculptures were executed using electrotyping at least into the 1930s. In printing, electrotyping had become a method for producing plates for letterpress printing by the late 1800s. It complemented the older technology of stereotyping, which involved metal casting, by 1901, stereotypers and electrotypers in several countries had formed labor unions around these crafts. As with metal casting and stereotyping, a mold is first formed from the model, since electrotyping involves wet chemical processes and is done near room temperature, the molding material can be soft. Materials such as wax, gutta-percha, and ultimately ozokerite were used, the molds surface is made electrically conducting by coating it very thinly with fine graphite powder or paint. A wire is attached to the surface, and the mold is suspended in an electrolyte solution. Electrotyping is activated by electric currents flow between anode wires that are also immersed in the solution and the wire connected to the coated mold. For copper electrotyping, an aqueous electrolyte contains copper sulfate and sulfuric acid, and the anode is also copper. The electric current causes copper atoms to dissolve from the anodes surface, copper ions are taken up by the molds conducting surface at the same rate at which copper dissolves from the anode, thus completing the electrical circuit. When the copper layer on the mold grows to the desired thickness, the mold and its attached electrotype are removed from the solution, and the electrotype and the mold are separated. An animation of the process was produced in 2011 by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Other metals besides copper can be electrotyped, similar procedures apply, there is a second type of electrotyping that has been used in which the copper film is deposited onto the outside of a form, and is not separated from it. In this use the form is typically waterproofed plaster, which remains as a core after electrotyping, in German this method is known as Kerngalvanoplastik, the more usual technique described in the previous paragraph is known as Hohlgalvanoplastik. Electrotyping is related to electroplating, which adds a thin metallic overlayer to a metallic object instead of creating a freestanding metal part. Electrotyping and electroforming both produce metal parts, but differ in technical details, electroforming involves the production of a metallic part around a metallic mandrel, although the term is sometimes used more broadly to encompass all electrodeposition processes. As noted above, electrotyping forms the part using a mold or form whose surface has been made conducting by applying a thin coating of graphite or metal powder. At present, most sources credit Moritz Hermann Jacobi with the invention of galvanoplasty or electrotyping in 1838, Jacobi was a Prussian scientist who was working in St. Petersburg, 19th-century accounts often credited Thomas Spencer or C. J
9.
Hot metal typesetting
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In printing and typography, hot metal typesetting refers to technologies for typesetting text in letterpress printing. This method injects molten type metal into a mold that has the shape of one or more glyphs, the resulting sorts and slugs are later used to press ink onto paper. Two different approaches to mechanising typesetting were independently developed in the late 19th century, one, known as the Monotype composition caster system, produced texts with the aid of perforated paper-ribbons, all characters are cast separate. These machines could produce texts also in large-composition up to 24 point, the Super-caster, another machine produced by Monotype, was similar in function to the Thompson, Bath, pivotal and others casters but designed to produce single type for hand setting. The other approach was to cast complete lines as one slug, in this way headings could be produced to complement text produced on other machines. There is another difference between Monotype and all the slug-producing machines, a Monotype machine functions with a minimal set of matrices. Linecasters cannot function this way, and these systems need quite large magazines of matrices to be able to set a line of text with the usual character repetitions. The key feature of the Linotype is the use of molds which circulate through the machine in its various stages of operation, one type is a space band and the other is a letter matrix made of brass. The matrices are stored in one or more magazines on top of the machine while the bands are stored in a box closer to the keyboard. When the space band key near the keyboard is pressed, one of the space bands drops out of the box, the assembling elevator is adjustable for different lengths of line. Once the line approaches its correct length, the operator is aware of this by a bell or other indicator. If the line is ‘tight’ or too long, the carrying the matrices. Both scenarios, if not stopped by these safety features, usually result in a “squirt” of molten metal, encasing the matrices. Not only is it time-consuming to clean up after a squirt, therefore, it is considered very poor form for an operator to permit this to happen. When the line is assembled to the length, the operator presses down on a lever which raises the assembling elevator up into the delivery channel. The delivery channel transfers the matrices out of the assembler and into the first elevator, if the justification bar has made a full cycle and the line is still not fully justified, the second safety—the pump stop—prevents the plunger in the metal pot from going down. The space bands were an important feature of this machine, providing automatic justification of each line by equally adjusting the space between each word. Since the type used was proportional and not fixed in width, some later models had a feature that permitted the lines to be cast with the alignment to either left, right or centered
10.
Johannes Gutenberg
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Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe. Gutenberg in 1439 was the first European to use the printing press and his truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system that allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and readers alike. Gutenbergs method for making type is considered to have included a type metal alloy. The alloy was a mixture of lead, tin, and antimony that melted at a low temperature for faster and more economical casting, cast well. In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of communication which permanently altered the structure of society. Gutenbergs printing technology spread rapidly throughout Europe and later the world and his major work, the Gutenberg Bible, has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality. Gutenberg was born in the German city of Mainz, the youngest son of the upper-class merchant Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden, and his wife, Else Wyrich. It is assumed that he was baptized in the close to his birthplace of St. Christoph. According to some accounts, Friele was a goldsmith for the bishop at Mainz, Gutenbergs year of birth is not precisely known but was most likely around 1398. John Lienhard, technology historian, says Most of Gutenbergs early life is a mystery and his father worked with the ecclesiastic mint. Gutenberg grew up knowing the trade of goldsmithing and this is supported by historian Heinrich Wallau, who adds, In the 14th and 15th centuries his claimed a hereditary position as. Retainers of the household of the master of the archiepiscopal mint, in this capacity they doubtless acquired considerable knowledge and technical skill in metal working. They supplied the mint with the metal to be coined, changed the species of coins. Wallau adds, His surname was derived from the inhabited by his father and his paternal ancestors zu Laden. The house of Gänsfleisch was one of the families of the town. Patricians in Mainz were often named after houses they owned, around 1427, the name zu Gutenberg, after the family house in Mainz, is documented to have been used for the first time. In 1411, there was an uprising in Mainz against the patricians, as a result, the Gutenbergs are thought to have moved to Eltville am Rhein, where his mother had an inherited estate. According to historian Heinrich Wallau, All that is known of his youth is that he was not in Mainz in 1430 and it is presumed that he migrated for political reasons to Strasbourg, where the family probably had connections
11.
Offset printing
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Offset printing is a commonly used printing technique in which the inked image is transferred from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. The modern web process feeds a large reel of paper through a press machine in several parts, typically for several metres. Development of the press came in two versions, in 1875 by Robert Barclay of England for printing on tin, and in 1904 by Ira Washington Rubel of the United States for printing on paper. Lithography was initially created to be a method of reproducing artwork. This printing process was limited to use on flat, porous surfaces because the plates were produced from limestone. In fact, the word lithograph historically means an image from stone or printed from stone, tin cans were popular packaging materials in the 19th century, but transfer technologies were required before the lithographic process could be used to print on the tin. The first rotary offset lithographic printing press was created in England and this development combined mid-19th century transfer printing technologies and Richard March Hoes 1843 rotary printing press—a press that used a metal cylinder instead of a flat stone. The offset cylinder was covered with specially treated cardboard that transferred the image from the stone to the surface of the metal. Later, the covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber. As the 19th century closed and photography became popular, many lithographic firms went out of business, photoengraving, a process that used halftone technology instead of illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. Many printers, including Ira Washington Rubel of New Jersey, were using the low-cost lithograph process to produce copies of photographs, Rubel discovered in 1901—by forgetting to load a sheet—that when printing from the rubber roller, instead of the metal, the printed page was clearer and sharper. After further refinement, the Potter Press printing Company in New York produced a press in 1903, by 1907 the Rubel offset press was in use in San Francisco. The Harris Automatic Press Company also created a similar press around the same time, charles and Albert Harris modeled their press on a rotary letter press machine. One of the most important functions in the process is prepress production. This stage makes sure that all files are processed in preparation for printing. This includes converting to the proper CMYK color model, finalizing the files, Offset lithography is one of the most common ways of creating printed materials. A few of its common applications include, newspapers, magazines, brochures, stationery, compared to other printing methods, offset printing is best suited for economically producing large volumes of high quality prints in a manner that requires little maintenance. Many modern offset presses use computer-to-plate systems as opposed to the older computer-to-film work flows, advantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include, consistent high image quality
12.
Global spread of the printing press
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The global spread of the printing press began with the invention of the printing press with movable type by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz, Germany. Western printing technology was adopted in all regions by the end of the 19th century, displacing the manuscript. In the Western world, the operation of a press became synonymous with the enterprise of publishing and lent its name to a new branch of media, the press. Gutenbergs first major print work was the 42-line Bible in Latin, after Gutenberg lost a lawsuit against his investor Johann Fust, Fust put Gutenbergs employee Peter Schöffer in charge of the print shop. Thereupon Gutenberg established a new one with the backing of another money lender. In rapid succession, printing presses were set up in Central, major towns, in particular, functioned as centers of diffusion. According to one estimate, by 1500,1000 printing presses were in operation throughout Western Europe and had produced 8 million books. According to another, the output was in the order of twenty million volumes, Germany and Italy were considered the two main centres of printing in terms of quantity and quality. The near-simultaneous discovery of sea routes to the West and East, traders, colonists, but perhaps most importantly, missionaries exported printing presses to the new European oversea domains, setting up new print shops and distributing printing material. In the Americas, the first extra-European print shop was founded in Mexico City in 1544, for a long time however, movable type printing remained mainly the business of Europeans working from within the confines of their colonies. In India, reports are that Jesuits presented a polyglot Bible to the Emperor Akbar in 1580, but also practical reasons seem to have played a role. The English East India Company, for example, brought a printer to Surat in 1675, the following represents a selection, In the 15th century, printing presses were established in 77 Italian cities and towns. At the end of the century,151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities. During these two centuries a total of 2894 printers were active in Italy, with only 216 of them located in southern Italy, ca. 60% of the Italian printing shops were situated in six cities, with the concentration of printers in Venice being particularly high. Apart from the cities above, there was a number of lesser towns which set up printing presses. In 1481, printing was already done in 21 towns and cities, in the 16th century, a total of 20 print shops were active in 30 different places in Hungary, as some of them were moving several times due to political instability. In the 15th and 16th centuries printing presses were established in Poznań, Lwów, Brześć Litewski. By 1500, the point for incunabula,236 towns in Europe had presses
13.
Typography
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Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible, readable, and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces, point sizes, line lengths, line-spacing, and letter-spacing, the term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely related craft, sometimes considered part of typography, most typographers do not design typefaces, Typography also may be used as a decorative device, unrelated to communication of information. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation, as the capability to create typography has become ubiquitous, the application of principles and best practices developed over generations of skilled workers and professionals has diminished. Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay, Typography also was implemented in the Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete, which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B. C. It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created with movable type printing, the essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc. The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter punches, apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries. Other early examples include individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi Sheng. His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty, wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down, metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD, the diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however. Modern lead-based movable type, along with the printing press, is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg in 1439. His type pieces, made from an alloy, suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today. Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts and this technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the Gutenberg Bible. Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the twentieth century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as introduced by IBM. During the mid-1980s personal computers such as the Macintosh allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software, Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as well as the practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, the cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses
14.
Wine press
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A wine press is a device used to extract juice from crushed grapes during wine making. There are a number of different styles of presses that are used by wine makers, each style of press exerts controlled pressure in order to free the juice from the fruit. The pressure must be controlled, especially grapes, in order to avoid crushing the seeds. Wine was being made at least as long ago as 6000 BC, in 2011, a basket press consists of a large basket filled with the crushed grapes. Pressure is applied through a plate that is forced down onto the fruit, the mechanism to lower the plate is often either a screw or a hydraulic device. The juice flows through openings in the basket, the basket style press was the first type of mechanized press to be developed, and its basic design has not changed in nearly 1000 years. A horizontal screw press works using the principle as the basket press. Instead of a plate being brought down to put pressure on the grapes, plates from either side of a cylinder are brought together to squeeze the grapes. Generally the volume of grapes handled is significantly greater than that of a basket press, a bladder press consists of a large cylinder, closed at each end, into which the fruit is loaded. To press the grapes, a large bladder expands and pushes the grapes against the sides, the juice then flows out through small openings in the cylinder. The cylinder rotates during the process to help homogenize the pressure that is placed on the grapes, a continuous screw press differs from the above presses in that it does not process a single batch of grapes at a time. Instead it uses an Archimedes screw to continuously force grapes up against the wall of the device, juice is extracted, and the pomace continues through to the end where it is extracted. This style of press is used to produce table wines. Flash release is a used in wine pressing. The technique allows for an extraction of phenolic compounds
15.
Ink ball
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An ink ball, inking ball, or dabber was a tool used in printmaking and letterpress printing to apply ink to the plate or type to be printed. Ink balls had been used since the dawn of the press in the 15th century. In printmaking, they were used individually, to make the ink smooth, the inker then beat the type to apply the ink, making sure to get neither too much nor too little ink on the form. An ink ball consists of a piece of specially-treated sheepskin stuffed with wool, after the invention of composition in the early 19th century, some ink balls began to be made from that until they faded from use. By the mid- to late-19th century, they had largely superseded by the composition roller. The replacing of the ink balls, which had to be worked by hand
16.
Screw
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A screw is a type of fastener, sometimes similar to a bolt, typically made of metal, and characterized by a helical ridge, known as a male thread or just thread. A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a nail, some screw threads are designed to mate with a complementary thread, known as a female thread, often in the form of a nut or an object that has the internal thread formed into it. Other screw threads are designed to cut a groove in a softer material as the screw is inserted. The most common uses of screws are to hold objects together, a screw will usually have a head on one end that contains a specially formed shape that allows it to be turned, or driven, with a tool. Common tools for driving screws include screwdrivers and wrenches, the head is usually larger than the body of the screw, which keeps the screw from being driven deeper than the length of the screw and to provide a bearing surface. The cylindrical portion of the screw from the underside of the head to the tip is known as the shank, the distance between each thread is called the pitch. Another rule is this, curl the fingers of right hand around the screw with your thumb pointing is the direction you want the screw to go. If the screw is right-handed and you turn the screw in the direction of your fingers the screw will move in the direction of your thumb, Screws with left-hand threads are used in exceptional cases. For example, when the screw will be subject to counterclockwise torque, the right side pedal of a bicycle has a left-hand thread. More generally, screw may mean any helical device, such as a clamp, a micrometer, there is no universally accepted distinction between a screw and a bolt. So, as a rule, when buying a packet of screws you would not expect nuts to be included. Part of the confusion over this is due to regional or dialectical differences. An externally threaded fastener which is prevented from being turned during assembly, an externally threaded fastener that has thread form which prohibits assembly with a nut having a straight thread of multiple pitch length is a screw. This distinction is consistent with ASME B18.2.1 and some dictionary definitions for screw, some of these issues are discussed below, ASME standards specify a variety of Machine Screws in diameters ranging up to 0.75 in. These fasteners are used with nuts but also often driven into tapped holes. They might be considered a screw or a bolt based on the Machinerys Handbook distinction, ASME standard B18.2. 1-1996 specifies Hex Cap Screws that range in size from 0. 25–3 in in diameter. These fasteners are very similar to hex bolts and they differ mostly in that they are manufactured to tighter tolerances than the corresponding bolts. Machinerys Handbook refers parenthetically to these fasteners as Finished Hex Bolts, in 1991 responding to an influx of counterfeit fasteners Congress passed PL 101-592 Fastener Quality Act This resulted in the rewriting of specifications by the ASME B18 committee
17.
Composition roller
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A composition roller is a tool used in letterpress printing to apply ink to a bed of type in a printing press. Early recipes also included gypsum plaster and tar, though these were eventually found unnecessary, before its invention, most inking of printing presses was done by manually pounding the type with ink balls, specially treated leather balls stuffed with wool. The difficulty and time involved in making and using ink balls led to attempts to use cylinders. Leather rollers were attempted, and were used on the earliest steam-powered cylinder presses, yet these did not work as well as the ink balls, eventually, a substance was found with the right adhesion and elasticity to make suitable cylindrical rollers. Bryan Donkin was the first to apply the composition roller to machine press, by 1826, they had begun to be introduced to the United States. To make a roller, the ingredients are melted together in a double-boiler kettle, the process is timed to avoid candying the molasses. The mixture is cast into molds around a wooden or metal stock or core, the performance of composition rollers was notoriously subject to their environmental conditions. Glycerin, which has an affinity for moisture, was added to the recipe. The mixture itself varied depending on the time of year in which they were made, with winter rollers sometimes melting in summer, however, composition rollers that hardened or otherwise were unusable could be melted down and recast
18.
Line shaft
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A line shaft is a power driven rotating shaft for power transmission that was used extensively from the Industrial Revolution until the early 20th century. The central power source could be a water wheel, turbine, windmill, Power was distributed from the shaft to the machinery by a system of belts, pulleys and gears known as millwork. A typical line shaft would be suspended from the ceiling of one area, one pulley on the shaft would receive the power from a parent line shaft elsewhere in the building. The other pulleys would supply power to pulleys on each individual machine or to subsequent line shafts, in manufacturing where there were a large number of machines performing the same tasks, the design of the system was fairly regular and repeated. Shafts were usually horizontal and overhead but occasionally were vertical and could be underground, Shafts were usually rigid steel, made up of several parts bolted together at flanges. The shafts were suspended by hangers with bearings at certain intervals of length, the distance depended on the weight of the shaft and the number of pulleys. The shafts had to be aligned or the stress would overheat the bearings. The bearings were usually friction type and had to be kept lubricated, pulley lubricator employees were required in order to ensure that the bearings did not freeze or malfunction. In the earliest applications power was transmitted between pulleys using loops of rope on grooved pulleys and this method is extremely rare today, dating mostly from the 18th century. Flat belts on flat pulleys or drums were the most common method during the 19th, the belts were generally tanned leather or cotton duck impregnated with rubber. Leather belts were fastened in loops with rawhide or wire lacing, lap joints and glue, cotton duck belts usually used metal fasteners or were melted together with heat. The leather belts were run with the side against the pulleys for best traction. The belts needed periodic cleaning and conditioning to keep them in good condition, belts were often twisted 180 degrees per leg and reversed on the receiving pulley to cause the second shaft to rotate in the opposite direction. Pulleys were constructed of wood, iron, steel or a combination thereof, varying sizes of pulleys were used in conjunction to change the speed of rotation. For example a 40 pulley at 100 rpm would turn a 20 pulley at 200 rpm, Pulleys solidly attached to the shaft could be combined with adjacent pulleys that turned freely on the shaft. In this configuration the belt could be maneuvered onto the idler to stop power transmission or onto the solid pulley to convey the power and this arrangement was often used near machines to provide a means of shutting the machine off when not in use. Usually at the last belt feeding power to a machine, a pair of stepped pulleys could be used to give a variety of speed settings for the machine. Occasionally gears were used between shafts to change speed rather than belts and different sized pulleys, but this seems to have been relatively uncommon, early versions of line shafts date back into the 18th century, but truly came of age in the early 19th century with industrialization
19.
Jobbing press
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A jobbing press, job press, is a variety of printing press used in letterpress printing. Such work might include printing personal stationery, handbills, or other small printing jobs, such presses were common in the later 19th and 20th centuries, have yet been largely replaced by the photocopier for small and medium runs, and by the desktop computer for personal stationery. Today, the jobber is the press for letterpress printers who now produce high-end prints for customers who want an antique effect. Though the term can refer to any small printing press or machine intended for work, it most commonly refers to a class of small. Depending on the time-period when the machine was made, they may be operated by treadle, line shaft, electricity, the most common form of job presses were those classified as platen presses. A platen press is one that has a platen to apply the pressure against the paper and bed of type to form the impression. George Phineas Gordon developed a design of press that was widely adopted, chandler & Price was a company that made a widely used jobber press. Golding Pearl Adana Printing Machines John Webb
20.
Rotary printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
21.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
22.
Newspaper
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A newspaper is a serial publication containing news about current events, other informative articles about politics, sports, arts, and so on, and advertising. A newspaper is usually, but not exclusively, printed on relatively inexpensive, the journalism organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. As of 2017, most newspapers are now published online as well as in print, the online versions are called online newspapers or news websites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly, News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news, typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings. Papers also include articles which have no byline, these articles are written by staff writers, a wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. As of 2017, newspapers may also provide information about new movies, most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue. Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded, their reliance on advertising revenue, the editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high quality. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting from around the world, circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day. Worldwide annual revenue approached $100 billion in 2005-7, then plunged during the financial crisis of 2008-9. Revenue in 2016 fell to only $53 billion, hurting every major publisher as their efforts to gain online income fell far short of the goal. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet has also challenged the business models of the era by crowdsourcing both publishing in general and, more specifically, journalism. In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from online newspapers. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects, the oldest newspaper still published is the Gazzetta di Mantova, which was established in Mantua in 1664. While online newspapers have increased access to newspapers by people with Internet access, literacy is also a factor which prevents people who cannot read from being able to benefit from reading newspapers. Periodicity, They are published at intervals, typically daily or weekly. This ensures that newspapers can provide information on newly-emerging news stories or events, currency, Its information is as up to date as its publication schedule allows
23.
Stereotype
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In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality, however, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations, some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others. The term stereotype derives from the Greek words στερεός, firm, solid and τύπος, impression, the term comes from the printing trade and was first adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original, outside of printing, the first reference to stereotype was in 1850, as a noun that meant image perpetuated without change. However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was first used in the psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are understood as related but different concepts, although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons, early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy. For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative, by contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions, warmth and competence. Warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status, groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources are perceived as warm, whereas high-status groups are considered competent. The groups within each of the four combinations of high and low levels of warmth, the model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This model was tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content. Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level. For stereotyping to function on a level, an individual must see themselves as part of a group. Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y, Yzerbyt argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa. Stereotypes can help make sense of the world and they are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. Thus, information is easily identified, recalled, predicted. Stereotypes are categories of objects or people, between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible
24.
Halifax, Nova Scotia
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Halifax, legally known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, is the capital of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. The municipality had a population of 403,131 in 2016, the regional municipality consists of four former municipalities that were amalgamated in 1996, Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, and the Municipality of Halifax County. Halifax is an economic centre in Atlantic Canada with a large concentration of government services. Agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry and natural gas extraction are major resource found in the rural areas of the municipality. Additionally, Halifax has consistently placed in the top 10 for business friendliness of North and South American cities, the first permanent European settlement in the region was on the Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the 2nd Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War. Cornwallis brought along 1,176 settlers and their families, St. Margarets Bay was first settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia during the American Revolution. The resulting explosion, the Halifax Explosion, devastated the Richmond District of Halifax, killing approximately 2,000 people, the blast was the largest artificial explosion before the development of nuclear weapons. Significant aid came from Boston, strengthening the bond between the two coastal cities, the municipal boundary thus now includes all of Halifax County except for several First Nation reserves. Since amalgamation, the region has officially been known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, on April 15,2014, the regional council approved the implementation of a new branding campaign for the region developed by the local firm Revolve Marketing. The campaign would see the region referred to in promotional materials simply as Halifax, mayor Mike Savage defended the decision, stating, Im a Westphal guy, Im a Dartmouth man, but Halifax is my city, we’re all part of Halifax. Because when I go and travel on behalf of this municipality, metropolitan Halifax is a term used to describe the urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour, including the Halifax Peninsula, the core of Dartmouth, and the Bedford-Sackville areas. It is the Statistics Canada population centre of Halifax, the dense urban core is centred on the Halifax Peninsula and the area of Dartmouth inside of the Circumferential Highway. The suburban area stretches into areas known as Mainland Halifax to the west, Cole Harbour to the east and this urban area is the most populous on Canadas Atlantic coast, and the second largest coastal population centre in the country after Vancouver, British Columbia. Halifax currently accounts for 40% of Nova Scotias population, and 15% of that of Atlantic Canada, Halifaxs urban core is home to a number of regional landmark buildings and retains significant historic buildings and districts. The downtowns office towers are overlooked by the fortress of Citadel Hill with its iconic Halifax Town Clock, Dalhousie Universitys campus is often featured in films and documentaries. Dartmouth also has its share of historic neighbourhoods and this has resulted in some modern high rises being built at unusual angles or locations
25.
Halifax Gazette
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The Halifax Gazette was Canadas first newspaper, established on March 23,1752, in Halifax, Nova Scotia. It was published weekly by John Bushell, who had been carrying out a project that had been initiated by his partner Bartholomew Green, the newspaper had been entirely dependent on the government for funding. The Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston owns the remaining copy of the first edition of Halifax Gazette. Halifax was established as a city in 1749, three years before the newspaper was published, with a population of 4,000 residents. Because of the city and the low population, there was a shortage of local news or community news. It contained news excerpts from the newspapers of Britain, Europe, the first issue of the Halifax Gazette contained an article about the demise of John Goreham, a military officer and businessman who expired in London due to smallpox. The Halifax Gazette dealt with competition from Boston and New York newspapers for breaking news. The publishers plotted and planned in advance to each other in printing the headlines first. In the year of 1849, there was a group of six New York publishers who comprised the Associated Press and this agency worked together to accumulate and spread breaking international news. In this process, Halifax played a role, however. In 1977, Part II of the Royal Gazette was introduced to publish provincial regulations and was reunited with Part I to form the current Gazette, the Gazette is managed by the Ministry of Justice of Nova Scotias Registry of Regulations. Royal Gazette - A Brief History, Government of Nova Scotia Dean Jobb
26.
Massachusetts Historical Society
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The Massachusetts Historical Society is a major historical archive specializing in early American, Massachusetts, and New England history. It is located at 1154 Boylston Street in Boston, Massachusetts and is the oldest historical society in the United States, the Societys building was constructed in 1899 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. In 2016, The Boston Landmarks Commission designated it a Boston Landmark, the Society was founded on January 24,1791, by Reverend Jeremy Belknap to collect, preserve, and document items of American history. He and the nine founding members donated family papers, books. Its first manuscript was published in 1792, becoming the first historical society publication in the United States, the society, for several years after its organization, met in the attic of Faneuil Hall, afterwards rooms were occupied in Hamilton Place, and then in Franklin Street. Quarters on Tremont Street were occupied in the building of the Provident bank through the 1890s, today the Society continues to collect, preserve, and communicate historical information about Massachusetts and the United States. It is now organized in five departments, Library, Publications, Education and Public Programs, Research Programs, the Adams Family Papers, and Administration. Among other papers, the collection includes correspondence, diaries, literary manuscripts, speeches, legal and business papers, and John Adams handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence. Other notable manuscripts include John Winthrops manuscripts on the settlement of New England, Paul Reveres account of his ride. The Society continues to produce books, but now augments these publications with digital editions available through its website. The Massachusetts Historical Review has been published annually since 1999, the Fellows of the Massachusetts Historical Society are elected and serve as the Societys legal governing body. The act of incorporation, with the acts and by-laws of the Massachusetts Historical Society, with a list of officers. Boston, printed for the Society,1882, here We Have Lived, The Houses of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Life Portrait of John Quincy Adams, from C-SPANs American Presidents, Life Portraits, broadcast from the Massachusetts Historical Society, April 18,1999 Massachusetts Historical Society
27.
Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick
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Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick was the title of the first multi-page newspaper published in the Americas. Before then, single-page newspapers, called broadsides, were published in the English colonies and printed in Cambridge in 1689. The first edition was published September 25,1690, in Boston, then a city in the Dominion of New England and it was printed by American Richard Pierce of Boston, and it was edited by Benjamin Harris, who had previously published a newspaper in London. The paper contained four 6-by-10-inch pages, but filled only three of them, without the least Privity and Countenace of Authority. A reincarnation of Publick Occurrences appears in the 2015 video game Fallout 4
28.
Vandercook
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Vandercook & Sons was a manufacturer of proof presses, founded in 1909 by Robert Vandercook. They dominated the 20th century proof press industry by developing the first, as a result, Vandercooks geared presses were easier and more precise for an operator to use. Vandercook was sold in 1968 to the Illinois Tool Works, when it became Vandersons, the company changed hands many times and is now called NA Graphics, a letterpress supply house, located in Silverton, Colorado. In September 1909, Robert Vandercook founded Vandercook & Sons in Chicago, the first press was a “rocker” proof press, made with a geared cylinder. Before the development of press, all proofs were either made on a roller press. During the next 54 years they introduced 60 different press models, over the course of its 75 year production history, Vandercook manufactured more than 38,000 presses under its brand name. The name of Vandercook & Sons was used until 1968 when E. O. Vandercook sold the company to one of their suppliers, Illinois Tool Works. They only kept the company for four years and then sold it to one of their managers, Hugh Fletcher, Vandersons stopped manufacturing presses in 1976 at which time they only made models HS27, SP20, SP25 and Universal I. After ceasing to manufacture presses, Vandersons continued selling parts and supplies for the thousands of presses that were still being used, in 1989 the company was sold to Stuart Evans. In January 1994, Tom Bell and Hal Sterne of NA Graphics bought the company and moved it to Cincinnati, then in October 1996 they sold NA Graphics to Fritz Klinke who moved the operation to Silverton, Colorado. NA Graphics is still selling parts and supplies for many of the models of Vandercook presses, before World War II, Vandercook developed 29 models,17 of which were still being manufactured many years after the war. The most popular of these models was #4, which was first made in 1935, many are still in use today. In 1948 they brought out the model 4T, which was used to pull transparency proofs of type on acetate, the acetate proofs could then be contacted to film for offset negatives. During World War II not many presses were made because Vandercook was heavily involved in manufacturing for the war effort, one press they made for the government during the war was a model 055, 51″ x 75″ in size. With the exception of models 0,01,03 and 099, the last models designed were the SP series and the Universal series. They are similar in design but the Universal presses were designed as Test presses for ink companies. Most of them were made with automatic controls and adjustable beds, the SP series were mostly hand presses. The SP15 was the most popular of them all, besides letterpress proof presses, Vandercook also made offset proof presses
29.
Chandler & Price
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Chandler & Price was founded in 1881 in Cleveland, Ohio, by Harrison T. Chandler and William H. Price. They manufactured machinery for printers including a series of hand-fed platen jobbing presses, as well as a feeder for these presses, paper cutters, book presses. Chandler & Price ceased production of presses in 1964, c&P—Pressmans Favorite from the Amalgamated Printers Association. Lookup for new style serial numbers and dates built, a complete listing of serial numbers against year of manufacture for both old and new style also includes craftsman
30.
Craft
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A craft is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. The traditional terms craftsman and craftswoman are nowadays often replaced by artisan, the beginning of crafts in areas like the Ottoman empire involved the governing bodies requiring members of the city who were skilled at creating goods to open shops in the center of town. These people slowly stopped acting as subsistence farmers and began to represent what we think of a craftsman today, historically, craftsmen tended to concentrate in urban centers and formed guilds. The households of craftsmen were not as self-sufficient as those of people engaged in agricultural work, once an apprentice of a craft had finished his apprenticeship, he would become a journeyman searching for a place to set up his own shop and make a living. After he set up his own shop, he could call himself a master of his craft. But crafts have undergone deep structural changes during and since the era of the Industrial Revolution, thus, they participate in a certain division of labour between industry and craft. There are three aspects to human creativity - Art, Crafts, and Science, roughly determinated, art relies upon intuitive sensing, vision and expression, crafts upon sophisticated technique and science upon knowledge. Handicraft is the main sector of the crafts, it is a type of work where useful. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods, the individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods, handicraft goods are made with craft production processes. Crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in groups are often referred to as studio craft. Studio craft includes studio pottery, metal work, weaving, wood turning, paper and other forms of working, glass blowing. A craft fair is an event to display and sell crafts. There are craft shops where such goods are sold and craft communities, such as Craftster, a tradesperson is a skilled manual worker in a particular trade or craft. Economically and socially, a status is considered between a laborer and a professional, with a high degree of both practical and theoretical knowledge of their trade. In cultures where professional careers are highly prized there can be a shortage of skilled manual workers, media related to Crafts at Wikimedia Commons
31.
Stationery
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Stationery is a mass noun referring to commercially manufactured writing materials, including cut paper, envelopes, writing implements, continuous stationery, and other office supplies. Stationery includes materials to be written on by hand or by equipment such as computer printers and it was a special term used between the 13th and 15th centuries in the manuscript culture. The Stationers Company formerly held a monopoly over the industry in England and was responsible for copyright regulations. In its modern sense including personal writing materials, stationery has been an important part of social etiquette. Some uses of stationery, such as sending a manufactured reply card to an invitation, have changed from offensive to appropriate. The use and marketing of stationery is being superseded by electronic media. Stationery is intrinsically linked to paper and the process of written, personalized communication, the most familiar of these techniques are letterpress printing, embossing, engraving and thermographic printing. Flat printing and offset printing are regularly used, particularly for low-cost or informal needs, letterpress is a method of printing many identical copies that requires characters being impressed upon the page. The print may be inked or blind but is typically done in a single color, motifs or designs may be added as many letterpress machines use movable plates that must be hand-set. When a single document needs to be produced, it may be handwritten or printed typically by a computer printer, several copies of one original can be produced by some printers using multipart stationery. Typing with a typewriter is obsolescent, having been superseded by preparing a document with a word processor. Thermographic printing is a process involves several stages but can be implemented in a low-cost manufacturing process. The process involves printing the desired designs or text with an ink that remains wet, the paper is then dusted with a powdered polymer that adheres to the ink. The paper is vacuumed or agitated, mechanically or by hand, to remove excess powder, the wet ink and polymer bond and dry, resulting in a raised print surface similar to the result of an engraving process. Embossing is a technique used to create raised surfaces in the converted paper stock. The process relies upon mated dies that press the paper into a shape that can be observed on both the front and back surfaces, engraving is a process that requires a design to be cut into a plate made of a relatively hard material. It is a technology with a history and requires significant skill. The finished plate is covered in ink, and then the ink is removed from all of the un-etched portions of the plate
32.
Greeting card
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A greeting card is an illustrated piece of card or high quality paper featuring an expression of friendship or other sentiment. Although greeting cards are given on special occasions such as birthdays, Christmas or other holidays. Greeting cards, usually packaged with an envelope, come in a variety of styles, there are both mass-produced as well as handmade versions that are distributed by hundreds of companies large and small. While typically inexpensive, more cards with die-cuts or glued-on decorations may be more expensive. Hallmark Cards and American Greetings are the two largest producers of greeting cards in the world today, in Western countries and increasingly in other societies, many people traditionally mail seasonally themed cards to their friends and relatives in December. Many service businesses also send cards to their customers in this season, the Greeting Card Association is an international trade organization representing the interests of greeting card and stationery manufacturers. For me, there’s nothing like a card to send a special message. I’m proud to be a part of an industry not only keeps people connected. Standard Greeting Cards, A standard greeting card is printed on high-quality paper, inside is a pre-printed message appropriate for the occasion, along with a blank space for the sender to add a signature or handwritten message. A matching envelope is sold with the card, Some cards and envelopes feature fancy materials, such as gold leaf, ribbons or glitter. Photo Greeting Cards, In recent years, photo greeting cards have gained widespread popularity, the first type are photo insert cards in which a hole has been cut in the centre. A photo slides in just like a frame, the second type are printed photo cards in which the photo is combined with artwork and printed, usually on a high-end digital press, directly onto the face of the card. Both types are most popular for sending holiday greetings such as Christmas, personalised Greeting Cards, Websites using special personalisation technology, such as Moonpig, allow consumers to personalise a card which is then printed and sent directly to the recipient. Reusable Greeting Cards, These are greeting cards for the budget conscious, there are two common formats for reusable cards. Firstly there are cards with slits in them positioned to hold pages, secondly there are notepad style cards where pages stick to the back of the cards. The pages that have used for reusable cards can be removed after being received. Risqué Greeting Cards, Some companies offer risqué greeting cards, with adult-based humor, the humor in these cards can sometimes be offensive to more conservative parts of the population. Musical Greeting Cards, Recently greeting cards have made that play music or sound when they are opened
33.
Columbia College Chicago
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Founded in 1890, the school is located in the South Loop district of Chicago, Illinois. It is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission, Columbia College Chicago is not affiliated with Columbia University, Columbia College Hollywood, or any other Columbia College in the United States. The university has added a School of Business & Entrepreneurship that will host majors like marketing. It also is home to research centers as well as to the Garment Collection. It is also home to one of the few undergraduate programs in cultural studies. Columbia College Chicago was founded in 1890 as the Columbia School of Oratory by Mary A, Blood and Ida Morey Riley, both graduates of the Monroe Conservatory of Oratory, in Boston, Massachusetts. Blood and Riley became the Colleges first co-presidents, until Riley died in 1901, the school ran as a sole proprietary business from 1890 to 1904 when the school became incorporated by the state of Illinois. On May 5,1904, the school incorporated itself again in order to change its name to the Columbia College of Expression, when Blood died in 1927, George L. Scherger assumed the office of presidency after serving as a former member on the Board of Directors. Under his leadership, Scherger signed the paperwork at the Board’s annual meeting on April 14,1928 to change the School’s name to the Mary A. However, by April 30,1928, the school reverted its name to the Columbia College of Expression by the Board of Directors, George L. Scherger, Herman H. Hegner, and Erme Rowe Hegner. Hegner served as the head, although due to illness, her son. By 1934, College curriculum also focused on the field of radio broadcasting. Herman Hofer Hegner hired Norman Alexandroff, a programmer, in 1934 to develop a radio curriculum for the Colleges as both institutions were suffering financially. When Bertha Hofer Hegner retired in 1936 due to health reasons, she was president emeritus of the institutions. However, the College was never incorporated under any of these names by the State of Illinois. As the radio program gained prominence, Alexandroff was named as the Vice President of the Columbia College of Expression, on February 5,1944, the College re-filed as a not for profit corporation and changed its name to Columbia College. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, the college broadened its educational base to include television, journalism, marketing, and other mass-communication areas. Alexandroff also oversaw the development of the campuses of the School, Columbia College Pan-Americano in Mexico City, Mexico and Columbia Los Angeles in Los Angeles
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Art Center College of Design
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ArtCenter College of Design is a nonprofit, private college located in Pasadena, California. ArtCenter College of Design was founded in 1930 in downtown Los Angeles as the Art Center School, in 1935, Fred R. Archer founded the photography department, and Ansel Adams was a guest instructor in the late 1930s. During and after World War II, ArtCenter ran a technical illustration program in conjunction with the California Institute of Technology, the school began granting Bachelors and Masters degrees in arts in 1949, and was fully accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges in 1955. In 1965, the changed its name to Art Center College of Design. The school expanded its programs, including a program in 1973. The school moved to the Hillside Campus in Pasadena in 1976, the school operated Art Center Europe in La Tour-de-Peilz, Switzerland from 1986 to 1996. In 2003, ArtCenter was granted Non-Governmental Organization status by the UN Department of Public Information, ArtCenter opened the South Campus in Pasadena in 2004. It is one of the few schools to offer a degree in Interaction Design, the college maintains two campuses in Pasadena, both are considered architecturally notable. ArtCenter built its reputation as a school, preparing returning G. I. s for work in the commercial arts fields. The college logo is a circle, also known as the ArtCenter Dot, which has been a part of the schools identity since its inception by founder Tink Adams. ArtCenter is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, the college’s undergraduate and graduate industrial design programs are consistently ranked number one by DesignIntelligence. U. S. News and World Report also ranks ArtCenter’s Art, Industrial Design, most recently, the growing influence of Art Centers Film programs resulted in the colleges ranking among The Hollywood Reporters list of the Top 25 Global Film Schools. ArtCenter College of Design maintains two campuses in Pasadena, Hillside Campus and South Campus, designed by modernist architect Craig Ellwood, the Hillside Campus broke ground in November 1974. The bridge building spanned an arroyo and roadway on 175 acres in the hills above Pasadena, opening in 1976, the building was later expanded with the south wing, designed by former Ellwood associate James Tyler, and constructed between 1989-91. The Hillside Campus has been designated as a monument by the City of Pasadena. The South Campus opened in 2004 in a former aircraft-testing facility built during World War II, there is an 16, 000-square-foot exhibition space known as the Wind Tunnel, which is currently the home of the Media Design Practices program. At that time, the College appointed Michael Maltzan Architecture as its partner in planning academic spaces, with this agreement still intact, actual renovation of the former USPS building was completed by Darin Johnstone Architecture in 2014. List of colleges and universities in California Art Center College of Design
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Center for Book Arts
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The 5, 000-square-foot center in Manhattan features a 900-square-foot exhibition space which is open to visitors. This organization also offers opportunities beyond these classes, including their annual Poetry Chapbook Competition, internships and their work is channeled through five program areas, exhibitions, lectures, publication, services to artists, and classes. According to their 2011 Annual Report, the Center for Book Arts debuted their digitized collections in October 2010 and this Collections Initiative was intended to advance their collections and make them digitally accessible to artist members and teachers alike. The collections include the Fine Art Collection, Reference Collection, each of these collections can be viewed on their main website paired with a detailed record of the item. While the Center of Book Arts emphasizes the creative, newly interpreted forms of their artists works, Fine Art Collection This collection presents new interpretations of the book form and other media as art. Works range from postcards with three dimension adornments, to recycled over-used paper and books that fold out from cases, Reference Collection This collection includes works that are meant for instructional use. Works can be physically traditional but present creativity within the text, for example, having text in parallel lines of English and Hungarian or simple hand-lettering. Archives Collection This collection documents the Center of Book Arts history, including exhibitions, classes, publications, the organizations official blog acts as a means to highlight their artist members. Each post is a brief individual biography followed by some photographs, the blog can be used for gaining insight to the artist. Oak Knoll Press is the distributor of Center for Book Arts artists works. The works of this organizations artists can be found in the Artist Marketplace and it is a place exclusive for the sale of artist members works. Twenty-five percent of all sales is given back to the organization for advancement, works made a part of an exhibition are presented within the functioning studio, among the buzz of the artists works that are still in progress. Each season runs about four exhibits, past exhibits include, Livre dArtiste dAujourdhui, Interdisciplinary Collaborations. Zines+ and the World of ABC No Rio, featured Artist Project, Diane Stemper-Sample Close at Hand. Once Upon A Time, There Was the End, featured Artist Project, Aqui en la lucha-Steven Daiber. Featured Artist Project, SP Weather Reports, silence Unbound, The Artists Lexicon in the Making. Valerie Blackwell Hird, The Maiden Voyages Project and my Gallery is the World Now / Books and Ideas after Seth Siegelaub. Scholars for the Advanced Study in Book Arts 2013, pamela Spitzmueller,2013 Master Faculty Fellow
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The Evergreen State College
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The Evergreen State College is an accredited public liberal arts college and a member of the Council of Public Liberal Arts Colleges, located in Olympia, Washington, USA. Founded in 1967, Evergreen was formed to be an experimental and non-traditional college, full-time students enroll in interdisciplinary academic programs instead of classes. Programs typically offer students the opportunity to study several disciplines in a coordinated manner, faculty write narrative evaluations of students work in place of issuing grades. Evergreen offers a Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts and Bachelor of Science, Master of Environmental Studies, Master of Public Administration, in 2012, there were 4,509 students,4,193 of whom were undergraduates, and 240 faculty members. This report spurred the 1965 Washington legislature to create the Temporary Advisory Council on Public Higher Education to study the need, on January 24,1968, The Evergreen State College was selected from 31 choices as the name of the new institution. On November 1,1968, Charles J. McCann assumed the first presidency of the college, McCann and the founding faculty held the first day of classes October 4,1971 with 1128 students. McCann served from 1968 until stepping down to join the faculty June 6,1977 when former Governor Daniel J. Evans, who signed the legislation creating Evergreen, assumed the presidency. Evans left the presidents office abruptly in 1983 when he was appointed to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy created by the death of Senator Henry M. Jackson, the largest building on campus is named in honor of Evans, the Daniel J. Evans Library Building. The entrance to the campus bears McCanns name, the Charles J. McCann plaza, in 2004, the college completed the 170, 000-square-foot Seminar II building, and a significant remodel of the Daniel J. Evans Library is now complete. In 1999, Mumia Abu-Jamal was invited to deliver the address by audiotape for the graduating class at the college. The entire campus comprises about 408 hectares, much of it forested land and this total includes 11 hectares of southern Puget Sound tidelands. In addition to the campus, there is also an organic farm as well as an urban campus located in Tacoma. According to U. S. News & World Reports 2009-2010 college rankings and it was ranked as the 5th best public college in the Masters West Category a region stretching from Texas to the Pacific. Author and former New York Times education editor Loren Pope cites Evergreen as one of two colleges in the United States in his book Colleges That Change Lives. In addition, The Princeton Review lists Evergreen as one of the Best Western Colleges for 2009-2010, Evergreen State teams, nicknamed athletically as the Geoducks, are part of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics, primarily competing in the Cascade Collegiate Conference. Mens sports include basketball, cross country, soccer, crew, a geoduck is a clam native to the region. Former mens soccer star Joey Gjertsen, who led the Geoducks to the 2004 NAIA National quarterfinals, has gone on to have success with the San Jose Earthquakes of Major League Soccer. Shawn Medved previously had success in the MLS, playing for D. C, United and the San Jose Clash
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North Carolina State University
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North Carolina State University is a public research university located in Raleigh, North Carolina, United States. It is part of the University of North Carolina system and is a land, sea, the university forms one of the corners of the Research Triangle together with Duke University in Durham and The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The North Carolina General Assembly founded the North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, now NC State, on March 7,1887, Today, NC State has an enrollment of more than 34,000 students, making it the largest university in the Carolinas. NC State has historical strengths in engineering, statistics, agriculture, life sciences, textiles and design, the graduate school offers 104 masters degrees,61 doctoral degrees, and a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine. The North Carolina General Assembly founded NC State on March 7,1887 as a land-grant college under the name North Carolina College of Agriculture, in the segregated system, it was open only to white students. As a land-grant college, NC State would provide a liberal and practical education while focusing on tactics, agriculture. Since its founding, the university has maintained these objectives while building on them, after opening in 1889, NC State saw its enrollment fluctuate and its mandate expand. In 1918, it changed its name to North Carolina State College of Agriculture, during the Great Depression, the North Carolina state government, under Governor O. Max Gardner, administratively combined the University of North Carolina, the Womans College, and NC State. This conglomeration became the University of North Carolina in 1931, following World War II, the university grew and developed. Bill enabled thousands of veterans to college, and enrollment shot past the 5,000 mark in 1947. State College created new programs, including the School of Architecture and Landscape Design in 1947, the School of Education in 1948. In the summer of 1956, following the US Supreme Court ruling in Brown v, in 1962, State College officials desired to change the institutions name to North Carolina State University. Consolidated university administrators approved a change to the University of North Carolina at Raleigh, frustrating many student, in 1963, State College officially became North Carolina State of the University of North Carolina. The at Raleigh part is omitted even on official documents such as diplomas. In 1966, single-year enrollment reached 10,000, in the 1970s enrollment surpassed 19,000 and the School of Humanities and Social Sciences was added. Celebrating its centennial in 1987, NC State reorganized its internal structure, also in this year, it gained 700 acres of land that was developed as Centennial Campus. Since then, NC State has focused on developing its new Centennial Campus and it has invested more than $620 million in facilities and infrastructure at the new campus, with 62 acres of space being constructed. Sixty-one private and government agency partners are located on Centennial Campus, NC State has almost 8,000 employees, nearly 35,000 students, a $1.01 billion annual budget, and a $984 million endowment
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Penland School of Crafts
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The Penland School of Crafts is an Arts and Crafts educational center located in the Blue Ridge Mountains in Spruce Pine, North Carolina, about 50 miles from Asheville. The school was founded in the 1920s in the mountain town of Penland. The center, called Penland Weavers and Potters, provided instruction, looms, local volunteers built a cabin and then a larger hall. Worst added classes in basketry and pottery, bill Brown, who took over in 1962 after Morgan, created a resident artist program and expanded the number of and length of the courses. There are 51 buildings on 400 acres, Penland buildings were designed primarily by North Carolinian architects, including Frank Harmond and Cannon Architects in Raleigh, North Carolina and Dixon Weinstein Architects in Chapel Hill. The school campus was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003 as the Penland School Historic District, the district encompasses 31 contributing buildings,1 contributing site, and 3 contributing structures. The district is characterized by one and two-story frame farmhouses dating from the turn of the 20th century, associated agricultural outbuildings, notable buildings include the Colonial Revival style Lily Loom House and Pines, the Craft Cabin, Homer Hall, Ridgeway, and Beacon Church. As of 2005, Penland offered Spring, Summer, and Fall workshops in craft disciplines, including weaving and dyeing, bead work, glassblowing, pottery, paper making, metalworking and it also offers fine arts subjects, such as printmaking, painting, and photography. Workshops are taught by visiting American and international artists and professors, academic degrees are not awarded by Penland, but students can receive college credit through Western Carolina University. There are about 1200 people who study at Penland each year, Penland holds an annual Community Day in early March, when the schools studios are open and visitors can work on a small project with the help of the artists. An exhibition of works created at Penland was held at the Mint Museum,1931 Weaving Institute at Penland Hunter Library Library Digital Collections, Western Carolina University Bonnie Willis Ford. 1932 Weaving Institute at Penland Hunter Library Library Digital Collections, Western Carolina University Appalachian Industrial School in the Mountains of North Carolina, Hunter Library Library Digital Collections, Western Carolina University Appalachian Mountain Community Centre. Hunter Library Library Digital Collections, Western Carolina University Records at Huntington Library Digital Collection, Hunter Library Library Digital Collections, Western Carolina University Penland website The Penland Experience
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International Printing Museum
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The International Printing Museum, in Carson, California, has one of the largest collections of antique printing presses in the United States. It offers educational programs for groups at the museum, and also has a Ben-Franklin-type printing press on a trailer that travels to schools. Located in Southern California, the museum consults for Hollywood and has provided rentals of vintage printing presses for numerous television, david Jacobson of Gutenberg Expositions and collector Ernest A. Lindner started the museum in 1988 to house the Lindner collection of antique printing machinery. The collection has grown with significant donations and acquisitions under the leadership of the board of trustees and its founding curator and executive director. The museums collection includes a replica Gutenberg press, gutenbergs invention of movable type was rated by Time magazine as one of the most important developments of the millennium. Prior to his invention, ordinary people could not afford to own a book, with the efficiencies created by Gutenberg, printing costs dropped dramatically, and book ownership became common in Europe. People could now buy their own Bible, and interpret it themselves and this led to people thinking for themselves as well, which led to the Protestant Reformation, the Enlightenment, and democracy. The museum also has the third oldest printing press made in America, which was referred to 200 years ago as a common press, Franklin had little formal education, but honed his skills with language as a printers apprentice. He made his living as an adult as a printer, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette and Poor Richards Almanac, and was quite proud of his occupation. Even when being introduced to royalty in Europe, he wouldnt refer to all his scientific or political accomplishments - he would say, I am Benjamin Franklin. The collection includes printing presses from the age of Mark Twain, later, he was an editor/reporter for the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise and other publications. Numerous Linotype machines, and other presses and related newspaper machinery are housed in the museum. A. Printers Fair The museum also has a trailer which houses a Ben-Franklin-type press which is used to take the living history programs to schools. Official Web site L. A. Printers Fair
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Type foundry
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A type foundry is a company that designs or distributes typefaces. Todays digital type foundries accumulate and distribute typefaces created by type designers, Type foundries may also provide custom type design services. In England, type foundries began in 1476, when William Caxton introduced the printing press, thereafter the City of London became a major centre for the industry, until recent times when famous metal-based printing districts such as Fleet Street came to the close of their era. The industry was important in Victorian times, when education became available to all due to the new school boards. The St Bride Printing Library in the City of London encourages wider public interest in the history of type founding for the printed book, Adobe Type, a division of Adobe Systems Apple Inc
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