1.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
2.
Sterling Memorial Library
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Sterling Memorial Library is the main library building of the Yale University Library system in New Haven, Connecticut. Opened in 1931, the library was designed by James Gamble Rogers as the centerpiece of Yales Gothic Revival campus and it is elaborately ornamented, featuring extensive sculpture and painting as well as hundreds of panes of stained glass created by G. Owen Bonawit. In addition to five large reading rooms, a Music Library, and courtyard on the ground floor and it connects via tunnel to the underground Bass Library, which contains an additional 150,000 volumes. The largest bequest in the history of any American university, it initiated a period of construction on Yales central campus. Because of the library collections growth, the university decided to make the centerpiece of Sterlings gift a new library with a capacity for 3.5 million volumes. The buildings original architect, Bertram Goodhue, intended the library to resemble his State Capitol Building in Lincoln, Nebraska, when Goodhue died in 1924, the project passed to James Gamble Rogers, the universitys consulting architect. Instead, Rogers circumscribed Goodhues tower plan with an ecclesiastical metaphor and he modeled the librarys entrance hall to resemble a vaulted nave and commissioned extensive stained glass and stone ornament to decorate the buildings interior. The librarys 122, 500-square-foot footprint would take up more than half a city block, although excavation began in the fall of 1927, the construction site was not fully secured until July 1928, when a holdout homeowner finally decamped. While the new library was planned and constructed, the university began soliciting gifts from its alumni for the new library, by 1931, the collection had grown to nearly 2 million volumes, many of them rare books and manuscripts. Among the most important of these acquisitions was a Gutenberg Bible donated by Anna Harkness, like much of Yales revivalist construction of the same era, the new library was criticized as expensive and retrograde. William Harlan Hale, writing in The Nation, scorned it as an orgy, criticized the librarys bastardized cathedral aesthetics. Many students of architecture leveled similar criticisms, others responded to the buildings fusion of academic purpose and ecclesiastical architecture, asserting that the project was either sanctimonious or sacrilegious. More recent reviews have praised the ambition, beauty. The library is situated on Yales Cross Campus, the quadrangle of the university. Surrounding buildings, including Berkeley College, Trumbull College, and Sterling Law Building were designed by Rogers and built in the same period, the entrance hall of the library is known as the nave because its plan imitates the main approach of a cathedral. At its western terminus is a chancel containing an ornate circulation desk, constructed of Indiana limestone and Ohio sandstone blocks, the nave is a self-supporting stone structure with none of the steel reinforcement used elsewhere in the library. It is elaborately decorated with stone and wood carving, ironwork, stained glass windows, the main hall is flanked by two aisles, which originally held card catalogs for the library bookstacks. Though the original catalog drawers remain in the aisles, the cards have been removed and the converted to seating areas
3.
Manchester Central Library
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Manchester Central Library is the headquarters of the citys library and information service in Manchester, England. Facing St Peters Square, it was designed by E. Vincent Harris, at its opening, one critic wrote, This is the sort of thing which persuades one to believe in the perennial applicability of the Classical canon. The form of the building, a columned portico attached to a domed structure, is loosely derived from the Pantheon. The library building is grade II* listed, a four-year project to renovate and refurbish the library commenced in 2010. Central Library re-opened on 22 March 2014, Manchester was the first local authority to provide a public lending and reference library after the passing of the Public Libraries Act 1850. The Manchester Free Library opened at Campfield in September 1852 at a ceremony attended by Charles Dickens, when the Campfield premises were declared to be unsafe in 1877, the library was moved to the old Town Hall in King Street. The library moved again to what is now Piccadilly Gardens, to the former wing of Manchester Royal Infirmary. In 1926 the city held a competition to design an extension to the town hall. E. Vincent Harris was selected to both buildings. His circular design for the library, reminiscent of the Pantheon in Rome, was based on libraries in America, the librarys foundation stone was laid on 6 May 1930 by the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. The library was opened by King George V on 17 July 1934 after he had laid the foundation stone for the Town Hall Extension. In 1934 the Blind Collection from Deansgate and the Commercial Library from the Royal Exchange were moved to the library, the Chinese Library Service was set up in 1968. Central Library opened in 1934 to much fanfare, the portico of the magnificent edifice quickly became a popular rendezvous and Meet you at the Ref became a familiar phrase on the lips of students, lovers and unemployed youths. I was there on the day and on many days thereafter. The library was declared open by King George V on 17 July 1934, I remember families coming in first to gawp. Under the portico became a trysting place. In all, the shape of the building was its best advertisement, reports emerged in 2008 that the Central Library needed essential renovation to repair and modernise its facilities. The library faced asbestos problems and needed work to maintain its structural integrity, the Central Library closed from 2010 to 2014 for refurbishment and expansion
4.
Bibliography
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Bibliography, as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects, in this sense, it is also known as bibliology. Carter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books, carter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books and the systematic, description of books as physical objects. These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes, innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell, G. Thomas Tanselle. Bowers refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries, ” in a discipline, by an author, printer. He refers to descriptive bibliography as the description of a book as a material or physical artifact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all features of a book that yield evidence establishing a books history. Descriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description, titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Gregs groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles, D. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by W. W. Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, mcKenzies perspective contextualizes textual objects or artifacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy. Bibliography, generally, concerns the conditions of books how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books, now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites. An enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from works cited lists at the end of books and articles, to complete, a notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gows, A. E. Housman, A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers. As separate works, they may be in volumes such as those shown on the right. A library catalog, while not referred to as a bibliography, is bibliographic in nature, Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources. Enumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, an entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator, publication date and place of publication. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective, one noted example would be Tanselles bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a paper or academic term paper
5.
Library
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A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a building or room, or a virtual space. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items, in Latin and Greek, the idea of a bookcase is represented by Bibliotheca and Bibliothēkē, derivatives of these mean library in many modern languages, e. g. French bibliothèque. The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. In the 6th century, at the close of the Classical period. A library is organized for use and maintained by a body, an institution. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are experts at finding and organizing information, Libraries often provide quiet areas for studying, and they also often offer common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration. Libraries often provide facilities for access to their electronic resources. Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats, the first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing—the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer, some dating back to 2600 BC. These archives, which consisted of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory. Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt, the earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit, besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC, philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou dynasty. Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of librarians, the Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II, an early organization system was in effect at Alexandria. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey was built in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus by Celsus’ son, the library was built to store 12,000 scrolls and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC
6.
Novel
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A novel is any relatively long piece of written narrative fiction, normally in prose, and typically published as a book. The genre has also described as possessing, a continuous. This view sees the novels origins in Classical Greece and Rome, medieval, early modern romance, the latter, an Italian word used to describe short stories, supplied the present generic English term in the 18th century. The romance is a closely related long prose narrative, Romance, as defined here, should not be confused with the genre fiction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel, a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo, a novel is a long, fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. Most European languages use the word romance for extended narratives, fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography. However this can be a problematic criterion, historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity. Even in the 19th century, fictional narratives in verse, such as Lord Byrons Don Juan, Alexander Pushkins Yevgeniy Onegin, vikram Seths The Golden Gate, composed of 590 Onegin stanzas, is a more recent example of the verse novel. Both in 12th-century Japan and 15th-century Europe, prose fiction created intimate reading situations, on the other hand, verse epics, including the Odyssey and Aeneid, had been recited to a select audiences, though this was a more intimate experience than the performance of plays in theaters. A new world of Individualistic fashion, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, conduct and gallantry spread with novels, the novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by the novella, short story, and flash fiction. However, in the 17th century critics saw the romance as of epic length, the length of a novel can still be important because most literary awards use length as a criterion in the ranking system. Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into consciously fictional novels by the Ming dynasty, parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when the availability of paper allowed for similar opportunities. By contrast, Ibn Tufails Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic philosophy, in this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be considered an early example of a philosophical novel, while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel. Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel, and the Western tradition of the novel back into the field of verse epics. Then at the beginning of the 18th century, French prose translations brought Homers works to a wider public, longus is the author of the famous Greek novel, Daphnis and Chloe. Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the circles of High Medieval. In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love
7.
Online public access catalog
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An online public access catalog is an online database of materials held by a library or group of libraries. Users search a library catalog principally to locate books and other material available at a library, in simple language it is an electronic version of the card catalogue. OPAC is the gateway to librarys collection, although a handful of experimental systems existed as early as the 1960s, the first large-scale online catalogs were developed at Ohio State University in 1975 and the Dallas Public Library in 1978. These and other early online catalog systems tended to reflect the card catalogs that they were intended to replace. Throughout the 1980s, the number and sophistication of online catalogs grew, the first commercial systems appeared, and would by the end of the decade largely replace systems built by libraries themselves. At the same time, libraries began to develop applications to automate the purchase, cataloging and these applications, collectively known as an integrated library system or library management system, included an online catalog as the public interface to the systems inventory. Most library catalogs are closely tied to their underlying ILS system, the 1990s saw a relative stagnation in the development of online catalogs. At the same time, organizations outside of libraries began developing more sophisticated information retrieval systems, prior to the widespread use of the Internet, the online catalog was often the first information retrieval system library users ever encountered. Now accustomed to web search engines, newer generations of library users have grown increasingly dissatisfied with the complex mechanisms of older online catalog systems. This has, in turn, led to criticisms of these systems within the library community itself. These new features rely heavily on existing metadata which is poor or inconsistent. These newer systems are almost always independent of the integrated library system. The costs associated with new systems, however, have slowed their adoption. An example of a next generation OPAC system is included in the Libramatic software package, although library catalogs typically reflect the holdings of a single library, they can also contain the holdings of a group or consortium of libraries. These systems, known as union catalogs, are designed to aid the borrowing of books. Examples of this type of catalogue include COPAC, SUNCAT, NLA Trove, City of Cape Town library OPAC, there are a number of systems that share much in common with library catalogs, but have traditionally been distinguished from them. Libraries utilize these systems to search for items not traditionally covered by a library catalog and these include bibliographic databases—such as Medline, ERIC, PsycINFO, and many others—which index journal articles and other research data. There are also a number of applications aimed at managing documents, photographs, particularly in academic libraries, these systems assist with efforts to preserve documents created by faculty and students
8.
WorldCat
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WorldCat is a union catalog that itemizes the collections of 72,000 libraries in 170 countries and territories that participate in the Online Computer Library Center global cooperative. It is operated by OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc, the subscribing member libraries collectively maintain WorldCats database. OCLC was founded in 1967 under the leadership of Fred Kilgour and that same year, OCLC began to develop the union catalog technology that would later evolve into WorldCat, the first catalog records were added in 1971. It contains more than 330 million records, representing over 2 billion physical and digital assets in 485 languages and it is the worlds largest bibliographic database. OCLC makes WorldCat itself available free to libraries, but the catalog is the foundation for other subscribtion OCLC services, in 2006, it became possible to search WorldCat directly at its website. In 2007, WorldCat Identities began providing pages for 20 million identities, predominantly authors, WorldCat operates on a batch processing model rather than a real-time model. That is, WorldCat records are synchronized at intermittent intervals with the library catalogs instead of real-time or every day. Consequently, WorldCat shows that an item is owned by a particular library. WorldCat does not indicate whether or not an item is borrowed, lost, undergoing restoration or repair. Furthermore, WorldCat does not show whether or not a library owns multiple copies of a particular title, copac Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Library and Archives Canada Research Libraries UK Online Computer Library Center Grossman, Wendy M. Why you cant find a book in your search engine. Official website OCLC - Web scale discovery and delivery of library resources OCLC Bibliographic Formats and Standards WorldCat Identities
9.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
10.
Dublin, Ohio
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Dublin is a city in Franklin, Delaware, and Union counties in the U. S. state of Ohio. The population was 41,751 at the 2010 census, Dublin is a suburb of Columbus, Ohio. Each year in late May or early June, the city hosts the Memorial Tournament, consequently, numerous golf aficionados choose to make Dublin their home. There are also several golf courses in Dublin. The Riviera Golf Club was home to the American-Italian Golf Association, tartan Fields Golf Club hosted the LPGAs Wendys Championship for Children from 2002 through 2006. Dublin also has a golf course financed by the Muirfield association. Other annual events include the July 4 music event, a St. Patricks Day parade, and the Dublin Irish Festival, which is one of the largest Irish-American festivals. Although its earliest settlements date back to 1802, the village that became Dublin did not begin to take shape until the arrival of the Sells family from Huntingdon, Pennsylvania. Brothers Peter and Benjamin Sells purchased 400 acres of land on the west bank of the Scioto River as a gift for their brother John. In 1808, John Sells brought his family to the region, and by 1810 he had begun to survey lots for the new village with his partner, by 1833, Dublin contained several mills and only one store. In 1970, Dublin was still a town with only 681 residents. However, the construction of Interstate 270 facilitated a population boom, spearheaded by the acquisition of corporate headquarters such as Ashland Inc. In addition, the growth of the Muirfield Village Golf Club, Dublin was officially declared a city in 1987, after reaching a population of 5,000 residents. As part of this boom Dublin significantly expanded its area, annexing parts of Washington, Perry, Concord, Dublin is located at 40°6′33″N 83°8′25″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.80 square miles. The Scioto River passes through Dublin, in this area the river and its tributaries cut deep gorges through the limestone bedrock, and the riverbed is stony. Some of these tributaries feature waterfalls, located on the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau, Dublin has relatively flat topography. Nevertheless, there are numerous ravines surrounding the tributaries of the Scioto River, elevations range from 780 feet above sea level where the Scioto River leaves the city at Hayden Run Road, while the high point is 1000 feet at Glacier Ridge Metro Park
11.
Charles Ammi Cutter
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Charles Ammi Cutter was an American librarian. Cutter was born in Boston, Massachusetts and his aunt was an employee of the regional library in Boston. In 1856 Cutter was enrolled into Harvard Divinity School and he was appointed assistant librarian of the divinity school while still a student there and served in that capacity from 1857 to 1859. During that time, Cutter began designing a distinct cataloging schema for the outdated system. During the 1857-58 school year, Cutter rearranged the library collection on the shelves into broad subject categories along with classmate Charles Noyes Forbes, during the winter break of 1858-59, they arranged the collection into a single listing alphabetically by author. This project was finished by the time Cutter graduated in 1859, by 1860 Cutter was already a seasoned staff member of the library and a full-time librarian. He became a journeyman to the chief cataloger and assistant librarian Dr. Ezra Abbot, in 1868 the Boston Athenæum library elected Cutter as its head librarian. His first assignment was to organize and aggregate the inventory of the library and develop a catalog from that, the previous librarian and assistants had been working on this, but much of the work was sub par and, according to Cutter, needed to be redone. This did not sit well with the trustees who wanted to get a catalog published as soon as possible, however, the catalog was revised and published in five volumes known as the Athenæum Catalogue. Cutter was the librarian at the Boston Athenaeum for twenty-five years, in 1876, Cutter was hired by the United States Bureau of Education to help write a report about the state of libraries for the Centennial. Part two of this report was his Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalogue and this catalog was included in the organizations publication Public Libraries in the United States of America, Their History, Condition, and Management. Cutter implemented many ideologies familiar to contemporary librarians during his time at the Athenaeum, Cutter served as editor of Library Journal from 1891 to 1893. Of the many articles he wrote during this time, one of the most famous was an article called “The Buffalo Public Library in 1983”, in it, he wrote what he thought a library would be like one hundred years in the future. He spent a lot of time discussing practicalities, such as how the library arranged adequate lighting, in 1880 Cutter introduced an avant-garde and divergent system of cataloging he termed the Cutter Expansive Classification. The classification system utilized an alpha-numeric methodology used to abbreviate authors names and these are still used today in libraries. It was this classification which laid the foundation for the Library of Congress Subject Headings, Cutter was commissioned on at least one occasion to propose an architectural conception for the University of Toronto Library which had recently been consumed by a massive conflagration. In response to the requests, Cutter admonished, Yes. The ever austere Cutter with his competence in cataloging expressed this, The catalogers ought to be put near the catalog, in 1893, Cutter submitted a letter to the trustees that he would not seek to renew his contract at the end of the year
12.
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records
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It represents a more holistic approach to retrieval and access as the relationships between the entities provide links to navigate through the hierarchy of relationships. The model is significant because it is separate from specific cataloguing standards such as Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules or International Standard Bibliographic Description, FRBR comprises groups of entities, Group 1 entities are work, expression, manifestation, and item. They represent the products of intellectual or artistic endeavor, Group 2 entities are person, family and corporate body, responsible for the custodianship of Group 1’s intellectual or artistic endeavor. Group 3 entities are subjects of Group 1 or Group 2’s intellectual endeavor, Group 1 entities are the foundation of the FRBR model, Work is a distinct intellectual or artistic creation. For example, Beethovens Ninth Symphony apart from all ways of expressing it is a work, when we say, Beethovens Ninth is magnificent. We generally are referring to the work, expression is the specific intellectual or artistic form that a work takes each time it is realized. An expression of Beethovens Ninth might be each draft of the score he writes down. Manifestation is the embodiment of an expression of a work. As an entity, manifestation represents all the objects that bear the same characteristics. The performance the London Philharmonic made of the Ninth in 1996 is a manifestation and it was a physical embodiment even if not recorded, though of course manifestations are most frequently of interest when they are expressed in a persistent form such as a recording or printing. When we say, The recording of the London Philharmonics 1996 performance captured the essence of the Ninth, item is a single exemplar of a manifestation. The entity defined as item is a concrete entity, each copy of the 1996 pressings of that 1996 recording is an item. When we say, Both copies of the London Philharmonics 1996 performance of the Ninth are checked out of my local library, Group 1 entities are not strictly hierarchical, because entities do not always inherit properties from other entities. The distinction between Works and Expressions is also unclear in many cases, FRBR is built upon relationships between and among entities. Examples include reproductions such as copies, issues, facsimiles and reprints, photocopies, derivative relationships exist between a bibliographic work and a modification based on the work. Descriptive relationships also includes annotated editions, casebooks, commentaries, BIBFRAME Functional Requirements for Authority Data FRSAD FRBRoo Karen Coyle, FRBR Before and After, online, CC-BY license. ISBN 978-0-8389-1364-2 IFLA Study Group on the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records, Functional requirements for bibliographic records, final report. The IFLA Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records, International Standards for Universal Bibliographic Control, FRBR, A Conceptual Model for the Bibliographic Universe
13.
Inventory
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Inventory or stock means to the goods and materials that a business holds for the ultimate goals to have a purpose of resale. Inventory management is a discipline and primarily about specifying the shape and it is required at different locations within a facility or within many locations of a supply network to precede the regular and planned course of production and stock of materials. In the context of services, inventory refers to all work done prior to sale, balancing these competing requirements leads to optimal inventory levels, which is an ongoing process as the business needs shift and react to the wider environment. Inventory management involves a retailer seeking to acquire and maintain a proper merchandise assortment while ordering, shipping, handling and this would include the monitoring of material moved into and out of stockroom locations and the reconciling of the inventory balances. It also may include ABC analysis, lot tracking, cycle counting support, however, in practice, inventory is to be maintained for consumption during variations in lead time. Lead time itself can be addressed by ordering that many days in advance, seasonal Demand, demands varies periodically, but producers capacity is fixed. This can lead to stock accumulation, consider for example how goods consumed only in holidays can lead to accumulation of large stocks on the anticipation of future consumption, uncertainty - Inventories are maintained as buffers to meet uncertainties in demand, supply and movements of goods. Economies of scale - Ideal condition of one unit at a time at a place where a user needs it, so bulk buying, movement and storing brings in economies of scale, thus inventory. Appreciation in Value - In some situations, some stock gains the value when it is kept for some time to allow it reach the desired standard for consumption. Capital Investment Space Usage Complicated Inventory Control Systems, higher number of inventory items complicates the control, stock Keeping Unit SKUs are clear, internal identification numbers assigned to each of the products and their variants. SKUs can be any combination of letters and numbers chosen, just as long as the system is consistent, stockout means running out of the inventory of an SKU. New old stock is a used in business to refer to merchandise being offered for sale that was manufactured long ago. Such merchandise may not be produced anymore, and the new old stock may represent the only source of a particular item at the present time. Manufacturers, distributors, and wholesalers inventory tends to cluster in warehouses, retailers inventory may exist in a warehouse or in a shop or store accessible to customers. Inventories not intended for sale to customers or to clients may be held in any premises an organization uses, stock ties up cash and, if uncontrolled, it will be impossible to know the actual level of stocks and therefore impossible to control them. Work in process, WIP - materials and components that have begun their transformation to finished goods, finished goods - goods ready for sale to customers. Goods for resale - returned goods that are salable, the firms work in process includes those materials from the time of release to the work floor until they become complete and ready for sale to wholesale or retail customers. This may be vats of prepared food, filled cans not yet labeled or sub-assemblies of food components and it may also include finished cans that are not yet packaged into cartons or pallets
14.
Bookkeeping
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Bookkeeping is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business. Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts, and payments by a person or an organization/corporation. Bookkeeping is usually performed by a bookkeeper, a bookkeeper is a person who records the day-to-day financial transactions of a business. He or she is responsible for writing the daybooks, which contain records of purchases, sales, receipts. The bookkeeper brings the books to the trial stage, an accountant may prepare the income statement and balance sheet using the trial balance. The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent researches would appear to show that some method of keeping accounts has existed from the remotest times. Babylonian records have been found dating back as far as 2600 B. C. written with a stylus on small slabs of clay, the term waste book was used in colonial America referring to bookkeeping. The purpose was to document daily transactions including receipts and expenditures and this was recorded in chronological order, and the purpose was for temporary use only. The daily transactions would then be recorded in a daybook or account ledger in order to balance the accounts, the name waste book comes from the fact that once the waste books data were transferred to the actual journal, the waste book could be discarded. The bookkeeping process primarily records the effects of transactions. The difference between a manual and any electronic accounting system results from the formers latency between the recording of a transaction and its posting in the relevant account. In the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs, Sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts. Deposit slips are produced when lodgements are made to a bank account, checks are written to pay money out of the account. Bookkeeping first involves recording the details of all of these documents into multi-column journals. For example, all sales are recorded in the sales journal. Each column in a journal normally corresponds to an account, in the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once. Most individuals who balance their check-book each month are using such a system, after a certain period, typically a month, each column in each journal is totalled to give a summary for that period. Using the rules of double-entry, these summaries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger
15.
Natale Battezzati
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Natale Battezzati was a printer and publishing house owner in Milan, Italy in the mid- and late 1880s. He was a member of the Italian book-trade society, Associazione tipografico-libraria italiana. Battezzati was involved with the Associazione tipografico-libraria italiana from its beginning in 1869 as a member of the board. He proposed, in 1871, a card system that could be used by booksellers to create an in-store catalog of books currently on offer by Italian presses. The system was demonstrated at the Vienna Exposition in 1873, at this latter he was awarded honors for this invention. He also developed standards for noting book prices and for calculating shipping fees for books ordered from the publisher, at the time that he proposed his card system, booksellers had only the bi-monthly publication of the trade association newsletter to provide a list of books available from Italian publishers. At the meeting of the Associazione libraria italiana on September 18,1871, giuseppe Pomba proposed the development of a book emporium to improve distribution and service at many different levels of the book trade. The cards would be used to create a catalog of available books by author. Booksellers would be able to answer requests from customers without the need to leaf through the lists in the issues of the Bibliografia. Each publisher would print cards representing their books and journals, the cards themselves would be reprints of the title page of the publication on heavy paper. Since most title pages carried a fair amount of white space, in a pamphlet on the Milan Exposition of 1881, Battezzati included a list of nearly one hundred Italian publishers using his card system. However, after Battezzatis death in 1882, the card system receives no mention and perhaps, having lost its main proponent. Certainly he is indebted to this system adopted by the Italian publishers in 1871 and it is not obvious, however, how and where Dewey encountered Battezzatis system. There are a number of things wrong with Battezzatis statement, Dewey was not at the Vienna Exposition, but perhaps was alerted to it by others who were there. It is clear that he wrote to Battezzati as he is quoted by Battezzati as saying that he had never seen such a beautiful proposal, the other thing that Battezzati gets wrong is that he translated American Library Association into Associazione dei Libraj dAmerica, which means American Booksellers Association
16.
Melvil Dewey
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Melville Louis Kossuth Dewey was an American librarian and educator, inventor of the Dewey Decimal system of library classification, and a founder of the Lake Placid Club. Dewey was born in Adams Center, New York, the fifth and last child of Joel and he attended rural schools and determined early that his destiny was to reform education of the masses. He briefly attended Alfred University, then Amherst College, where he belonged to Delta Kappa Epsilon, and from which he earned a degree in 1874. While still a student, he founded the Library Bureau, which sold high-quality index-cards and filing-cabinets, as a young adult he advocated spelling reform, he changed his name from the usual Melville to Melvil, without redundant letters, and for a time changed his surname to Dui. From 1883 to 1888 he was librarian at Columbia University. During his time as director of the New York State Library Dewey established a program of traveling libraries, from 1888 to 1900 Dewey served as secretary and executive officer of the University of the State of New York. In 1895 Dewey founded the Lake Placid Club with his wife Annie and he and his son Godfrey had been active in arranging the Winter Olympics which took place at Lake Placid—he chaired the New York State Winter Olympics Committee. In 1926 he went to Florida to establish a new branch of the Lake Placid Club, Dewey established a pattern of making powerful enemies early in life, and many of his friends found him difficult as well. As one biographer put it, Although he did not lack friends, they were weary of coming to his defense, another biography refers to Deweys old nemesis—a persistent inability to control himself around women as a chronic cause of trouble on the job. Indeed, when Dewey opened his School of Library Economy at Columbia College to women it was rumored that he asked for their bust sizes with their applications. Though the rumor turned out to be false he did require a photograph from each female applicant since you cannot polish a pumpkin, however, there is no archival evidence that he acted in any way inappropriate with his female students. As a result, Dewey was ostracized from the ALA, while the Regents declined to remove Dewey, they did issue a public rebuke, and in the summer of 1905 he resigned as a result. Dewey married twice, first to Annie R. Godfrey, and he and his first wife had one child, Godfrey. Dewey became a member of the American Library Associations Hall of Fame in 1951 and he died in Lake Placid, Florida. Dewey was a pioneer in American librarianship and a figure in the development of libraries in America in the late 19th. He is best known for the classification system that many public. But the decimal system was just one of a long list of innovations, among these is the idea of the state library as controller of school and public library services within a state. In Boston, Massachusetts, he founded the Library Bureau, a company for the definite purpose of furnishing libraries with equipment and supplies of unvarying correctness
17.
Library classification
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A library classification is a system by which library resources are arranged according to subject. Library classifications use a system that represents the order of topics in the classification. Library classification systems group related materials together, typically arranged in a tree structure. The library classification numbers can be considered identifiers for resources but are distinct from the International Standard Book Number or International Standard Serial Number system, Library classification is an aspect of library and information science. It is distinct from scientific classification in that it has as its goal to provide a useful ordering of documents rather than an organization of knowledge. Although it has the purpose of creating a physical ordering of documents. The earliest library classification schemes organized books in broad subject categories, the increase in available printed materials made such broad classification unworkable, and more granular classifications for library materials had to be developed in the nineteenth century. Brunet provided five major classes, theology, jurisprudence, sciences and arts, belles-lettres, there are many standard systems of library classification in use, and many more have been proposed over the years. National schemes which are created for certain countries, for example the Swedish library classification system. In terms of functionality, classification systems are described as, enumerative, subject headings are listed alphabetically. Hierarchical, subjects are divided hierarchically, from most general to most specific, faceted or analytico-synthetic, subjects are divided into mutually exclusive orthogonal facets. There are few completely enumerative systems or faceted systems, most systems are a blend, the most common classification systems, LCC and DDC, are essentially enumerative, though with some hierarchical and faceted elements, especially at the broadest and most general level. The first true faceted system was the Colon classification of S. R. Ranganathan, Classification types denote the classification or categorization according the form or characteristics or qualities of a classification scheme or schemes. Method and system has similar meaning, method or methods or system means the classification schemes like Dewey Decimal Classification or Universal Decimal Classification. The types of classification is for identifying and understanding or education or research purposes while classification method means those classification schemes like DDC, UDC, Library classification is associated with library cataloging under the rubric of cataloging and classification, sometimes grouped together as technical services. The library professional who engages in the process of cataloging and classifying library materials is called a cataloger or catalog librarian, Library classification systems are one of the two tools used to facilitate subject access. The other consists of alphabetical indexing languages such as Thesauri and Subject Headings systems, Library classification of a piece of work consists of two steps. Firstly, the aboutness of the material is ascertained, next, a call number based on the classification system in use at the particular library will be assigned to the work using the notation of the system
18.
American Library Association
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The American Library Association is a nonprofit organization based in the United States that promotes libraries and library education internationally. It is the oldest and largest library association in the world, founded by Justin Winsor, Charles Ammi Cutter, Samuel S. Green, James L. Whitney, Melvil Dewey, Fred B. Perkins, Charles Evans, and Thomas W. Bicknell in 1876 in Philadelphia, in attendance were 90 men and 13 women, among them Justin Winsor, William Frederick Poole, Charles Ammi Cutter, Melvil Dewey, and Richard Rogers Bowker. Attendees came from as far west as Chicago and from England, the aim of the Association, in that resolution, was to enable librarians to do their present work more easily and at less expense. The Association has worked throughout its history to define, extend, protect, during this period, the first Library Bill of Rights was drafted by Forrest Spaulding to set a standard against censorship and was adopted by the ALA in 1939. This has been recognized as the moment defining modern librarianship as a committed to intellectual freedom. The ALA formed the Staff Organizations Round Table in 1936 and the Library Unions Round Table in 1940, the ALA appointed a committee to study censorship and recommend policy after the banning of The Grapes of Wrath and the implementation of the LBR. The committee reported in 1940 that intellectual freedom and professionalism were linked and recommended a permanent committee – Committee on Intellectual Freedom, in 1961, the ALA took a stand regarding service to African Americans and others, advocating for equal library service for all. An amendment was passed to the LBR in 1961 that made clear that an individuals library use should not be denied or abridged because of race, religion, national origin, some communities decided to close their doors rather than desegregate. In 1963, the ALA commissioned a study, Access to Public Libraries, in 1967 some librarians protested against a pro-Vietnam War speech given by General Maxwell D. This group called themselves the Organizing Committee for the ALA Round Table on Social Responsibilities of Libraries and this group drew in many other under-represented groups in the ALA who lacked power, including the Congress for Change in 1969. This formation of the committee was approved in 1969 and would change its name to the Social Responsibilities Round Table in 1971). After its inception, the Round Table of Social Responsibilities began to press ALA leadership to address such as library unions, working conditions, wages. The Freedom to Read Foundation was created by ALAs Executive Board in 1969, the Black Caucus of the ALA and the Office for Literacy and Outreach were set up in 1970. His comments were inappropriate and fell far short of the commitment to diversity. Handlers remarks come at a time when the world has little diversity. Works from authors and illustrators of color make up less than 8 percent of children’s titles produced in 2013, the ALA hopes this regrettable incident will be used to open a dialogue on the need for diversity in the publishing industry, particularly in regards to books for young people. The ALA Archives, including documents, non-current records
19.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
20.
University of Graz Library
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The University Library of Graz, in the Austrian city of Graz, is the largest scientific and public library in Styria and the third largest in Austria. It holds the right of legal deposit and it is part of the Karl Franzens University of Graz and consists of the main library, two faculty libraries and several branch libraries and is open to the public. The UB Graz owes its origin to the Counter-Reformation, since 1571 the Jesuits had been pushing the re-catholization in the predominantly Protestant city of Graz according to the wishes of the Archduke Charles II of Austria. For that reason a Jesuit college with a school and a library were founded next to the cathedral in 1573, in 1585 this school was confirmed by Pope Gregory XIII as a Jesuit University, thus the library came into the status of a university library. It grew rapidly because many books got transferred from monasteries to Graz and because of donations, the university was more or less a theological faculty, and the librarys main focus in purchasing books was also theology – but not necessarily Catholic theology. Natural sciences were well represented due to the influence of the mathematician Paul Guldin, when the Jesuit order was abolished in 1773 the university became a state university. In 1775 the university was founded again by a decree and was put under national control together with its library. However, most of the officials who administrated the university as well as the library were former Jesuits. In 1781 the library was re-opened after several adjustments of its new premises, unfortunately, the 28 volume library catalogue was untraceable, it might have been taken away or destroyed by some glowering Jesuits and has never been detected until today. The considerable increase of books from monasteries aggravated the chaos, as well as several other universities the University of Graz was downgraded to the status of lyceum in 1782 by the emperor Josef II. April 1827, after 45 years, the old rights were re-confirmed by the emperor Francis I of Austria, since then the university mentions both founders in its name Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. Adjunctive to the re-installation was a requirement, the university must not cause any additional costs to the state, therefore, it stayed dependent on donations and bequests. Only when the number of personnel was raised from 3 to 6 and the endowment from 830 to 4000 guilder in 1870, due to the limited space at the city centre, a new complex of buildings was erected in the periphery in 1891. The various buildings were opened at different times, between 9 and 22 September 1895 the library moved 135.000 volumes to the main building of the new university. Its further development in stock increase and administration suffered heavy setbacks in both world wars,60.000 volumes were evacuated to save them from air raids in 1944. On 22 October 1945 the library was re-opened,4.500 volumes had been destroyed during World War II. The second half of the 20th century is characterized by constructional changes. In 1950 both stacks situated edgeways behind the room got an annex in the south-east
21.
Library of Ashurbanipal
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Among its holdings was the famous Epic of Gilgamesh. The materials were found in the site of Kouyunjik in northern Mesopotamia. The site is in modern-day northern Iraq, near the city of Mosul, old Persian and Armenian traditions indicate that Alexander the Great, upon seeing the great library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, was inspired to create his own library. Three years later, Hormuzd Rassam, Layards assistant, discovered a similar library in the palace of King Ashurbanipal, on the opposite side of the mound. Unfortunately, no record was made of the findings, and soon after reaching Europe, thus, it is almost impossible today to reconstruct the original contents of each of the two main libraries. Ashurbanipal was known as a tenacious martial commander, however, he was also an intellectual who was literate. As an apprentice scribe he mastered both the Akkadian and the Sumerian languages He sent scribes into every region of the Neo-Assyrian Empire to collect ancient texts and he hired scholars and scribes to copy texts, mainly from Babylonian sources. Ashurbanipal was not above using war booty as a means of stocking his library, because he was known for being a scholar and being cruel to his enemies, Ashurbanipal was able to use threats to gain materials from Babylonia and surrounding areas. Ashurbanipals intense interest in collecting divination texts was one of his motivations in collecting works for his library. His original motive may have been to gain possession of rituals, the royal library consists of approximately 30,000 tablets and writing boards with the majority of them being severely fragmented. The majority of the tablet corpus included colloquial compositions in the form of legislation, foreign correspondences and engagements, aristocratic declarations, the remaining texts contained divinations, omens, incantations and hymns to various gods, while others were concerned with medicine, astronomy, and literature. For all these texts in the only ten contain expressive rhythmic literary works such as epics. The texts were written in Akkadian in the cuneiform script, however many of the tablets do not have an exact derivation. Many of the tablets are indeed composed in the Neo-Babylonian Script, the tablets were often organized according to the shape and contents of the texts. For example, four-sided tablets contained information on finances and round tablets contained information on agriculture, Nineveh was destroyed in 612 BC by a coalition of Babylonians, Scythians and Medes, an ancient Iranian people. It is believed that during the burning of the palace, a fire must have ravaged the library. Ironically, this potentially destructive event helped preserve the tablets, as well as texts on clay tablets, some of the texts may have been inscribed onto wax boards which because of their organic nature have been lost. If all smaller fragments that actually belong to the text are deducted
22.
Sorbonne
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The Sorbonne is an edifice of the Latin Quarter, in Paris, France, which was the historical house of the former University of Paris. The name is derived from the Collège de Sorbonne, initiated during 1257 by the eponymous Robert de Sorbon as one of the first significant colleges of the medieval University of Paris. The university predates the college by about a century, and minor colleges had been founded already during the late 12th century, during the 16th century, the Sorbonne became involved with the intellectual struggle between Catholics and Protestants. The Collège de Sorbonne was suppressed during the French Revolution, reopened by Napoleon during 1808 and this was only one of the many colleges of the University of Paris that existed until the French revolution. After months of conflicts between students and authorities at the University of Paris at Nanterre, the administration closed that university on May 2,1968. Students at the Sorbonne campus in Paris met on May 3 to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. More than 20,000 students, teachers and other endorsers marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to make out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again, may 10 marked the Night of Barricades, where students used cars, wood, and cobblestones to barricade the streets of the Latin Quarter. Brutal street fighting ensued between students and riot police, most notably on Rue Gay-Lussac, early the next morning, as the fighting disbanded, Daniel Cohn-Bendit sent out a radio broadcast calling for a general strike. On Monday,13 May, more than one million workers went on strike, negotiations ended, and students returned to their campuses after a false report that the government had agreed to reopen them, only to discover police still occupying the schools. When the Sorbonne reopened, students occupied it and declared it an autonomous Peoples University, during 1970, the University of Paris was divided into thirteen universities, managed by a common rectorate, the Chancellerie des Universités de Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. The building also houses the École Nationale des Chartes, the École pratique des hautes études, the Cours de Civilisation Française de la Sorbonne, nowadays, the use of the name refers more often to Panthéon-Sorbonne University for French public especially students in France. But, all Parisian universities like to refer as their ancestor, some alliances of universities use that name, like Sorbonne University. Listing of the works of Alexandre Falguière List of works by Henri Chapu La Sorbonne
23.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
24.
Manuscript
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A manuscript is any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to being mechanically printed or reproduced in some automated way. More recently, it is understood to be a written, typed, or word-processed copy of a work. Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were manuscripts, manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in form, scrolls or in codex format. Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately embossed initial letters or full-page illustrations. The traditional abbreviations are MS for manuscript and MSS for manuscripts, while the forms MS. ms or ms. for singular, and MSS. mss or mss. for plural are also accepted. The second s is not simply the plural, by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as pp. means pages. Before the invention of printing in China or by moveable type in a printing press in Europe. Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls or books, manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchment, on papyrus, and on paper. In Russia birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived, in India, the palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century. Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, when Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud. Manuscripts in Tocharian languages, written on leaves, survived in desert burials in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Roman library of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, ironically, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of antiquity are virtually all lost. Originally, all books were in manuscript form, in China, and later other parts of East Asia, woodblock printing was used for books from about the 7th century. The earliest dated example is the Diamond Sutra of 868, in the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive, private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the typewriter in the late 19th century. In the Philippines, for example, as early as 900AD, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus and this type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the document in the hot
25.
Book size
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The size of a book is generally measured by the height against the width of a leaf, or sometimes the height and width of its cover. A series of terms is used by libraries and publishers for the general sizes of modern books, ranging from folio, to quarto. Historically, these referred to the format of the book. For example, a quarto historically was a book printed on a sheet of paper folded twice to four leaves. Because the actual format of modern books cannot be determined from examination of the books. In the hand press period books were manufactured by printing text on both sides of a sheet of paper and then folding the paper one or more times into a group of leaves or gathering. The binder would sew the gatherings through their inner hinges and attached to cords in the spine to form the book block. Before the covers were bound to the book, the block of pages was sometimes trimmed along the three unbound edges to open the folds of the paper and to produce smooth edges for the book. When the leaves were not trimmed, the reader would have to cut open the leaf edges using a knife. Books made by printing two pages of text on each side of a sheet of paper, which is folded once to form two leaves or four pages, are referred to as folios. Those made by printing four text pages on each side of a sheet of paper and folding the paper twice to form a gathering containing four leaves or eight pages are called quartos. Similarly, books made by printing eight pages of text on each side of a sheet, the proportion of leaves of quartos tends to be squarer than folios or octavos. These various production methods are referred to as the format of the book and these terms are often abbreviated, using 4to for quarto, 8vo for octavo, and so on. The octavo format, with eight leaves per gathering, has half the size of the quarto format before trimming. The vast majority of books were printed in the folio, quarto, there are many variations in how such books were produced. For example, three two-leaf printed sheets might be inserted in a fourth, producing gatherings of eight leaves or sixteen pages each. Bibliographers still refer to books as folios because the original full sheets were folded once to produce two leaves, and describe such gatherings as folios in 8s. Similarly, a book printed as an octavo, but bound with gatherings of four each, is called an octavo in 4s
26.
Index card
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An index card consists of card stock cut to a standard size, used for recording and storing small amounts of discrete data. A collection of such cards either serves as, or aids the creation of and this system was invented by Carl Linnaeus, around 1760. The most common size for index cards in North America and UK is 3 by 5 inches, other sizes widely available include 4 by 6 inches,5 by 8 inches and ISO-size A7. Cards are available in blank, ruled and grid styles in a variety of colors, special divider cards with protruding tabs and a variety of cases and trays to hold the cards are also sold by stationers and office product companies. They are part of standard stationery and office supplies all around the globe, professional book indexers used index cards in the creation of book indexes until they were replaced by indexing software in the 1980s and 1990s. Index cards are used for events and are helpful for planning. Similar catalogs were used by law firms and other entities to organize large quantities of stored documents, using cards to create an index was the brainchild of 18th-century naturalist Carl Linnaeus, who is known as the father of modern taxonomy for his work on categorizing species. He needed a system for organizing data that was expandable and able to be rearranged easily, so he kept each datum on individual sheets and could add new sheets and reorganize simply. Card catalogs as currently known arose in the 19th century, in the late 1890s, edge-notched cards were invented, which allowed for easy sorting of data by means of a needle-like tool. These edge-notched cards were phased out in the 1980s in favor of computer databases, kardex became a common noun, especially in the medical records field where filing a kardex came to mean filling out a patient record on an index card. Vladimir Nabokov wrote his works on index cards, a mentioned in his work Pale Fire. Edge-notched card Hipster PDA Paper sizes Punched card Rolodex Markus Krajewski, MIT Press, Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-262-01589-9 Centre for Medical History, University of Exeter, Rewriting the system of nature, Linnaeuss use of writing technologies
27.
Nineveh
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Nineveh was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located on the outskirts of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq. It is on the bank of the Tigris River, and was the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. It is also a name for the half of Mosul which lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris in the modern day. Its ruins are across the river from the major city of Mosul. The two main tells, or mound-ruins, within the walls are Kouyunjik, the Northern Palace, large amounts of Assyrian sculpture and other artifacts have been excavated and are now located in museums around the world. Site remains suffered in the 2010s from the occupation of the area by ISIS, Iraqi forces recaptured the area in January 2017. The English placename Nineveh comes from Latin Ninive and Septuagint Greek Nineuḗ under influence of the Biblical Hebrew Nīnewēh, the original meaning of the name is unclear but may have referred to a patron goddess. The cuneiform for Ninâ is a fish within a house and this may have simply intended Place of Fish or may have indicated a goddess associated with fish or the Tigris, possibly originally of Hurrian origin. The city was said to be devoted to the Ishtar of Nineveh. The city was known as Ninii or Ni in Ancient Egyptian, Ninuwa in Mari, Ninawa in Aramaic, ܢܸܢܘܵܐ in Syriac. Nabī Yūnus is the Arabic for Prophet Jonah, Kouyunjik was, according to Layard, a Turkish name, and it was known as Armousheeah by the Arabs, and is thought to have some connection with the Kara Koyunlu dynasty. This whole extensive space is now one immense area of ruins overlaid in parts by new suburbs of the city of Mosul, Nineveh was one of the oldest and greatest cities in antiquity. The area was settled as early as 6000 BC and, by 3000 BC, had become an important religious center for the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar, the early city was constructed on a fault line and, consequently, suffered damage from a number of earthquakes. One such event destroyed the first temple of Ishtar, which was rebuilt in 2260 BC by the Akkadian king Manishtushu. Texts from the Hellenistic period later offered an eponymous Ninus as the founder of Nineveh, the regional influence of Nineveh became particularly pronounced during the archaeological period known as Ninevite 5, or Ninevite V. This period is defined primarily by the pottery that is found widely throughout northern Mesopotamia. Also, for the northern Mesopotamian region, the Early Jezirah chronology has been developed by archaeologists, according to this regional chronology, Ninevite 5 is equivalent to the Early Jezirah I–II period. Ninevite 5 was preceded by the Late Uruk period, Ninevite 5 pottery is roughly contemporary to the Early Transcaucasian culture ware, and the Jemdet Nasr ware
28.
Pinakes
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The Library of Alexandria had been founded by Ptolemy I Soter about 306 BCE. The first recorded librarian was Zenodotus of Ephesus and his work was 120 volumes long. Apollonius of Rhodes was the successor to Zenodotus, eratosthenes of Cyrene succeeded Apollonius in 235 BCE and compiled his tetagmenos epi teis megaleis bibliothekeis, the scheme of the great bookshelves. The collection at the Library of Alexandria contained nearly 500,000 papyrus scrolls, each bin carried a label with painted tablets hung above the stored papyri. Pinakes was named after these tablets and are a set of index lists, the bins gave bibliographical information for every roll. A typical entry started with a title and also provided the name, birthplace, fathers name, any teachers trained under. It contained a biography of the author and a list of the authors publications. The entry had the first line of the work, a summary of its contents, the name of the author, and information about the origin of the roll. Callimachus system divided works into six genres and five sections of prose, rhetoric, law, epic, tragedy, comedy, lyric poetry, history, medicine, mathematics, natural science, each category was alphabetized by author. Callimachus composed two works that were referred as pinakes and were probably somewhat similar in format to the Pinakes. These are listed by the Suda as, A Chronological Pinax and Description of Didaskaloi from the Beginning and Pinax of the Vocabulary, the term pinax was used for bibliographic catalogs beyond Callimachus. For example, Ptolemy-el-Garibs catalog of Aristotles writings comes to us with the title Pinax of Aristotles writings, the Pinakes proved indispensable to librarians for centuries. They became a model to use all over the Mediterranean and their later influence can be traced to medieval times, even to the Arabic counterpart of the tenth century, Ibn al-Nadims Al-Fihrist. Variations on this system were used in libraries until the late 1800s when Melvil Dewey developed the Dewey Decimal Classification in 1876, the evidence concerning the Pinakes is collected by Rudolf Pfeiffer, Callimachus, vol. I, Fragmenta, Oxford, Clarendon Press 1949, frr, the Pinakes of Callimachus, Library Quarterly 28, 1/4, 132–36. The Other Pinakes and Reference Works of Callimachus, Library Quarterly 43,3, bagnall, R. S. Alexandria, Library of Dreams, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 46 348–62. The Alexandrian Library and the Origins of Bibliography, trans, krevans, N. Callimachus and the Pedestrian Muse, in, A. Callimachus II, Hellenistic Groningana 6 173–84, the Sayings of Democritus, Classical Review 142
29.
Callimachus
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Callimachus was a native of the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya. He was a poet, critic and scholar at the Library of Alexandria and enjoyed the patronage of the Egyptian–Greek Pharaohs Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Although he was never made chief librarian, he was responsible for producing a survey based upon the contents of the Library. This, his Pinakes,120 volumes long, provided the foundation for work on the history of Greek literature. As one of the earliest critic-poets, he typifies Hellenistic scholarship, Callimachus was of Libyan Greek origin. He was named after his grandfather, an elder Callimachus, who was regarded by the Cyrenaean citizens and had served as a general. Callimachus married the daughter of a Greek man called Euphrates who came from Syracuse, however, it is unknown if they had children. In later years, he was educated in Athens, when he returned to North Africa, he moved to Alexandria. Elitist and erudite, claiming to abhor all common things, Callimachus is best known for his poems and epigrams. During the Hellenistic period, a trend in Greek-language poetry was to reject epics modelled after Homer. Big book, big evil is another saying attributed to him, often thought to be attacking long, Callimachus also wrote poems in praise of his royal patrons, and a wide variety of other poetic styles, as well as prose and criticism. Some classicists, including Peter Green, speculate that this contributed to the long feud. Though Callimachus was an opponent of big books, the Suda puts his number of works at 800, suggesting that he found large quantities of small works more acceptable. In the first three books at least, the formula appears to ask a question of the Muse, of the form, Why, on Paros, why, at Argos is a month named for lambs. Why, at Leucas, does the image of Artemis have a mortar on its head, a series of questions can be reconstituted from the fragments. One passage of the Aetia, the so-called Coma Berenices, has been reconstructed from papyrus remains, the extant hymns are extremely learned, and written in a style that some have criticised as labored and artificial. The epigrams are more widely respected, and several have been incorporated into the Greek Anthology, according to Quintilian he was the chief of the elegiac poets, his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans, and imitated by Ovid, Catullus, and especially Sextus Propertius. Many modern classicists hold Callimachus in high regard for his influence on Latin poetry
30.
Library of Alexandria
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The Royal Library of Alexandria or Ancient Library of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt, was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world. It was dedicated to the Muses, the nine goddesses of the arts, the library was part of a larger research institution called the Musaeum of Alexandria, where many of the most famous thinkers of the ancient world studied. The library was created by Ptolemy I Soter, who was a Macedonian general, most of the books were kept as papyrus scrolls. It is unknown precisely how many such scrolls were housed at any given time, arguably, this library is most famous for having been burned down resulting in the loss of many scrolls and books, its destruction has become a symbol for the loss of cultural knowledge. Sources differ on who was responsible for its destruction and when it occurred, the library may in truth have suffered several fires over many years. Possible occasions for the partial or complete destruction of the Library of Alexandria include a set by the army of Julius Caesar in 48 BC. After the main library was destroyed, scholars used a library in a temple known as the Serapeum. The library may have finally been destroyed during the Muslim conquest of Egypt in AD642, the library itself is known to have had an acquisitions department and a cataloguing department. A hall contained shelves for the collections of papyrus scrolls known as bibliothekai, according to popular description, an inscription above the shelves read, The place of the cure of the soul. The library was but one part of the Musaeum of Alexandria, in addition to the library, the Musaeum included rooms for the study of astronomy, anatomy, and even a zoo containing exotic animals. The classical thinkers who studied, wrote, and experimented at the Musaeum include the names of mathematics, astronomy, physics, geometry, engineering, geography, physiology. These included notable thinkers such as Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Herophilus, Erasistratus, Hipparchus, Aedesia, Pappus, Theon, Hypatia and it is not possible to determine the collections size in any era with any certainty. A single piece of writing might occupy several scrolls, and this division into self-contained books was an aspect of editorial work. King Ptolemy II Philadelphus is said to have set 500,000 scrolls as an objective for the library. The librarys index, Callimachus Pinakes, was lost with the rest of the library and this library, with the largest holdings of the age, acquired its collection by laborious copying of originals. Galen spoke of how all ships visiting the city were obliged to surrender their books for immediate copying, the owners received a copy while the pharaohs kept the originals in the library within their museum. As a research institution, the library filled its stacks with new works in mathematics, astronomy, physics, natural sciences and its empirical standards applied in one of the first and certainly strongest homes for serious textual criticism. As the same text often existed in different versions, comparative textual criticism was crucial for ensuring their veracity
31.
Carolingian dynasty
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The Carolingian dynasty was a Frankish noble family with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. The name Carolingian derives from the Latinised name of Charles Martel, the Carolingian dynasty reached its peak in 800 with the crowning of Charlemagne as the first Emperor of Romans in over three centuries. His death in 814 began a period of fragmentation of the Carolingian empire and decline that would eventually lead to the evolution of the Kingdom of France. This picture, however, is not commonly accepted today, the greatest Carolingian monarch was Charlemagne, who was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III at Rome in 800. His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the Western Roman Empire, is referred to historiographically as the Carolingian Empire, the Carolingian rulers did not give up the traditional Frankish practice of dividing inheritances among heirs, though the concept of the indivisibility of the Empire was also accepted. The Carolingians had the practice of making their sons kings in the various regions of the Empire. The Carolingians were displaced in most of the regna of the Empire by 888 and they ruled in East Francia until 911 and held the throne of West Francia intermittently until 987. One chronicler of Sens dates the end of Carolingian rule with the coronation of Robert II of France as junior co-ruler with his father, Hugh Capet, the dynasty became extinct in the male line with the death of Eudes, Count of Vermandois. His sister Adelaide, the last Carolingian, died in 1122, the Carolingian dynasty has five distinct branches, The Lombard branch, or Vermandois branch, or Herbertians, descended from Pepin of Italy, son of Charlemagne. Though he did not outlive his father, his son Bernard was allowed to retain Italy, Bernard rebelled against his uncle Louis the Pious, and lost both his kingdom and his life. Deprived of the title, the members of this branch settled in France. The counts of Vermandois perpetuated the Carolingian line until the 12th century, the Counts of Chiny and the lords of Mellier, Neufchâteau and Falkenstein are branches of the Herbertians. With the descendants of the counts of Chiny, there would have been Herbertian Carolingians to the early 14th century, the Lotharingian branch, descended from Emperor Lothair, eldest son of Louis the Pious. At his death Middle Francia was divided equally between his three surviving sons, into Italy, Lotharingia and Lower Burgundy, the sons of Emperor Lothair did not have sons of their own, so Middle Francia was divided between the western and eastern branches of the family in 875. The Aquitainian branch, descended from Pepin of Aquitaine, son of Louis the Pious, since he did not outlive his father, his sons were deprived of Aquitaine in favor of his younger brother Charles the Bald. The German branch, descended from Louis the German, King of East Francia, since he had three sons, his lands were divided into Duchy of Bavaria, Duchy of Saxony and Duchy of Swabia. His youngest son Charles the Fat briefly reunited both East and West Francia — the entirety of the Carolingian empire — but it again after his death. With the failure of the lines of the German branch, Arnulf of Carinthia
32.
Order of Saint Benedict
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Each community within the order maintains its own autonomy, while the order itself represents their mutual interests. Internationally, the order is governed by the Benedictine Confederation, a body, established in 1883 by Pope Leo XIIIs Brief Summum semper, individuals whose communities are members of the order generally add the initials OSB after their names. The monastery at Subiaco in Italy, established by Saint Benedict of Nursia circa 529, was the first of the monasteries he founded. He later founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino, there is no evidence, however, that he intended to found an order and the Rule of Saint Benedict presupposes the autonomy of each community. It was from the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome that Augustine, the prior, at various stopping places during the journey, the monks left behind them traditions concerning their rule and form of life, and probably also some copies of the Rule. Lérins Abbey, for instance, founded by Honoratus in 375, probably received its first knowledge of the Benedictine Rule from the visit of St. Augustine, in Gaul and Switzerland, it supplemented the much stricter Irish or Celtic Rule introduced by Columbanus and others. In many monasteries it eventually displaced the earlier codes. Largely through the work of Benedict of Aniane, it became the rule of choice for monasteries throughout the Carolingian empire, Monastic scriptoria flourished from the ninth through the twelfth centuries. Sacred Scripture was always at the heart of every monastic scriptorium, as a general rule those of the monks who possessed skill as writers made this their chief, if not their sole active work. In the Middle Ages monasteries were founded by the nobility. Cluny Abbey was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910, the abbey was noted for its strict adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict. The abbot of Cluny was the superior of all the daughter houses, one of the earliest reforms of Benedictine practice was that initiated in 980 by Romuald, who founded the Camaldolese community. The English Benedictine Congregation is the oldest of the nineteen Benedictine congregations, Augustine of Canterbury and his monks established the first English Benedictine monastery at Canterbury soon after their arrival in 597. Many of the sees of England were founded and governed by the Benedictines. Monasteries served as hospitals and places of refuge for the weak, the monks studied the healing properties of plants and minerals to alleviate the sufferings of the sick. Germany was evangelized by English Benedictines, willibrord and Boniface preached there in the seventh and eighth centuries and founded several abbeys. In the English Reformation, all monasteries were dissolved and their lands confiscated by the Crown, during the 19th century they were able to return to England, including to Selby Abbey in Yorkshire, one of the few great monastic churches to survive the Dissolution. St. Mildreds Priory, on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, was built in 1027 on the site of an abbey founded in 670 by the daughter of the first Christian King of Kent, currently the priory is home to a community of Benedictine nuns
33.
Amiens Cathedral
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The Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Amiens, or simply Amiens Cathedral, is a Roman Catholic cathedral and seat of the Bishop of Amiens. It is situated on a ridge overlooking the River Somme in Amiens. It is the 19th largest church in the world, medieval cathedral builders were trying to maximize the internal dimensions in order to reach for the heavens and bring in more light. In that regard, the Amiens cathedral is the tallest complete cathedral in France and it also has the greatest interior volume of any French cathedral, estimated at 200,000 cubic metres. The cathedral was built between 1220 and c.1270 and has listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1981. Bishop Evrard de Fouilly initiated work on the cathedral in 1220, robert de Luzarches was the architect until 1228, and was followed by Thomas de Cormont until 1258. His son, Renaud de Cormont, acted as the architect until 1288, the chronicle of Corbie gives a completion date for the cathedral of 1266. Its floors are covered with a number of designs, such as the bent cross, the labyrinth was installed in 1288. The cathedral contains the head of John the Baptist, a relic brought from Constantinople by Wallon de Sarton as he was returning from the Fourth Crusade. The construction of the cathedral at this period can be seen as resulting from a coming together of necessity and opportunity. The destruction of buildings by fire, and failed attempts at rebuilding forced the fairly rapid construction of a building that. The long and relatively peaceful reign of Louis IX of France brought a prosperity to the region, based on thriving agriculture and a booming cloth trade, the great cathedrals of Reims and Chartres are roughly contemporary. The structure was saved when, centuries later, masons placed a second row of more robust flying buttresses that connected lower down on the outer wall. This fix failed to counteract similar issues with the wall which began to develop large cracks around the late Middle Ages. This was solved by another patch that consisted of an iron bar chain being installed around the mezzanine level to resist the forces pushing the stone columns outward. The chain was installed red hot to act as a cinch, above the rose window there is an open arcade, the galerie des sonneurs. Flanking the nave, the two towers were built without regard to the former design, the south tower being finished in 1366. The western portals of the cathedral are famous for their sculpture, featuring a gallery of locally-important saints
34.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
35.
Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
36.
Leiden University Library
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Leiden University Library is a library founded in 1575 in Leiden, Netherlands. This was due particularly to the presence of a unique collection of exceptional sources. The library manages the largest collections worldwide on Indonesia and the Caribbean, furthermore, Leiden University Library is the only heritage organization in The Netherlands with two documents inscribed in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register. Est hic magna commoditas bibliothecae ut studiosi possint studere —Josephus Justus Scaliger The greatest advantage of the library is that those who want to study, the 16th-century Dutch Revolt against the Habsburgs created a new country with a new religion. Soon, the need for a seat of learning was felt. At the time the university was founded, it was determined that a library in the vicinity of lecture halls was an absolute necessity. The librarys first book was the Polyglot Bible, printed by Christoffel Plantijn, the presentation of this book is regarded as the base on which the library is built. The library became operational in the vault of the current Academy building at Rapenburg on 31 October 1587, in 1595 the Nomenclator appeared, the first catalogue of Leiden University Library as well as the first printed catalogue of an institutional library in the world. The publication of the catalogue coincided with the opening of the new library on the floor of the Faliede Bagijnkerk next to the Theatrum Anatomicum. In 1864 the copy for the alphabetical catalogue of the library in Leiden from 1575 to 1860 was finished. Readers were able to consult alphabetical and systematic registers of the Leiden library in the form of bound catalogue cards and this remained the cataloguing system for the library until 1988. The 22nd Librarian of Leiden University, Johan Remmes de Groot took the initiative for the Dutch library automation endeavor PICA, pica was started up in 1969 and was bought by OCLC in 2000. In 1983 the library moved to its present location on Witte Singel in a new building by architect Bart van Kasteel, the first online catalogue became available in 1988. According to Nicholas A. Leiden University Libraries focuses on the information chain. The library facilitates not only access to information but increasingly supports the evaluation, use, to accomplish this the librarys activities range from supporting education in information literacy to serving as an expert center for digital publishing. The library aims to function as the information manager of Leiden University. These digital information resources are available worldwide to Leiden University students, the special collections and archives of Leiden University are increasingly made available through the librarys Catalogue and Digital Special Collections environment. The library makes all doctoral dissertations available online through the Catalogue, furthermore, publications from Leiden researchers are increasingly made available through the same repository
37.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
38.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
39.
Francis Bacon
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Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, PC KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England, after his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism and his works argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, Bacon was generally neglected at court by Queen Elizabeth, but after the accession of King James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621, because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his wife, Anne Bacon. His mothers sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a leaning toward Puritanism. Bacons education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum and he was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect and his studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, on 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Grays Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain, during his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, the sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt, Bacon stated that he had three goals, to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church
