1.
Pinocchio
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Pinocchio, the name a variant of common pinolo, is a fictional character and the protagonist of the childrens novel The Adventures of Pinocchio by Italian writer Carlo Collodi. Carved by a woodcarver named Geppetto in a village near Florence, he was created as a wooden puppet, as one of the most reimagined characters in childrens literature, his story has been adapted into other media. Pinocchios characterization varies across interpretations, but some aspects of his character are consistent across all adaptations and he is consistently shown to be a creation as a puppet by Geppetto, and the size of his nose changing due to his lies or stress. Pinocchio is known for having a nose that becomes longer when he is under stress. In the original tale, Collodi describes him as a rascal, imp, scapegrace, disgrace, ragamuffin, upon being born, Pinocchio immediately laughs derisively in his creators face, whereupon he steals the old mans wig. Pinocchios bad behavior, rather than being charming or endearing, is meant to serve as a warning, Collodi originally intended the story, which was first published in 1881, to be a tragedy. It concluded with the puppet’s execution, pinocchio’s enemies, the Fox and the Cat, bind his arms, pass a noose around his throat, and hang him from the branch of an oak tree. A tempestuous northerly wind began to blow and roar angrily, and it beat the poor puppet from side to side, making him swing violently, and the swinging gave him atrocious spasms. His breath failed him and he could say no more. He shut his eyes, opened his mouth, stretched his legs, gave a long shudder, Pinocchio is a wooden marionette and not a hand puppet. But the piece of wood from which he is derived is animated, basically good, he often gets carried away by bad company and is prone to lying. His nose will become longer and longer once he starts lying to others, because of these characteristics he often finds himself in trouble, from which, however, he always manages to get out. In the last chapter, out of the mouth of The Terrible Dogfish with Geppetto, finally stops being a puppet, in the novel, Pinocchio is often depicted with a pointy hat, a jacket and a pair of colored, knee-length pants. In the Disney version, the appearance is different, and the character is dressed in Tyrolean style, with Lederhosen. Pinocchios nose is his best-known characteristic and it grows in length when he tells a lie, this appears in chapter XVI. It should be noted how Collodi himself, in Note gaie claims how to hide the truth of a speculum animae face is added to the true nose another papier-mache nose. There is an inconsistency, however, because his nose grows when it is first carved by Geppetto, the nose only appears a couple of times in the story, but it reveals the Blue Fairys power over Pinocchio when he acts disobediently. After struggling and weeping over his nose, the Blue Fairy summons woodpeckers to peck it back to normal. Some literary analysts have described Pinocchio as an epic hero, like many Western literary heroes, such as Odysseus, Pinocchio descends into hell, he also experiences rebirth through metamorphosis, a common motif in fantasy literature
2.
Deception
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Deception, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, and subterfuge is the act of propagating beliefs in things that are not true, or not the whole truth. Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda, and sleight of hand, as well as distraction, camouflage, there is also self-deception, as in bad faith. Deception is a relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time, if people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between romantic and relational partners, Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort, or contract law, or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud. It also forms a part of psychological warfare in Denial. Deception includes several types of communications or omissions that serve to distort or omit the complete truth, examples of deception range from false statements to misleading claims in which relevant information is omitted, leading the receiver to infer false conclusions. Deception itself is intentionally managing verbal and/or nonverbal messages so that the receiver will believe in a way that the message sender knows is false. Intent is critical with regard to deception, intent differentiates between deception and an honest mistake. The Interpersonal Deception Theory explores the interrelation between communicative context and sender and receiver cognitions and behaviors in deceptive exchanges, some forms of deception include, Lies, making up information or giving information that is the opposite or very different from the truth. Equivocations, making an indirect, ambiguous, or contradictory statement, concealments, omitting information that is important or relevant to the given context, or engaging in behavior that helps hide relevant information. Exaggerations, overstatement or stretching the truth to a degree, understatements, minimization or downplaying aspects of the truth. Many people believe that they are good at deception, though this confidence is often misplaced, while it is difficult to deceive a partner over a long period of time, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relational partners. Detecting deception is difficult because there are no completely reliable indicators of deception. Deception, however, places a significant cognitive load on the deceiver and he or she must recall previous statements so that his or her story remains consistent and believable. As a result, deceivers often leak important information both verbally and nonverbally, Deception and its detection is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange. A deceivers actions are interrelated to the message receivers actions and it is during this exchange that the deceiver will reveal verbal and nonverbal information about deceit
3.
Vandalism
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Vandalism is action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property. The term includes criminal damage such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner, the term finds its roots in an Enlightenment view that the Germanic Vandals were a uniquely destructive people. The Vandals, an ancient Germanic people, are associated with destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment, Rome was idealized, while the Goths, however, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art. The term Vandalisme was coined in 1794 by Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois, the term was quickly adopted across Europe. Historically, vandalism has been justified by painter Gustave Courbet as destruction of monuments symbolizing war, therefore, it is often done as an expression of contempt, creativity, or both. Gustave Courbets attempt, during the 1871 Paris Commune, to dismantle the Vendôme column, Nietzsche himself would meditate after the Commune on the fight against culture, taking as example the intentional burning of the Tuileries Palace on May 23,1871. The criminal fight against culture is only the side of a criminal culture wrote Klossowski after quoting Nietzsche. Private citizens commit vandalism when they damage or deface the property of others or the commons. Some vandalism may qualify as culture jamming or sniggling, it is thought by some to be artistic in nature even though carried out illegally or without the property owners permission, examples include at least some graffiti art, billboard liberation and possibly crop circles. Graffiti on public property is common in inner cities as part of a gang culture. More serious forms of vandalism that may take place during public unrest such as rioting can involve the destruction of public. In elections, opposing candidates supporters may engage in political vandalism - the act of defacing opponents political posters, bumper stickers, billboards, and other street marketing material. Also activists may use the tactic of property destruction as means of protest, e. g. by smashing the windows of banks, shops and government institutions, Vandalism is also a common tactic of black blocs. Opportunistic vandalism of this nature may also be filmed, the mentality of which can be akin to happy slapping, greed can motivate vandalism as can some political ideologies, wish to draw attention to problems, frustration, even playfulness. Youngsters, the most common vandals, frequently experience low status, Vandalism enables powerless people to attack those above them, take control and frighten others. Unpunished vandalism can provide relief which reinforces the behaviour, Vandalism by one person can lead to imitation. Criminological research into vandalism has found that it serves many purposes for those who engage in it, sociologist Stanley Cohen describes six different types of vandalism, Acquisitive vandalism
4.
Spamming
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Electronic spamming is the use of electronic messaging systems to send an unsolicited message, especially advertising, as well as sending messages repeatedly on the same site. It is named after Spam, a meat, by way of a Monty Python sketch about a menu that includes Spam in every dish. The food is stereotypically disliked/unwanted, so the word came to be transferred by analogy, because the barrier to entry is so low, spammers are numerous, and the volume of unsolicited mail has become very high. In the year 2011, the figure for spam messages is around seven trillion. The costs, such as lost productivity and fraud, are borne by the public and by Internet service providers, Spamming has been the subject of legislation in many jurisdictions. A person who creates electronic spam is called a spammer, the term spam is derived from the 1970 Spam sketch of the BBC television comedy series Monty Pythons Flying Circus. The sketch is set in a cafe where nearly every item on the menu includes Spam canned luncheon meat, as the waiter recites the Spam-filled menu, a chorus of Viking patrons drowns out all conversations with a song repeating Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam… Spammity Spam. In the 1980s the term was adopted to describe certain abusive users who frequented BBSs and MUDs, in early chat rooms services like PeopleLink and the early days of Online America, they actually flooded the screen with quotes from the Monty Python Spam sketch. Sending an irritating, large, meaningless block of text in this way was called spamming and this was used as a tactic by insiders of a group that wanted to drive newcomers out of the room so the usual conversation could continue. It was also used to prevent members of groups from chatting—for instance, Star Wars fans often invaded Star Trek chat rooms. This act, previously called flooding or trashing, later known as spamming. The term was applied to a large amount of text broadcast by many users. It later came to be used on Usenet to mean excessive multiple posting—the repeated posting of the same message, the unwanted message would appear in many, if not all newsgroups, just as Spam appeared in nearly all the menu items in the Monty Python sketch. This use had also become established—to spam Usenet was flooding newsgroups with junk messages, the word was also attributed to the flood of Make Money Fast messages that clogged many newsgroups during the 1990s. There was also an effort to differentiate between types of newsgroup spam, Messages that were crossposted to too many newsgroups at once – as opposed to those that were posted too frequently – were called velveeta. In the late 19th Century Western Union allowed telegraphic messages on its network to be sent to multiple destinations, the first recorded instance of a mass unsolicited commercial telegram is from May 1864, when some British politicians received an unsolicited telegram advertising a dentistry shop. The earliest documented spam was a message advertising the availability of a new model of Digital Equipment Corporation computers sent by Gary Thuerk to 393 recipients on ARPANET in 1978. Rather than send a message to each person, which was the standard practice at the time, he had an assistant, Carl Gartley
5.
Poker
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Poker is a family of card games that combine gambling, strategy, and skill. Poker games vary in the number of cards dealt, the number of shared or community cards, the number of cards that remain hidden, and the betting procedures. In most modern games, the first round of betting begins with one or more of the players making some form of a forced bet. In standard poker, each player bets according to the rank they believe their hand is worth as compared to the other players. The action then proceeds clockwise as each player in turn must either match, or call, a player who matches a bet may also raise, or increase the bet. The betting round ends when all players have called the last bet or folded. If all but one player folds on any round, the player collects the pot without being required to reveal their hand. If more than one remains in contention after the final betting round, a showdown takes place where the hands are revealed. By the 1990s some gaming historians including David Parlett started to challenge the notion that poker is a derivative of As-Nas. There is evidence that a game called poque, a French game similar to poker, was played around the region where poker is said to have originated. The name of the game likely descended from the Irish Poca or even the French poque, yet it is not clear whether the origins of poker itself lie with the games bearing those names. It is commonly regarded as sharing ancestry with the Renaissance game of primero, the English game brag clearly descended from brelan and incorporated bluffing. It is quite possible that all of these earlier games influenced the development of poker as it exists now, the unique features of poker have to do with the betting, and do not appear in any known older game. In this view poker originated much later, in the early or mid-18th century and it was played in a variety of forms, with 52 cards, and included both straight poker and stud. 20 card poker was a variant for two players, the development of poker is linked to the historical movement that also saw the invention of commercial gambling. English actor Joseph Crowell reported that the game was played in New Orleans in 1829, with a deck of 20 cards, and four players betting on which players hand was the most valuable. As it spread north along the Mississippi River and to the West during the gold rush, soon after this spread, the full 52-card French deck was used and the flush was introduced. The draw was added prior to 1850, during the American Civil War, many additions were made including stud poker, and the straight
6.
Gambling
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Gambling is the wagering of money or something of value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning money or material goods. Gambling thus requires three elements be present, consideration, chance and prize, the term gaming in this context typically refers to instances in which the activity has been specifically permitted by law. However, this distinction is not universally observed in the English-speaking world, for instance, in the United Kingdom, the regulator of gambling activities is called the Gambling Commission. Gambling is also an international commercial activity, with the legal gambling market totaling an estimated $335 billion in 2009. In other forms, gambling can be conducted with materials which have a value, many popular games played in modern casinos originate from Europe and China. Games such as craps, baccarat, roulette, and blackjack originate from different areas of Europe, a version of keno, an ancient Chinese lottery game, is played in casinos around the world. In addition, pai gow poker, a hybrid between pai gow and poker is also played, many jurisdictions, local as well as national, either ban gambling or heavily control it by licensing the vendors. Such regulation generally leads to gambling tourism and illegal gambling in the areas where it is not allowed, there is generally legislation requiring that the odds in gaming devices are statistically random, to prevent manufacturers from making some high-payoff results impossible. Since these high-payoffs have very low probability, a bias can quite easily be missed unless the odds are checked carefully. Most jurisdictions that allow gambling require participants to be above a certain age, in some jurisdictions, the gambling age differs depending on the type of gambling. For example, in many American states one must be over 21 to enter a casino, E. g. Nonetheless, both insurance and gambling contracts are typically considered aleatory contracts under most legal systems, though they are subject to different types of regulation. Under common law, particularly English Law, a contract may not give a casino bona fide purchaser status. For case law on recovery of gambling losses where the loser had stolen the funds see Rights of owner of money as against one who won it in gambling transaction from thief. This was a plot point in a Perry Mason novel, The Case of the Singing Skirt. Religious perspectives on gambling have been mixed, ancient Hindu poems like the Gamblers Lament and the Mahabharata testify to the popularity of gambling among ancient Indians. However, the text Arthashastra recommends taxation and control of gambling, ancient Jewish authorities frowned on gambling, even disqualifying professional gamblers from testifying in court. For these social and religious reasons, most legal jurisdictions limit gambling, in at least one case, the same bishop opposing a casino has sold land to be used for its construction. Although different interpretations of law exist in the Muslim world
7.
Feint
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Feint is a French term that entered English via the discipline of swordsmanship and fencing. Feints are maneuvers designed to distract or mislead, done by giving the impression that a certain maneuver will take place, while in another, or even none. In military tactics and many types of combat, there are two types of feints, feint attacks and feint retreats, a feint attack is designed to draw defensive action towards the point under assault. It is usually used as a diversion to force the enemy to concentrate more manpower in a given area, unlike a related diversionary maneuver, the demonstration, a feint involves actual contact with the enemy. A feint retreat is performed by briefly engaging the enemy, then retreating and it is intended to draw the enemy pursuit into a prepared ambush, or to cause disarray. For example, the Battle of Hastings was lost when Saxons pursued the Norman cavalry. This forfeited the advantage of height and the line was broken, providing the opportunity to fight in single handed combat on a vantage point. The Islamic Prophet Muhammad made extensive use of feints, one of the earliest examples was during the Invasion of Banu Lahyan. Bani Lahyan were on alert and got the news of his march, the tribe then immediately fled to the mountaintops nearby and thus remained out of his reach. All the skirmishes took 14 days, after which he left back for home, Muhammad also ordered the Expedition of Abu Qatadah ibn Rabi al-Ansari in December 629 to divert the attention from his intention of attacking Mecca. He despatched eight men to attack a passing through Edam. During the Battle of Fancheng general Xu Huang of Cao Wei was sent to oppose Guan Yu at Fancheng District. Knowing that most of his soldiers were composed of new recruits training, Xu Huang did not go into battle straight away. The enemies were deceived and abandoned their position, yielding Xu Huang a foothold on the battlefield, by then, a total of twelve camps had been gathered under the flag of Xu Huang. With the strengthened army, Xu Huang finally unleashed an attack on Guan Yus camp, the enemy encirclement consisted of five camps so Xu Huang spread news that he was planning to attack the main camp while he secretly attacked the other four side camps instead. When Guan Yu saw that the four side camps had been destroyed, many of his soldiers were forced into the nearby Han River and drowned. The siege on Fancheng was then lifted, kizeme, similar concept in Japanese swordsmanship Head fake List of battles of Muhammad Military deception
8.
Common ostrich
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The ostrich or common ostrich is either one or two species of large flightless birds native to Africa, the only living member of the genus Struthio, which is in the ratite family. In 2014, the Somali ostrich was recognized as a distinct species, the common ostrich shares the order Struthioniformes with the kiwis, emus, rheas, and cassowaries. However, phylogenetic studies have shown that it is the group to all other members of Palaeognathae. It is distinctive in its appearance, with a neck and legs, and can run at up to about 70 km/h. The common ostrich is the largest living species of bird and lays the largest eggs of any living bird, the common ostrichs diet consists mainly of plant matter, though it also eats invertebrates. It lives in groups of 5 to 50 birds. When threatened, the ostrich will either hide itself by lying flat against the ground, if cornered, it can attack with a kick of its powerful legs. Mating patterns differ by region, but territorial males fight for a harem of two to seven females. The common ostrich is farmed around the world, particularly for its feathers and its skin is used for leather products and its meat is marketed commercially, with its leanness a common marketing point. Common ostriches usually weigh from 63 to 145 kilograms, or as much as two adult humans, ostriches of the East African race averaged 115 kg in males and 100 kg in females, while the nominate subspecies was found to average 111 kg in unsexed adults. Exceptional male ostriches can weigh up to 156.8 kg, at sexual maturity, male common ostriches can be from 2.1 to 2.8 m in height, while female common ostriches range from 1.7 to 2.0 m tall. New chicks are fawn in colour, with brown spots. During the first year of life, chicks grow at about 25 cm per month, at one year of age, common ostriches weigh approximately 45 kilograms. Their lifespan is up to 40–45 years, the feathers of adult males are mostly black, with white primaries and a white tail. However, the tail of one subspecies is buff, females and young males are greyish-brown and white. The head and neck of both male and female ostriches is nearly bare, with a layer of down. The skin of the neck and thighs is pinkish gray. The eyes are shaded from sunlight from above, However, the head and bill are relatively small for the birds huge size, with the bill measuring 12 to 14.3 cm
9.
Cover-up
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A cover-up is an attempt, whether successful or not, to conceal evidence of wrongdoing, error, incompetence or other embarrassing information. In a passive cover-up, information is not provided, in an active cover-up. The expression is usually applied to people in positions of authority who abuse power to avoid or silence criticism or to deflect guilt of wrongdoing, perpetrators of a cover-up may be responsible for a misdeed, a breach of trust or duty, or a crime. While the terms are used interchangeably, cover-up involves withholding incriminatory evidence. When a scandal breaks, the discovery of an attempt to cover up is often regarded as more reprehensible than the original deeds. Initially a cover-up may require little effort, it will be carried out by those involved with the misdeed. This may be regarded as approval of that behaviour. It is likely that some cover-ups are successful, although by definition this cannot be confirmed, as it spreads, the cover-up itself creates yet more suspicious circumstances. Cover-ups do not necessarily require the manipulation of facts or circumstances. Arguably the most common form of cover-up is one of non-action and it is the conscious failure to release incriminating information by a third party. Yet, because of the passive cover-up, the misdeed often goes undiscovered, snowjob is an American and Canadian colloquialism for a deception or a cover-up, for example, Helen Gahagan Douglas described the Nixon Administration as the greatest snow job in history. Sometimes an apparently simple and low-risk cover-up grows out of control, compulsive gamblers, who irrationally think that they will bet the embezzled money, win, return the stake, and keep their winnings are an example. They will typically steal more, still intending to repay it with winnings, the case of derivatives trader Nick Leeson is similar. The following list is considered to be a typology since those who engage in cover-ups tend to use many of the methods of hiding the truth. The methods in actual cover-ups tend to follow the order of the list below. The Roman Catholic sex abuse cases of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, roswell UFO incident September 11,2001, terrorist attacks Attack on the U. S
10.
Confirmation bias
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Confirmation bias, also called confirmatory bias or myside bias, is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms ones preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. It is a type of bias and a systematic error of inductive reasoning. People display this bias when they gather or remember information selectively, the effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs. People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position, biased search, interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization, belief perseverance, the irrational primacy effect and illusory correlation. A series of experiments in the 1960s suggested that people are biased toward confirming their existing beliefs, later work re-interpreted these results as a tendency to test ideas in a one-sided way, focusing on one possibility and ignoring alternatives. In certain situations, this tendency can bias peoples conclusions, explanations for the observed biases include wishful thinking and the limited human capacity to process information. Another explanation is that people show confirmation bias because they are weighing up the costs of being wrong, rather than investigating in a neutral, confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts, confirmation biases are effects in information processing. Others apply the more broadly to the tendency to preserve ones existing beliefs when searching for evidence, interpreting it. Experiments have found repeatedly that people tend to test hypotheses in a one-sided way, rather than searching through all the relevant evidence, they phrase questions to receive an affirmative answer that supports their theory. They look for the consequences that they would expect if their hypothesis were true, for example, someone using yes/no questions to find a number he or she suspects to be the number 3 might ask, Is it an odd number. People prefer this type of question, called a positive test, would yield exactly the same information. However, this does not mean that people seek tests that guarantee a positive answer, in studies where subjects could select either such pseudo-tests or genuinely diagnostic ones, they favored the genuinely diagnostic. The preference for positive tests in itself is not a bias, however, in combination with other effects, this strategy can confirm existing beliefs or assumptions, independently of whether they are true. In real-world situations, evidence is often complex and mixed, for example, various contradictory ideas about someone could each be supported by concentrating on one aspect of his or her behavior. Thus any search for evidence in favor of a hypothesis is likely to succeed, one illustration of this is the way the phrasing of a question can significantly change the answer. For example, people who are asked, Are you happy with your social life, report greater satisfaction than those asked, Are you unhappy with your social life. Even a small change in a questions wording can affect how people search through available information and this was shown using a fictional child custody case
11.
Defamation
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Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not technically false, in some civil law jurisdictions, defamation is treated as a crime rather than a civil wrong. A person who defames another may be called a defamer, libeler, slanderer, or, rarely, the common law origins of defamation lie in the torts of slander, each of which gives a common law right of action. Defamation is the term used internationally, and is used in this article where it is not necessary to distinguish between slander and libel. Libel and slander both require publication, the fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, as by words or sounds, sign language, gestures or the like. Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, the law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel, an early example of libel is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish New York Weekly Journal, when he printed another mans article that criticized William Cosby, who was then British Royal Governor of Colonial New York, Zenger was accused of Seditious Libel. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, there are several ways a person must go about proving that libel has taken place. For example, in the United States, the person must prove that the statement was false, caused harm and these steps are for an ordinary citizen. Many nations have criminal penalties for defamation in some situations, there can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in the United States, defamation is generally limited to the living, however, there are nine states that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. Early cases of criminal defamation Questions of group libel have been appearing in law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of Rex v. Orme and Nutt. In this case, the found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects. Since the jury was unable to identify the people who were being defamed
12.
Disinformation
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Disinformation is intentionally false or misleading information that is spread in a calculated way to deceive target audiences. The English word, which did not appear in dictionaries until the late-1980s, is a translation of the Russian дезинформация, Disinformation is different from misinformation, which is information that is unintentionally false. Misinformation can be used to define disinformation — where disinformation is misinformation that is purposefully and intentionally disseminated in order to deceive, the English word disinformation, which did not appear in dictionaries until the late-1980s, is a translation of the Russian дезинформация, transliterated as dezinformatsiya. Disinformation differs from misinformation, inaccuracies that stem from error, disinformation is deliberate falsehood promulgated by design, misinformation can be used to define disinformation — where disinformation is misinformation that is purposefully and intentionally disseminated. Front groups are a form of disinformation, as they fraudulently mislead as to their actual controllers, Disinformation tactics can lead to blowback, unintended negative problems due to the strategy, for example defamation lawsuits or damage to reputation. Disinformation is primarily prepared by government intelligence agencies, the GPU was the first organization in the Soviet Union to utilize the term disinformation for their intelligence tactics. From this point on, disinformation became a crucial tactic used in the Soviet political warfare called active measures, Active measures were a crucial part of Soviet intelligence strategy involving forgery as covert operation, subversion, and media manipulation. The term was used in 1939, related to a German Disinformation Service, the 1991 edition of The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories defines disinformation as probably a translation of the Russian dezinformatsiya. Ion Mihai Pacepa, former official from the Romanian secret police, said the word was coined by Joseph Stalin. The Stalinist government then utilized disinformation tactics in both World War II and the Cold War, Soviet intelligence used the term maskirovka to refer to a combination of tactics including disinformation, simulation, camouflage, and concealment. The black propaganda division was reported to have formed in 1955 and was referred to as the Dezinformatsiya agency, former Central Intelligence Agency director William Colby explained how the Dezinformatsiya agency operated. Colby said that the Soviet disinformation bureau surreptitiously placed an article in a left-leaning newspaper. The fraudulent tale would make its way to a Communist periodical, before eventually being published by a Soviet newspaper, by this process a falsehood was globally proliferated as a legitimate piece of reporting. According to Oxford Dictionaries the English word disinformation as translated from the Russian disinformatsiya began to see use in the 1950s, the word disinformation saw increased usage in the 1960s and wider purveyance by the 1980s. Many disinformation games are designed only to manipulate the decision-making elite, bittman was deputy chief of the Disinformation Department of the Czechoslovak Intelligence Service, and testified before the United States Congress on his knowledge of disinformation in 1980. Disinformation may include distribution of forged documents, manuscripts, and photographs, or spreading dangerous rumours, a major disinformation effort in 1964, Operation Neptune, was designed by the Czechoslovak secret service, the StB, to defame West European politicians as former Nazi collaborators. The extent of Soviet disinformation came to light through defections of KGB officers and officers of allied Soviet bloc services from the late 1960s through the 1980s, disorder during the fall of the Soviet Union revealed archival and other documentary information to confirm what the defectors had revealed. Stanislav Levchenko and Ilya Dzerkvilov defected from the Soviet Union and by 1990 each had written books recounting their work in the KGB on disinformation operations
13.
Falsity
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Falsity or falsehood is a perversion of truth originating in the deceitfulness of one party, and culminating in the damage of another party. Falsity is also a measure of the quality or extent of the falseness of something, in the Frege–Church ontology, truth is the denotation of a true proposition, while falsity is the denotation of false propositions. In Classical æsthetics, falsity is ugly, and truth is beautiful, in existentialism, falsity is usually a thing to be avoided, and is not desired. Deception Fraud Lie Catholic Encyclopedia Falsity This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
14.
Information
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In other words, it is the answer to a question of some kind. It is thus related to data and knowledge, as data represents values attributed to parameters, as it regards data, the informations existence is not necessarily coupled to an observer, while in the case of knowledge, the information requires a cognitive observer. At its most fundamental, information is any propagation of cause, Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation. It can also be encrypted for safe storage and communication, the uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence and is inversely proportional to that. The more uncertain an event, the information is required to resolve uncertainty of that event. The bit is a unit of information, but other units such as the nat may be used. Example, information in one fair coin flip, log2 =1 bit, the concept that information is the message has different meanings in different contexts. The English word was derived from the Latin stem of the nominative. Inform itself comes from the Latin verb informare, which means to give form, eidos can also be associated with thought, proposition, or even concept. The ancient Greek word for information is πληροφορία, which transliterates from πλήρης fully and it literally means fully bears or conveys fully. In modern Greek language the word Πληροφορία is still in use and has the same meaning as the word information in English. In addition to its meaning, the word Πληροφορία as a symbol has deep roots in Aristotles semiotic triangle. In this regard it can be interpreted to communicate information to the one decoding that specific type of sign, from the stance of information theory, information is taken as an ordered sequence of symbols from an alphabet, say an input alphabet χ, and an output alphabet ϒ. Information processing consists of a function that maps any input sequence from χ into an output sequence from ϒ. The mapping may be probabilistic or deterministic and it may have memory or be memoryless. Often information can be viewed as a type of input to an organism or system, inputs are of two kinds, some inputs are important to the function of the organism or system by themselves. In his book Sensory Ecology Dusenbery called these causal inputs, other inputs are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time. Some information is important because of association with information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input
15.
Exaggeration
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Exaggeration is a representation of something in an excessive manner. exaggerating. It is the opposite of minimisation, inflated praise in the form of flattery and puffery has a similarly lengthy history. Exaggerating is also a type of deception, as well as a means of malingering – magnifying small injuries or discomforts as an excuse to avoid responsibilities, character assassination typically involves deliberate exaggeration or manipulation of facts. Cognitive behavioral therapy views magnification as unconscious, unrealistic mental processing or cognitive distortion and this is better known as making a big deal out of nothing. Whereas probability overestimation refers to exaggerating the likelihood of an event, closely related is overgeneralizing, where one takes a single negative event and see it as a never-ending pattern of defeat. Another form of exaggeration is inflation of the difficulty of achieving a goal after attaining it. Psychoanalysis considered that neurotic exaggerations were the products of displacement – overvaluations for example being used to maintain a repression elsewhere, thus a conflict over ambivalence may be resolved by means of exaggerating ones love for a person so as to keep an unconscious hatred in further check. Alarmism is excessive or exaggerated alarm about a real or imagined threat e. g. the increases in deaths from infectious disease, the alarmist person is subject to the cognitive distortion of catastrophizing – of always expecting the worst of possible futures. Some theoreticians of the comic consider exaggeration to be a comic device. It may take different forms in different genres, but all rely on the fact that the easiest way to make things laughable is to exaggerate to the point of absurdity their salient traits, catherine Tate is an example of a comedian who uses exaggeration. Catherine Tate creates characters who are so over the top as to be almost cartoon-like and her comedy is never meant to offend any viewer and is always based on satire and grotesque exaggeration. In literature, a caricature is a description of a person using exaggeration of some characteristics, slapstick is the recourse to humor involving exaggerated physical activity which exceeds the boundaries of common sense. These exaggerated depictions are found in childrens cartoons, and light film comedies aimed at younger audiences. Paradoxical laughter is an expression of humor which is unwarranted by external events. It may be uncontrollable laughter which may be recognised as inappropriate by the person involved, freud considered the compulsive laughter which so often occurs on mournful occasions the by-product of ambivalence. The boastful soldier or Miles Gloriosus has for thousands of years formed part of the Western stage, the original miles gloriosus in Plautus is a son of Jove and Venus who has killed an elephant with his fist and seven thousand men in one days fighting. In other words, he is trying to put on a good show, overacting is the exaggeration of gestures and speech when acting. It may be unintentional, particularly in the case of a bad actor, or be required for the role, for the latter, it is commonly used in comical situations or to stress the evil characteristics of a villain
16.
Yellow journalism
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Yellow journalism, or the yellow press, is a type of journalism that presents little or no legitimate well-researched news and instead uses eye-catching headlines to sell more newspapers. Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering or sensationalism, by extension, the term yellow journalism is used today as a pejorative to decry any journalism that treats news in an unprofessional or unethical fashion. The term was used to describe certain major New York City newspapers around 1900 as they battled for circulation. The battle peaked from 1895 to about 1898, and historical usage often refers specifically to this period, both papers were accused by critics of sensationalizing the news in order to drive up circulation, although the newspapers did serious reporting as well. An English magazine in 1898 noted, All American journalism is not ‘yellow’, the term was coined by Erwin Wardman, the editor of the New York Press. Wardman was the first to publish the term but there is evidence that such as yellow journalism. Wardman never defined the term exactly, possibly it was a mutation from earlier slander where Wardman twisted new journalism into nude journalism. Wardman had also used the yellow kid journalism referring to the then-popular comic strip which was published by both Pulitzer and Hearst during a circulation war. In 1898 the paper simply elaborated, We called them Yellow because they are Yellow, joseph Pulitzer purchased the New York World in 1883 after making the St. Louis Post-Dispatch the dominant daily in that city. Pulitzer strove to make the New York World an entertaining read, crime stories filled many of the pages, with headlines like Was He a Suicide. and Screaming for Mercy. In addition, Pulitzer only charged two cents per issue but gave readers eight and sometimes 12 pages of information. While there were many stories in the New York World, they were by no means the only pieces. Pulitzer believed that newspapers were public institutions with a duty to improve society, just two years after Pulitzer took it over, the World became the highest circulation newspaper in New York, aided in part by its strong ties to the Democratic Party. Charles Dana, editor of the New York Sun, attacked The World and said Pulitzer was deficient in judgment, Pulitzers approach made an impression on William Randolph Hearst, a mining heir who acquired the San Francisco Examiner from his father in 1887. Hearst read the World while studying at Harvard University and resolved to make the Examiner as bright as Pulitzers paper. Under his leadership, the Examiner devoted 24 percent of its space to crime, presenting the stories as morality plays, a month after Hearst took over the paper, the Examiner ran this headline about a hotel fire, HUNGRY, FRANTIC FLAMES. They Leap Madly Upon the Splendid Pleasure Palace by the Bay of Monterey, leaping Higher, Higher, Higher, With Desperate Desire. Running Madly Riotous Through Cornice, Archway and Facade, rushing in Upon the Trembling Guests with Savage Fury
17.
Misinformation
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Misinformation is false or incorrect information, that is spread intentionally or unintentionally. In an age of technological advances, social networking sites are becoming more and more popular and these sites are an easy access point for misinformation. They provide users with the capabilities to spread quickly to other users without confirmation of its truth. This also makes more difficult when several other users can share or change data to accommodate their own thoughts. When researching these sources, it is important to learn the extent of which the misinformation will be disseminated, to what audience and these important clues can help Web sites know what plans of action need to be taken to avoid outbreaks. According to Anne Mintz, editor of Web of Deception, Misinformation on the Internet, look to see if information makes sense, if the founders or reporters of the sites are biased or have an agenda, and look at where the sites may be found. It is highly recommended to look at sites for that information, as it might be published and heavily researched. Readers cannot be gullible but cannot be paranoid that all information is incorrect, there is always a chance that even readers who have this balance will believe an error or they will disregard the truth as wrong. Libicki says that prior beliefs or opinions affect how readers interpret information as well, when readers believe something to be true before researching it, they are more likely to believe something that supports their prior thoughts. This may lead readers to believe misinformation, Misinformation is spread for numerous reasons. The next three sections explain how misinformation has spread and continues to spread as the Internet and other technologies expand, the Internet allows writers to write anything without peer review, qualifications, or backup documentation. Whereas a book found in a library generally has been reviewed and edited and they may be produced and put out to the world to see as soon as the writing is finished. A state may have official secrets, in wartime and even in peacetime, soldiers would be told only what they need be told at the time so that if they should be captured they would not divulge valuable information to the enemy. Governments might try to discourage curiosity about details that could harm the nation if they got into the wrong hands, to be sure, the state cannot deny even such information as casualty lists or military setbacks and cannot avoid acknowledging historical fact. The state may announce the truth when the truth can no longer harm military objectives—and must do so in a manner so that it can maintain its credibility. Failure to inform the public about this information could foster rumors and misinformation, an example to ignorance in the media can be seen when in November 2005, Chris Hansen on Dateline NBC made a claim that law enforcement officials estimate 50,000 predators are online at any moment. Afterwards the attorney general at the time, Alberto Gonzales, stated that Dateline estimated 50,000 predators are online at any given moment, however, the number that Hansen used in his reporting had no backing. Hansen said he received the information from Dateline expert Ken Lanning, however, Lenning admitted that he made up the number 50,000 because there was no solid data on the number
18.
Hoax
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A hoax is a deliberately fabricated falsehood made to masquerade as the truth. It is distinguishable from errors in observation or judgment, rumors, urban legends, pseudosciences, although practical jokes have likely existed for thousands of years, one of the earliest recorded hoaxes in history was the drummer of Tedworth in 1661. The communication of hoaxes can be accomplished in almost any manner that a story can be communicated, in person, via word of mouth, via words printed on paper. However, hoaxes could also be spread via chain letters, which became easier as the cost of mailing a letter dropped. The invention of the press in the 15th century brought down the cost of a mass-produced books and pamphlets. During the 20th century, the hoax found a market in the form of supermarket tabloids. Hocus is a shortening of the magic incantation hocus pocus, whose origin is disputed, robert Nares defined the word hoax as meaning to cheat, dating from Thomas Adys 1656 book A candle in the dark, or a treatise on the nature of witches and witchcraft. T. Barnum, whose Fiji mermaid contributed to his wealth—often acquire monetary gain or fame through their fabrications, one of the earliest recorded media hoaxes is a fake almanac published by Jonathan Swift under the pseudonym of Isaac Bickerstaff in 1708. Swift predicted the death of John Partridge, one of the astrologers in England at that time, in the almanac. Partridges reputation was damaged as a result and his astrological almanac was not published for the six years. It is possible to perpetrate a hoax by making only true statements using unfamiliar wording or context, political hoaxes are sometimes motivated by the desire to ridicule or besmirch opposing politicians or political institutions, often before elections. A hoax differs from a trick or from fiction in that the audience is unaware of being deceived. A hoax is often intended as a joke or to cause embarrassment. It can also emerge from a marketing or advertising purpose, a resulting video clip of Chloe and Keiths Wedding was uploaded to YouTube and was viewed by over 30 million people and the couple was interviewed by numerous talk shows. Viewers were deluded into thinking that it was a clip of a real accident at a real wedding. A borderline case between fiction and hoax is a 1938 radio broadcast by Orson Welles describing a Martian invasion of Earth, many people who tuned in without hearing the introduction of the program as fiction were concerned that the invasion was real. Governments sometimes spread false information to facilitate their objectives, such as going to war, the Iraq dossier is an example of this, there is often a mixture of outright hoax and suppression and management of information to give the desired impression. In wartime and times of international tension rumors abound, some of which may be deliberate hoaxes, examples of politics-related hoaxes, Belgium is a country with a Flemish-speaking region and a French-speaking region
19.
News media
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The news media or news industry are those elements of the mass media that focus on delivering news to the general public or a target public. These include print media, broadcast news, and more recently the Internet, a medium is a carrier of something. Common things carried by media include information, art, or physical objects, a medium may provide transmission or storage of information or both. The industries which produce news and entertainment content for the media are often called the media. In the late 20th century it became commonplace for this usage to be construed as singular rather than as the traditional plural, broadcasting is the distribution of audio and video signals to a number of recipients that belong to a large group. This group may be the public in general, or a large audience within the public. Thus, an Internet channel may distribute text or music worldwide, the sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule. Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or cable, by coding signals and having decoding equipment in homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels and pay-per-view services. A broadcasting organization may broadcast several programs at the time, through several channels, for example BBC One. On the other hand, two or more organizations may share a channel and each use it during a part of the day. Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble, when broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used. Broadcasting forms a large segment of the mass media. Broadcasting to a narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting. In a broadcast system, journalists or reporters are also involved editing the video material that has been shot alongside their research. Broadcast journalists often make an appearance in the story at the beginning or end of the video clip. In television or broadcast journalism, news analysts examine, interpret, anchors present this as news, either videotaped or live, through transmissions from on-the-scene reporters. News films can vary in length, there are some which may be as long as ten minutes, others that need to fit in all the relevant information and material in two or three minutes. News channels these days have begun to host special documentary films that stretch for much longer durations and are able to explore a news subject or issue in greater detail
20.
Social media
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Social media are computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks. User-generated content, such as posts or comments, digital photos or videos. Users create service-specific profiles for the website or app that are designed and maintained by the media organization. Social media facilitate the development of social networks by connecting a users profile with those of other individuals or groups. They introduce substantial and pervasive changes to communication between businesses, organizations, communities and individuals, Social media changes the way individuals and large organizations communicate. These changes are the focus of the field of technoself studies. In America, a reported that 84 percent of adolescents in America have a Facebook account. Over 60% of 13 to 17-year-olds have at least one profile on social media, according to Nielsen, Internet users continue to spend more time on social media sites than on any other type of site. For content contributors, the benefits of participating in social media have gone beyond simply social sharing to building a reputation and bringing in career opportunities and monetary income. Social media differ from paper-based or traditional media such as TV broadcasting in many ways, including quality, reach, frequency, usability, immediacy. Social media operate in a Dialogic transmission system and this is in contrast to traditional media which operates under a monologic transmission model, such as a paper newspaper which is delivered to many subscribers. Some of the most popular social media websites are Baidu Tieba, Facebook, Gab, Google+, Instagram, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Reddit, Snapchat, Tumblr, Twitter, Viber, WeChat, Weibo, WhatsApp, and YouTube. These social media websites have more than 100,000,000 registered users, observers have noted a range of positive and negative impacts of social media use. At the same time, concerns have been raised about possible links between social media use and depression, and even the issues of cyberbullying, online harassment. Currently, about half of adults have been cyberbullied and of those,20 percent said that they have been cyberbullied on a regular basis. Another survey was carried out among 7th grade students in America which is known as the Precaution Process Adoption Model, according to this study,69 percent of 7th grade students claim to have experienced cyberbullying and they also said that it is worse than face to face bullying. The variety and evolving stand-alone and built-in social media services introduces a challenge of definition, the terminology is unclear, with some referring to social media as social networks. A2015 paper reviewed the prominent literature in the area and identified four commonalities unique to then-current social media services, in 2016, Merriam-Webster defined social media as Forms of electronic communication through which people create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, etc
21.
Dog
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The domestic dog is a member of genus Canis that forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa, with modern wolves not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, the dog was the first domesticated species and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. Their long association with humans has led dogs to be attuned to human behavior. Dogs vary widely in shape, size and colours, dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. This influence on society has given them the sobriquet mans best friend. The term domestic dog is used for both domesticated and feral varieties. The English word dog comes from Middle English dogge, from Old English docga, the term may possibly derive from Proto-Germanic *dukkōn, represented in Old English finger-docce. The word also shows the familiar petname diminutive -ga also seen in frogga frog, picga pig, stagga stag, wicga beetle, worm, the term dog may ultimately derive from the earliest layer of Proto-Indo-European vocabulary. In 14th-century England, hound was the word for all domestic canines, and dog referred to a subtype of hound. It is believed this dog type was so common, it became the prototype of the category hound. By the 16th century, dog had become the general word, the word hound is ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European word *kwon-, dog. This semantic shift may be compared with in German, where the corresponding words Dogge, a male canine is referred to as a dog, while a female is called a bitch. The father of a litter is called the sire, and the mother is called the dam, the process of birth is whelping, from the Old English word hwelp, the modern English word whelp is an alternate term for puppy. A litter refers to the offspring at one birth which are called puppies or pups from the French poupée, doll. The term dog typically is applied both to the species as a whole, and any male member of the same. An adult female is a bitch, in some countries, especially in North America, dog is used instead due to the vulgar connotation of bitch. An adult male capable of reproduction is a stud, an adult female capable of reproduction is a brood bitch, or brood mother. Immature males or females are pups or puppies, a group of pups from the same gestation period is a litter
22.
Fraud
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In law, fraud is deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right. Fraud itself can be a wrong, a criminal wrong or it may cause no loss of money, property or legal right. The purpose of fraud may be monetary gain or other benefits, a hoax is a distinct concept that involves deliberate deception without the intention of gain or of materially damaging or depriving a victim. In common law jurisdictions, as a wrong, fraud is a tort. Proving fraud in a court of law is said to be difficult. In cases of a fraudulently induced contract, fraud may serve as a defense in an action for breach of contract or specific performance of contract. Fraud may serve as a basis for a court to invoke its equitable jurisdiction, in common law jurisdictions, as a criminal offence, fraud takes many different forms, some general and some specific to particular categories of victims or misconduct. The elements of fraud as a crime similarly vary, section 380 of the Criminal Code provides the general definition for fraud in Canada,380. In addition to the penalties outlined above, the court can issue a prohibition order under s.380.2. It can also make an order under s.380.3. The Canadian courts have held that the offence consists of two elements, A prohibited act of deceit, falsehood or other fraudulent means. The Supreme Court of Canada has held that deprivation is satisfied on proof of detriment, prejudice or risk of prejudice, it is not essential that there be actual loss. Deprivation of confidential information, in the nature of a secret or copyrighted material that has commercial value, has also been held to fall within the scope of the offence. The BBC World Service reported in 2012 that the value lost through fraud in the UK was £66 billion a year. According to a review by the UK anti-fraud charity Fraud Advisory Panel business fraud accounted for £144bn, the FAP has been particularly critical of the support available from the police to victims of fraud in the UK outside of London. In July 2016 it was reported that fraudulent activity levels in the UK increased in the 10 years to 2016 from £52 billion to £193bn. This figure would be an estimate, since as the former commissioner of the City of London Police, Adrian Leppard, has said. Donald Toon, director of the NCAs economic crime command, stated in July 2016, Fraud affects one in ten people in the UK
23.
Truth
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Truth is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard. Truth may also often be used in modern contexts to refer to an idea of truth to self, the commonly understood opposite of truth is falsehood, which, correspondingly, can also take on a logical, factual, or ethical meaning. The concept of truth is discussed and debated in several contexts, including philosophy, art, Some philosophers view the concept of truth as basic, and unable to be explained in any terms that are more easily understood than the concept of truth itself. Commonly, truth is viewed as the correspondence of language or thought to an independent reality, other philosophers take this common meaning to be secondary and derivative. On this view, the conception of truth as correctness is a derivation from the concepts original essence. Various theories and views of truth continue to be debated among scholars, philosophers, language and words are a means by which humans convey information to one another and the method used to determine what is a truth is termed a criterion of truth. The English word truth is derived from Old English tríewþ, tréowþ, trýwþ, Middle English trewþe, cognate to Old High German triuwida, like troth, it is a -th nominalisation of the adjective true. Old Norse trú, faith, word of honour, religious faith, thus, truth involves both the quality of faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, sincerity, veracity, and that of agreement with fact or reality, in Anglo-Saxon expressed by sōþ. All Germanic languages besides English have introduced a distinction between truth fidelity and truth factuality. To express factuality, North Germanic opted for nouns derived from sanna to assert, affirm, while continental West Germanic opted for continuations of wâra faith, trust, pact. Romance languages use terms following the Latin veritas, while the Greek aletheia, Russian pravda, each presents perspectives that are widely shared by published scholars. However, the theories are not universally accepted. More recently developed deflationary or minimalist theories of truth have emerged as competitors to the substantive theories. Minimalist reasoning centres around the notion that the application of a term like true to a statement does not assert anything significant about it, for instance, anything about its nature. Minimalist reasoning realises truth as a label utilised in general discourse to express agreement, to stress claims, correspondence theories emphasise that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs. This type of theory stresses a relationship between thoughts or statements on one hand, and things or objects on the other and it is a traditional model tracing its origins to ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle entirely by how it relates to things, Aquinas also restated the theory as, A judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the external reality. Many modern theorists have stated that this ideal cannot be achieved without analysing additional factors, for example, language plays a role in that all languages have words to represent concepts that are virtually undefined in other languages
24.
Irony
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Irony, in its broadest sense, is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or event in which what appears, on the surface, to be the case, differs radically from what is actually the case. Irony may be divided into such as verbal, dramatic. Verbal, dramatic, and situational irony are often used for emphasis in the assertion of a truth, other forms, as identified by historian Connop Thirlwall, include dialectic and practical irony. Also, Eric Partridge, in Usage and Abusage, writes that Irony consists in stating the contrary of what is meant, the use of irony may require the concept of a double audience. The term is used as a synonym for incongruous and applied to every trivial oddity in situations where there is no double audience. The American Heritage Dictionarys secondary meaning for irony, incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs and this sense, however, is not synonymous with incongruous but merely a definition of dramatic or situational irony. It is often included in definitions of irony not only that incongruity is present, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, The term irony has its roots in the Greek comic character Eiron, a clever underdog who by his wit repeatedly triumphs over the boastful character Alazon. The Socratic irony of the Platonic dialogues derives from this comic origin. e, the word came into English as a figure of speech in the 16th century as similar to the French ironie. It derives from the Latin ironia and ultimately from the Greek εἰρωνεία eirōneía, meaning dissimulation, Romantic irony, A self-aware and self-critical form of fiction. Cosmic irony, A contrast between the absolute and the relative, the general and the individual, which Hegel expressed by the phrase, when the audience knows that the character will die before morning. It is most often used when the author causes a character to speak or act erroneously, in tragic irony, the audience knows the character is making a mistake, even as the character is making it. Verbal irony is distinguished from situational irony and dramatic irony in that it is produced intentionally by speakers, for instance, if a man exclaims, Im not upset. But reveals an upset emotional state through his voice while truly trying to claim hes not upset, but if the same speaker said the same words and intended to communicate that he was upset by claiming he was not, the utterance would be verbal irony. This distinction illustrates an important aspect of verbal irony—speakers communicate implied propositions that are contradictory to the propositions contained in the words themselves. Were left in no doubt as to whos ambitious and whos honourable, the literal truth of whats written clashes with the perceived truth of whats meant to revealing effect, which is irony in a nutshell. Ironic similes are a form of verbal irony where a speaker intends to communicate the opposite of what they mean, a fair amount of confusion has surrounded the issue of the relationship between verbal irony and sarcasm. Fowlers A Dictionary of Modern English Usage states, Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony and irony has often no touch of sarcasm and this suggests that the two concepts are linked but may be considered separately. 2 a, a mode of satirical wit depending for its effect on bitter, caustic, the psychologist Martin, in The Psychology of Humour, is quite clear that irony is where the literal meaning is opposite to the intended and sarcasm is aggressive humor that pokes fun
25.
Storytelling
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Storytelling is the social and cultural activity of sharing stories, often with improvisation, theatrics, or embellishment. Stories or narratives have been shared in every culture as a means of entertainment, education, cultural preservation, crucial elements of stories and storytelling include plot, characters and narrative point of view. Storytelling predates writing, with the earliest forms of storytelling usually oral combined with gestures, in addition to being part of religious rituals, some archaeologists believe rock art may have served as a form of storytelling for many ancient cultures. The Australian aboriginal people painted symbols from stories on cave walls as a means of helping the storyteller remember the story. The story was then using a combination of oral narrative, music, rock art and dance. People have used the trunks of living trees and ephemeral media to record stories in pictures or with writing. Complex forms of tattooing may also represent stories, with information about genealogy, affiliation, with the advent of writing and the use of stable, portable media, stories were recorded, transcribed and shared over wide regions of the world. Modern storytelling has a broad purview, in addition to its traditional forms, it has extended itself to representing history, personal narrative, political commentary and evolving cultural norms. Contemporary storytelling is also used to address educational objectives. New forms of media are creating new ways for people to record, express, tools for asynchronous group communication can provide an environment for individuals to reframe or recast individual stories into group stories. Games and other platforms, such as those used in interactive fiction or interactive storytelling. Documentaries, including web documentaries, employ storytelling narrative techniques to communicate information about their topic. Self-revelatory stories, created for their cathartic and therapeutic effect, are growing in their use and application, as in Psychodrama, Drama Therapy and Playback Theatre. Albert Bates Lord examined oral narratives from field transcripts of Yugoslav oral bards collected by Milman Parry in the 1930s, Lord found that a large part of the stories consisted of text which was improvised during the telling process. Lord identified two types of story vocabulary, the first he called formulas, rosy-fingered dawn, the wine-dark sea and other specific set phrases had long been known of in Homer and other oral epics. Lord, however, discovered that across many story traditions, fully 90% of an epic is assembled from lines which are repeated verbatim or which use one-for-one word substitutions. In other words, oral stories are built out of set phrases which have been stockpiled from a lifetime of hearing and telling stories, the other type of story vocabulary is theme, a set sequence of story actions that structure a tale. Just as the teller of tales proceeds line-by-line using formulas, so he proceeds from event-to-event using themes, one near-universal theme is repetition, as evidenced in Western folklore with the rule of three, Three brothers set out, three attempts are made, three riddles are asked
26.
Tall tale
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A tall tale is a story with unbelievable elements, related as if it were true and factual. Some stories such as these are exaggerations of actual events, for example fish stories such as, That fish was so big, why I tell ya, it nearly sank the boat when I pulled it in. Things are often told in a way makes the narrator seem to have been a part of the story. The tall tale is an element of American folk literature. The tall tales origins are seen in the contests that often occurred when the rough men of the American frontier gathered. The tales of legendary figures of the Old West, some listed below, the semi-annual speech contests held by Toastmasters International public speaking clubs may include a Tall Tales contest. Each and every participating speaker is given three to five minutes to give a speech of a tall tale nature, and is then judged according to several factors. The winner proceeds to the level of competition. The contest does not proceed beyond any participating district in the organization to the International level and he is known for the Bowie knife which he used to disembowel his opponent. Daniel Boone – Blazed a trail across Cumberland Gap to found the first English-speaking colonies west of the Appalachian Mountains Aylett C, strap Buckner – An Indian fighter of colonial Texas Davy Crockett – A pioneer and U. S. Congressman from Tennessee who later died at the Battle of the Alamo Mike Fink – The toughest boatman on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, for instance, The Australian frontier similarly inspired the types of tall tales that are found in American folklore. The Australian versions typically concern a mythical station called The Speewah, juho Nätti, known as Nätti-Jussi, was a Finnish lumberjack known for telling tall tales, his stories have also circulated as folk tales and been collected in books. The Life of Gargantua and of Pantagruel by the French writer Rabelais told the tale of two giants, father and son, the many farfetched adventures of the fictional German nobleman Baron Munchausen, some of which may have had a folklore basis. The Cumbrian Liars, a United Kingdom association who follow in the footsteps of Will Ritson. Arlo Guthries Motorcycle Song is often accompanied by a tale about the origin of the song. Early 20th century postcards became a vehicle for tall tale telling in the US, creators of these cards, such as the prolific Alfred Stanley Johnson, Jr. and William H. The common theme was gigantism, fishing for leviathans, hunting for or riding oversized animals, an homage to the genre can be found on the cover of the Eat a Peach album by The Allman Brothers Band. The Tall Tale in American Folklore and Literature, knoxville, Tennessee, University of Tennessee Press
27.
Nasreddin
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He is considered a populist philosopher and wise man, remembered for his funny stories and anecdotes. He appears in thousands of stories, sometimes witty, sometimes wise, but often, too, a Nasreddin story usually has a subtle humour and a pedagogic nature. The International Nasreddin Hodja fest is celebrated between 5 and 10 July in his hometown every year, claims about his origin are made by many ethnic groups. The alleged tomb of Nasreddin is in Akşehir and the International Nasreddin Hodja Festival is held annually in Akşehir between 5–10 July, according to Prof. Mikail Bayram who made an extensive research on Nasreddin, his full name is Nasir ud-din Mahmood al-Khoyi, his title Ahi Evran. He was sent to Anatolia by the Khalif in Baghdad to organize resistance and he served as a kadı in Kayseri. This explains why he addresses judicial problems in the not only religious ones. During the turmoil of the Mongol invasion he became an opponent of Persian Rumi. He was addressed in Masnavi by juha anecdotes for this reason and he became the vazir at the court of Kaykaus II. As generations have gone by, new stories have been added to the Nasreddin corpus, others have been modified, the themes in the tales have become part of the folklore of a number of nations and express the national imaginations of a variety of cultures. Although most of them depict Nasreddin in an early small-village setting and they purvey a pithy folk wisdom that triumphs over all trials and tribulations. The oldest manuscript of Nasreddin dates to 1571, today, Nasreddin stories are told in a wide variety of regions, especially across the Muslim world and have been translated into many languages. Some regions independently developed a similar to Nasreddin, and the stories have become part of a larger whole. In many regions, Nasreddin is a part of the culture. Since there are thousands of different Nasreddin stories, one can be found to fit almost any occasion, 1996–1997 was declared International Nasreddin Year by UNESCO. Some people say that, whilst uttering what seemed madness, he was, in reality, divinely inspired, many peoples of the Near, Middle East, South Asia and Central Asia claim Nasreddin as their own. In several cultures he is named by the title alone, in Arabic-speaking countries this character is known as Juha, Djoha, Djuha, Dschuha, Chotzas, Goha. Juha was originally a folk character found in Arabic literature as early as the 9th century. Lore of the two characters became amalgamated in the 19th century when collections were translated from Arabic into Turkish, in Sicily and Southern Italy he is known as Giufà
28.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
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Evolution
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Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all living on Earth. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction. More than 99 percent of all species that lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earths current species range from 10 to 14 million, more recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection. This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms, the four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene migration. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation, mutation and gene migration create variation, consequences of selection can include meiotic drive, nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics, the importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science. The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura, in contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach, however, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the nature of species relationships. Other naturalists of this time speculated on the change of species over time according to natural laws
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Bioinformatics
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Bioinformatics /ˌbaɪ. oʊˌɪnfərˈmætɪks/ is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, Bioinformatics has been used for in silico analyses of biological queries using mathematical and statistical techniques. Common uses of bioinformatics include the identification of genes and nucleotides. Often, such identification is made with the aim of understanding the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties. In a less formal way, bioinformatics also tries to understand the principles within nucleic acid and protein sequences. Bioinformatics has become an important part of areas of biology. In experimental molecular biology, bioinformatics techniques such as image and signal processing allow extraction of useful results from large amounts of raw data, in the field of genetics and genomics, it aids in sequencing and annotating genomes and their observed mutations. It plays a role in the mining of biological literature. It also plays a role in the analysis of gene and protein expression and regulation, Bioinformatics tools aid in the comparison of genetic and genomic data and more generally in the understanding of evolutionary aspects of molecular biology. At a more level, it helps analyze and catalogue the biological pathways. In structural biology, it aids in the simulation and modeling of DNA, RNA, historically, the term bioinformatics did not mean what it means today. Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper coined it in 1970 to refer to the study of processes in biotic systems. This definition placed bioinformatics as a parallel to biophysics or biochemistry. Computers became essential in molecular biology when protein sequences became available after Frederick Sanger determined the sequence of insulin in the early 1950s, comparing multiple sequences manually turned out to be impractical. A pioneer in the field was Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, who has been hailed by David Lipman, director of the National Center for Biotechnology Information, Dayhoff compiled one of the first protein sequence databases, initially published as books and pioneered methods of sequence alignment and molecular evolution. To study how normal cellular activities are altered in different disease states, therefore, the field of bioinformatics has evolved such that the most pressing task now involves the analysis and interpretation of various types of data. This includes nucleotide and amino acid sequences, protein domains, the actual process of analyzing and interpreting data is referred to as computational biology. For example, there are methods to locate a gene within a sequence, to predict protein structure and/or function, the primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological processes
. PMID 19339257.
