1.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
2.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
3.
Playwright
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A playwright, also known as a dramatist, is a person who writes plays. The term is not a variant spelling of playwrite, but something quite distinct, hence the prefix and the suffix combine to indicate someone who has wrought words, themes, and other elements into a dramatic form - someone who crafts plays. The homophone with write is in this case entirely coincidental, the term playwright appears to have been coined by Ben Jonson in his Epigram 49, To Playwright, as an insult, to suggest a mere tradesman fashioning works for the theatre. Jonson described himself as a poet, not a playwright, since plays during that time were written in meter and this view was held as late as the early 19th century. The term playwright later lost this negative connotation, the earliest playwrights in Western literature with surviving works are the Ancient Greeks. These early plays were written for annual Athenian competitions among playwrights held around the 5th century BC, such notables as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes established forms still relied on by their modern counterparts. For the ancient Greeks, playwriting involved poïesis, the act of making and this is the source of the English word poet. In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle wrote his Poetics, the first play-writing manual, in this famous text, Aristotle established the principle of action or praxis as the basis for all drama. He then included a hierarchy of elements for the beginning with plot, character, thought, diction, music. The ends of drama were plot, character, and thought, the means of drama were language and music, since the myths, upon which Greek tragedy were based, were widely known, plot had to do with the arrangement and selection of existing material. Character was equated with choice as rather than psychology, so that character was determined by action, in tragedy, the notion of ethical choice determined the character of the individual. Thought had more to do and the imitation of an action that is serious, thus, he developed his notion of hamartia, or tragic flaw, an error in judgment by the main character or protagonist. It provides the basis for the play, a term still held as the sine qua non of dramaturgy. The Poetics, while very brief and highly condensed, is studied today. Perhaps the most Aristotelian of contemporary playwrights is David Mamet, who embraces the idea of character as agent of the action, and emphasizes causality in the structure of his plays. His recently revived, Speed-the-Plow, is quintessentially Aristotelian, in that it observes the unities and builds its plot through a causal stream of discoveries and reversals. The Italian Renaissance brought about a stricter interpretation of Aristotle, as this long-lost work came to light in the late 15th century. The neoclassical ideal, which was to reach its apogee in France during the 17th century, dwelled upon the unities, of action, place, and time
4.
Bertolt Brecht
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Eugen Bertolt Friedrich Brecht was a German poet, playwright, and theatre director of the 20th century. Eugen Berthold Friedrich Brecht was born in February 1898 in Augsburg, Bavaria, Brechts mother was a devout Protestant and his father a Catholic. The modest house where he was born is preserved as a Brecht Museum. His father worked for a mill, becoming its managing director in 1914. Thanks to his mothers influence, Brecht knew the Bible, a familiarity that would have an effect on his writing. From her, too, came the image of the self-denying woman that recurs in his drama. Brechts home life was comfortably middle class, despite what his occasional attempt to claim peasant origins implied, at school in Augsburg he met Caspar Neher, with whom he formed a lifelong creative partnership. Neher designed many of the sets for Brechts dramas and helped to forge the distinctive visual iconography of their epic theatre, when Brecht was 16, the First World War broke out. Initially enthusiastic, Brecht soon changed his mind on seeing his classmates swallowed by the army and his expulsion was only prevented through the intervention of his religion teacher. On his fathers recommendation, Brecht sought a loophole by registering for a course at Munich University. There he studied drama with Arthur Kutscher, who inspired in the young Brecht an admiration for the iconoclastic dramatist, from July 1916, Brechts newspaper articles began appearing under the new name Bert Brecht. Brecht was drafted into service in the autumn of 1918, only to be posted back to Augsburg as a medical orderly in a military VD clinic. In July 1919, Brecht and Paula Banholzer had a son, some time in either 1920 or 1921, Brecht took a small part in the political cabaret of the Munich comedian Karl Valentin. Brechts diaries for the few years record numerous visits to see Valentin perform. Brecht compared Valentin to Charlie Chaplin, for his virtually complete rejection of mimicry and he did short sketches in which he played refractory employees, orchestral musicians or photographers, who hated their employers and made them look ridiculous. The employer was played by his partner, Liesl Karlstadt, a popular woman comedian who used to pad herself out, anyone can be creative, he quipped, its rewriting other people thats a challenge. Brecht completed his second play, Drums in the Night. Between November 1921 and April 1922 Brecht made acquaintance with many people in the Berlin cultural scene
5.
Hanns Eisler
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Hanns Eisler was an Austrian composer. He is best known for composing the anthem of the German Democratic Republic, for his long artistic association with Bertolt Brecht. The Hochschule für Musik Hanns Eisler is named after him, Eisler was born in Leipzig in Saxony, the son of Rudolf Eisler, a professor of philosophy, and Marie Ida Fischer. His father was Jewish and his mother was Lutheran, in 1901, the family moved to Vienna. His brother, Gerhart, was a Communist journalist, and his sister, during the Great War, Hanns Eisler served as a front-line soldier in the Austro-Hungarian army and was wounded several times in combat. Returning to Vienna after Austrias defeat, he studied from 1919 to 1923 under Arnold Schoenberg, Eisler was the first of Schoenbergs disciples to compose in the twelve-tone or serial technique. He married Charlotte Demant in 1920, they separated in 1934, in 1925, he moved to Berlin—then a hothouse of experimentation in music, theater, film, art and politics. There he became a supporter of the Communist Party of Germany. In 1928, he taught at the Marxist Workers School in Berlin and his son Georg Eisler and his music became increasingly oriented towards political themes and, to Schoenbergs dismay, more popular in style with influences drawn from jazz and cabaret. At the same time, he drew close to Bertolt Brecht, the collaboration between the two artists lasted for the rest of Brechts life. In 1929, Eisler composed the song cycle Zeitungsausschnitte, Op.11, the piece is dedicated to Margot Hinnenberg-Lefebre. Eislers piece parodies a newspapers layout and content, with songs in the given titles similar to headlines. The piece offers evidence of Eislers socialist leanings, as its lyrics indicate the struggles of ordinary Germans who, after World War I, Eisler wrote music for several Brecht plays, including The Decision, The Mother and Schweik in the Second World War. They also collaborated on protest songs that intervened in the turmoil of Weimar Germany in the early 1930s. Brecht-Eisler songs of this period tended to look at life from below—from the perspective of prostitutes, hustlers, the unemployed, in 1931–32 he collaborated with Brecht and director Slatan Dudow on the working-class film Kuhle Wampe. After 1933, Eislers music and Brechts poetry were banned by the Nazi Party, while Brecht settled in Svendborg, Denmark, Eisler traveled for a number of years, working in Prague, Vienna, Paris, London, Moscow, Spain, Mexico and Denmark. He made two visits to the USA, with speaking tours from coast to coast, in 1938, Eisler finally managed to emigrate to the United States with a permanent visa. In New York City, Eisler taught composition at New School for Social Research and wrote experimental chamber, in 1942, he moved to Los Angeles, where he joined Brecht who arrived in California in 1941 after a journey from Denmark across the Soviet Union and the Pacific Ocean
6.
Scenic design
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Scenic design is the creation of theatrical, as well as film or television scenery. Scenic designers come from a variety of backgrounds, but in recent years, are mostly trained professionals. Scenic designers design sets and scenery that aim to fully immerse the viewer in the production, a designer looks at the details searching for evidence through research to produce conceptual ideas that’s best toward supporting the content and values with visual elements. The subject of, “How do we generate creative ideas. ”The most consuming part of expanding our horizons toward scenic concepts is more than witnessing creativity. It starts with us opening our mind to the possibilities, to have an attitude toward learning, seeking, and engaging in creativity and to be willing to be adventurous, inquisitive and curious. Whether outside or inside, colorful trees or concerts, star lit skies or the architecture of a great building, discovering what will best clarify and support the story being told. The scenic designer works with the director and other designers to establish a visual concept for the production. All of these required drawing elements can be created from one accurate 3-D CAD model of the set design. Scenic designers are responsible for creating models of the scenery, renderings, paint elevations. Prague, CZ What is Scenography Article illustrating the differences between US and European theatre design practices Special, WhatLinksHere/Julia Anastasopoulos
7.
Karl Paryla
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Karl Paryla was an Austrian theater actor and director, and later a film maker as well. A lifelong, dedicated communist, his career in the Austrian theater was first interrupted by the Second World War, in the 1950s he began working in East Germany, where he performed as an actor and directed plays and films. He is remembered also for his work ethic and his fervent belief in the power of the theater. Paryla was born to parents, his father was an instrument maker. Born Catholic, he dropped his religious affiliation in 1922 and he was fired in Darmstadt in 1933 for political reasons and fled to Vienna, where he found work with the Theater in der Josefstadt. After the Anschluss he emigrated to Switzerland and he had over 90 roles at the Schauspielhaus, performing in classical tragedy and comedy. He worked with Bertolt Brecht and played the role of Schweizerkas in the first performance of Brechts Mother Courage, after World War II ended he was one of the first actors to return to Vienna, in December 1945. With Wolfgang Heinz and Emil Stöhr, Paryla was a member, from 1948 to 1956, of the Neue Theater in der Scala. The theater aimed to be a working group with a focus on the work of Austrian dramatist Johann Nestroy, on political drama, and on comedy. While Vienna was still divided between the West and the Soviet Union, he worked in cinema, at the Rosenhügel Filmstudios. When the Soviets left Austria in 1955, he was blacklisted with many others who had worked for Rosenhügel. In 1952 already he had been prevented by American pressure from participating in the Salzburg Festival, where he was an annual regular, Paryla was supposed to have performed in Jedermann. Like many blacklisted actors and directors, he went to work in East Germany and began making movies for DEFA, his first was Mich dürstet, a film based on the Spanish Civil War. At the same time he continued to perform, in Berlin and Munich, with roles including Touchstone and Mephistopheles. In 1966, he performed in Cologne in an adaptation of La Celestina and he died on 14 July 1996 in his native city, Vienna. Paryla was praised for his realism in acting, especially in Johann Nestroys plays, Paryla is credited as one of the actors that made the Schauspielhaus Zürich the best theatre in Europe. We consider the production of each Nestroy comedy as the most honorable, and that is why we play Nestroy. He is praised as lending a political realism to Nestrovian characters unparalleled in the 1950s, parylas relationship with Vienna was strained because of politics, official recognition from the city would not come until the 1980s and 90s
8.
Wolfgang Langhoff
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Wolfgang Langhoff was a German theatre, film and television actor and theatre director. From 1923 Langhoff worked at the Thalia Theater Hamburg, and in Wiesbaden, in 1926 he married the actress Renata Edwina Malacrida, who bore him two children, Thomas and Matthias. From 1928 to 1932 he played at the Schauspielhaus in Düsseldorf, Langhoff was involved at this time with the German Communist Party and was the artistic director of the agitprop troupe ran northwest, founded in 1930, which performed at union events. The dancer Hilarius Gilges was one its members, Langhoff was arrested by the Gestapo in February 1933 and initially detained in the Düsseldorf jail, where he was subjected to severe torture by the SA. A few days later he was transferred to the Ulmer Höhe prison, in July 1933 he was taken to concentration camp Börgermoor, in Emsland. While there he revised a song written by Johann Esser. The melody was composed by another prisoner, Rudi Goguel, after the transfer to the Lichtenburg concentration camp, Langhoff was released as part of the so-called Easter amnesty in 1934. Overall, Langhoff spent 13 months in prisons and concentration camps, three months later – in June of that year – he fled to Switzerland, just before closure of the border. At the Schauspielhaus in Zurich, he found shelter and work as a director and actor, in 1935, he published the autobiographical memoir Rubber truncheon. Being an account of thirteen months spent in a concentration camp, after it was translated by Lilo Linke into English it became one of the first internationally known eyewitness accounts of brutality in the Nazi concentration camps. Langhoff was a member of the Free Germany Movement in Switzerland. Langhoff played Eilif in the first production of Bertolt Brechts Mother Courage and Her Children and he also performed in the first production of Brechts Life of Galileo, which also opened at the Schauspielhaus Zürich, on 9 September 1943. On television, he appeared in Hans-Joachim Kasprziks mini-series Wolf Among Wolves and it is on the strength of his productions of classical texts at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin, a theatre which he led from 1946 to 1963, that Langhoffs fame as a director rests. His notable productions include, Goethes Faust and Egmont, Schillers Don Carlos, Shakespeares King Lear. Langhoff and his wife are buried in the Zentralfriedhof, made famous by Wolf Biermanns song Friedhof der Hugenotten, Biermanns song refers to Langhoff, as well as to Hans Eisler, who arranged the music of Moorsoldaten, and is also buried there. The German-language Wikipedia Article on Wolfgang Langhoff
9.
Charles Laughton
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Charles Laughton was an English stage and film character actor, director, producer and screenwriter. Laughton was trained in London at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, in 1927, he was cast in a play with his future wife Elsa Lanchester, with whom he lived and worked until his death, they had no children. He played a range of classical and modern parts, making an impact in Shakespeare at the Old Vic. His film career took him to Broadway and then Hollywood, but he collaborated with Alexander Korda on notable British films of the era. He portrayed everything from monsters and misfits to kings, among Laughtons biggest film hits were The Barretts of Wimpole Street, Mutiny on the Bounty, Ruggles of Red Gap, Jamaica Inn, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, and The Big Clock. In his later career, he took up directing, notably in The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial. He directed one film, the thriller The Night of the Hunter, Laughton has been seen by one actor as one of the greatest performers of his generation. Daniel Day-Lewis cited him as one of his inspirations, saying and his generosity as an actor, he fed himself into that work. As an actor, you take your eyes off him. Laughton was born in Scarborough, North Riding of Yorkshire, the son of Eliza and Robert Laughton, a blue plaque marks his birthplace. He started work in the hotel, though also participating in amateur theatricals in Scarborough. Allowed by his family to become a student at RADA in 1925. Laughton made his first professional appearance on 28 April 1926 at the Barnes Theatre, as Osip in the comedy The Government Inspector and he impressed audiences with his talent and had classical roles in two Chekov plays, The Cherry Orchard and The Three Sisters. Laughton played the role as Harry Hegan in the world premiere of Seán OCaseys The Silver Tassie in 1928 in London. He played the roles in Arnold Bennetts Mr Prohack and as Samuel Pickwick in Mr Pickwick at the Theatre Royal in London. He played Tony Perelli in Edgar Wallaces On the Spot and William Marble in Payment Deferred and he took the last role across the Atlantic and made his United States debut on 24 September 1931, at the Lyceum Theatre. Laughton commenced his career in Britain while still acting on the London stage. He made an appearance as a disgruntled diner in another silent film Piccadilly with Anna May Wong in 1929
10.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
11.
Joseph Losey
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Joseph Walton Losey III was an American theatre and film director, born in Wisconsin. After studying in Germany with Bertolt Brecht, Losey returned to the United States, in the 1950s Losey was blacklisted in the United States and moved to Europe where he made the remainder of his films, mostly in the United Kingdom. Among the most critically and commercially successful were three films with screenplays by Harold Pinter, The Servant, Accident and The Go-Between, Joseph Walton Losey III was born on January 14,1909 in La Crosse, Wisconsin, where he and Nicholas Ray were high-school classmates. He attended Dartmouth College and Harvard University, beginning as a student of medicine, Losey became a major figure in New York political theatre, first directing the controversial failure Little Old Boy in 1933. He declined to direct a version of Dodsworth by Sinclair Lewis. Losey directed the show, which had a brief run, bosley Crowther in The New York Times noted that The play, being increasingly wordy, presents staging problems that Joe Loseys direction does not always solve. It is hard to tell who is responsible for the parts in the story. In 1935 he visited the Soviet Union for several months to study the Russian stage, in Moscow he participated in a seminar on film taught by Sergei Eisenstein. He also met Bertolt Brecht and the composer Hanns Eisler who were visiting Moscow at the time, in 1936 he directed Triple-A Plowed Under on Broadway, a production of the WPAs Federal Theatre Project. He then directed the second Living Newspaper presentation, Injunction Granted, the play premiered on July 30,1947, at the Coronet Theatre in Beverly Hills. On October 30,1947 Losey accompanied Brecht to Washington DC for Brechts appearance before the House Un-American Activities Committee, Brecht left the US the following day. Losey went on to stage Galileo, again with Laughton in the title role, more than 25 years later Losey, in exile in England, would direct a film version of Brechts play Galileo. Seymour Nebenzal, the producer of Fritz Langs classic M, hired Losey to direct a remake set in Los Angeles rather than Berlin, in the new version, released in 1951, the killers name was changed from Hans Beckert to Martin W. Harrow. Nebenzals son Harold was associate producer of this version, the HUACs longstanding interest in Losey was based on extensive - and error riddled - FBI files. In the 1930s and 40s he had had contacts with people on the political left, including radicals. He had collaborated with Brecht and had an association with Hanns Eisler. Losey had written to the Immigration and Naturalization Service in support of a visa for the composer. They had collaborated on a political cabaret from 1937 to 1939, Losey had invited Eisler to compose music for a short public relations film he had been commissioned to produce for presentation at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair, Pete Roleum and His Cousins
12.
Hugo Haas
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Hugo Haas was a Czech film actor, director and writer. He appeared in more than 60 films between 1926 and 1962, as well as directing 20 films between 1933 and 1962, Haas was born in Brno, Austria-Hungary, and died in Vienna, Austria from complications of asthma. His brother Pavel Haas was a composer who died at Auschwitz in 1944. Haas began acting as an actor in American films during the mid-1940s. In 1951 he launched a successful if unacclaimed career as a director in Hollywood with a string of B movie melodramas. Haas usually cast himself as the lead in the films although the female role almost always dominated the storyline and was usually exclusively promoted on film posters. Cleo Moore starred in seven films for Haas, becoming a film star in that era. Other actresses who starred in Haas films were Beverly Michaels and Carol Morris, Haas final film, Paradise Alley was rejected by the major studios and sat unreleased for over three years, finally surfacing in a limited run in 1962
13.
Maxine Elliott Theatre
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The Maxine Elliott Theatre was a Broadway theater located at 109 West 39th Street in Manhattan. Built in 1908, it was demolished in 1960, the theater was designed by architect Benjamin Marshall of the Chicago firm Marshall and Fox. It was named for U. S. actress Maxine Elliott and she leased it to the Federal Theatre in 1936, the following year, it was shut down by the government on the eve on the opening of Orson Welless production of The Cradle Will Rock. In 1941, it became a studio and in 1948, it again transformed into a television studio. In 1956, Elliotts heirs sold her share to the Shuberts, the theatre, built in a thriving theatre district, was the only Broadway house below 41st Street. The Maxine Elliot housed approximately 935 patrons, only three of its productions were musicals, including one opera
14.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
15.
Manhattan Project
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The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom, from 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs, the Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District, Manhattan gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, the Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and to produce material, with less than 10% for development. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war, a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and with almost the same mass, three methods were employed for uranium enrichment, electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, in parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. The plutonium was then separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design, the project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, despite the Manhattan Projects tight security, Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was a bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexicos Alamogordo Bombing. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947, there were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter and it urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner, the committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940, Briggs proposed that the spend $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium
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Berliner Ensemble
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The Berliner Ensemble is a German theatre company established by playwright Bertolt Brecht and his wife, Helene Weigel in January 1949 in East Berlin. His students Benno Besson, Egon Monk, Peter Palitzsc, the stage designers Caspar Neher and Karl von Appen, the composers Paul Dessau and Hanns Eisler as well as the dramaturge Elisabeth Hauptmann were among Brechts closest collaborators. After her husband died in 1956, Weigel continued managing the Berliner Ensemble until her death in 1971, the Berliner Ensemble achieved successful theater through long and meticulous rehearsals, often spanning several months. Each production was documented with a Modellbuch or preview album containing 600 to 800 action photographs, Die Dreigroschenoper and Happy End premiered in Berlin in 1928 and 1929 respectively, both at the Schiffbauerdamm Theater but twenty years before the founding of the Berliner Ensemble. Brecht wrote no new plays for the Berliner Ensemble, but remounted previously staged plays, premiering with Mother Courage, Brecht also directed The Caucasian Chalk Circle, and with Erich Engel, Life of Galileo. After Brechts death,3 plays, The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui, Schweik in the Second World War, under the management of Helene Weigels successor Ruth Berghaus the company expanded its selection to that of other European playwrights in the 1970s. Major German actors, including Therese Giehse, Lionel Steckel and Ernst Busch appeared in Berliner productions, in that same year, the internationally renowned conductor Alexander Frey was appointed Music Director of the Berliner Ensemble. Under the new management the Berliner Ensemble changed from a state-owned theatre into a Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung subsidized by the city government. In 1993, the company was privatized, but continued to receive $16 million in subsidy. Nevertheless, the idea of a joint administration proved a failure, the quarrels, however, did not affect the artistic development of the Ensemble, Young directors including B. K. Tragelehn and Einar Schleef and the stage designer Andreas Reinhardt questioned the traditions of Brechtian theatre, Müllers production of Brechts The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui, with Martin Wuttke playing the title role, became one of the most successful in the history of the Berliner Ensemble. His program Brecht - Müller - Shakespeare remains the legacy of the Berliner Ensemble. The American director Robert Wilson premiered Brechts The Flight across the Ocean in 1998 to honor the anniversary of Brechts birth. On April 30,1999, the curtain came down on the production of Heiner Müllers Die Bauern. After the City of Berlin negotiated a settlement to everyones satisfaction, peymanns efforts have stabilized the theatres operations. He assumed his role with a commitment - like Brechts - to producing political theatre for the public, but more broadly interpreted
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Ernst Busch (actor)
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Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst Busch was a German singer and actor. Busch first rose to prominence as an interpreter of songs, particularly those of Kurt Tucholsky. He starred in the original 1928 production of Bertolt Brechts Threepenny Opera and he also appeared in the movie Kuhle Wampe. A lifelong communist, Busch fled Nazi Germany in 1933 with the Gestapo on his heels, in 1937 he joined the International Brigades to fight against the Nationalists in Spain. His wartime songs were recorded and broadcast by Radio Barcelona. After the Spanish Republic fell to General Franco, Busch migrated to Belgium where he was interned during the German occupation and later imprisoned in Camp Gurs, France and Berlin. Freed by the Red Army in 1945, he settled in East Berlin and he would go on to start his own record label and work with Bertolt Brecht and Erwin Piscator at the Berliner Ensemble. He also made a recording of Peat Bog Soldiers. Ernst Busch was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize for 1970-71, katharina Knie The Street Song Raid in St. youtube. com/watch. v=uEPULdJaNAM&hd=1
18.
Theater am Schiffbauerdamm
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The Theater am Schiffbauerdamm is a theatre building at the Schiffbauerdamm riverside in the Mitte district of Berlin, Germany, opened on November 19,1892. Since 1954 it has been home to the Berliner Ensemble theatre company, founded in 1949 by Helene Weigel, the original name of the Neo-baroque construction by the architect Heinrich Seeling was Neues Theater. The first performance was Johann Wolfgang von Goethes play Iphigenie auf Tauris, die Weber, a naturalistic drama by Gerhart Hauptmann had its premiere in a private audience at the theatre on February 26,1893. From 1903 to 1906 the Neues Theater was under the management of Max Reinhardt, Bertolt Brecht staged Marieluise Fleißers play Pioneers in Ingolstadt on March 30,1929, causing a veritable scandal. The theatre saw Gustaf Gründgens giving his debut as a director with Jean Cocteaus Orphée, from 1931 on the theatre was called Deutsches Nationaltheater am Schiffbauerdamm. Notable actors included Lotte Lenya, Carola Neher, Hilde Körber, Helene Weigel, Ernst Busch, Ernst Deutsch, Kurt Gerron, Theo Lingen, with the Nazi takeover in 1933 the theatre declined and was finally closed in 1944. Reopened after World War II it was taken over by Bertolt Brecht. Today it is considered one of the most glamorous theatres in Germany and the building is currently undergoing historic preservation
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Erich Engel
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Erich Engel was a German film and theatre director. Engel was born in Hamburg, where later he studied at the School of Applied Arts, after finishing there he worked briefly as a journalist, then learnt acting at the Thalia Theatre in Hamburg, after which he spent several years with a touring theatre company. In 1917 and 1918 Engel was the dramaturgist in the Deutsches Schauspielhaus, after a short engagement with the Bayerische Staatstheater in Munich he moved in 1924 to Berlin. At the Deutsche Theater he produced, among other pieces, Bertolt Brechts Im Dickicht der Städte and his breakthrough came with Brechts Dreigroschenoper, the premiere of which he produced, opening on 31 August 1928 in the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm, Berlin. Among the principal actors in his films were Jenny Jugo in Fünf von der Jazzband, Gustav Waldau in Unser Fräulein Doktor. In this period he worked closely with Theo Mackeben as composer and he was also engaged as theatrical director at the Berliner Deutsche Theater. In Vienna in 1935 he produced the film, nur ein Komödiant, with Rudolf Forster in a double role. Probably because of the period setting, which seems to have veiled its political stance. During the National Socialist period Engel made numerous films for UFA, after World War II he became the director of the Münchner Kammerspiele, but from 1949 lived and worked in the DDR. Among other pieces he directed for DEFA in 1948 the film Affäre Blum, later films that he made for DEFA included Geschwader Fledermaus, in which he opposed the French colonial war in Vietnam. For his many DEFA productions he received the Nationalpreis der DDR, however, he also directed in West Germany for Artur Brauner. He died in Berlin in 1966 and is buried in the Dorotheenstadt burial ground near the graves of Bertolt Brecht and his son Thomas Engel is also a director and screenplay writer. Father and son co-directed the film Pünktchen und Anton,1923, Mysterien eines Frisiersalons, co-director with Bert Brecht 1924 Love Is the Power of Women 1931, Who Takes Love Seriously. 1932, Five from the Jazz Band 1933, Inge and the Millions 1934, Pechmarie 1934, Hohe Schule 1935. de, biography
20.
Italians
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Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
21.
Natural philosophy
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Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature was the philosophical study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science. It is considered to be the precursor of natural science, from the ancient world, starting with Aristotle, to the 19th century, the term natural philosophy was the common term used to describe the practice of studying nature. Even in the 19th century, a treatise by Lord Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait, in the German tradition, Naturphilosophie persisted into the 18th and 19th century as an attempt to achieve a speculative unity of nature and spirit. Some of the greatest names in German philosophy are associated with movement, including Goethe, Hegel. The term natural philosophy preceded our current natural science, empirical science historically developed out of philosophy or, more specifically, natural philosophy. In the 14th and 15th centuries, natural philosophy was one of many branches of philosophy, the first person appointed as a specialist in Natural Philosophy per se was Jacopo Zabarella, at the University of Padua in 1577. Modern meanings of the science and scientists date only to the 19th century. Before that, science was a synonym for knowledge or study, the term gained its modern meaning when experimental science and the scientific method became a specialized branch of study apart from natural philosophy. In general, chairs of Natural Philosophy established long ago at the oldest universities are nowadays occupied mainly by physics professors. Even in the 19th century, a treatise by Lord Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait, in Platos earliest known dialogue, Charmides distinguishes between science or bodies of knowledge that produce a physical result, and those that do not. Natural philosophy has been categorized as a rather than a practical branch of philosophy. Sciences that guide arts and draw on the knowledge of nature may produce practical results. The study of natural philosophy seeks to explore the cosmos by any means necessary to understand the universe, some ideas presuppose that change is a reality. George Santayana, in his Scepticism and Animal Faith, attempted to show that the reality of change cannot be proven. If his reasoning is sound, it follows that to be a physicist, one must restrain ones skepticism enough to trust ones senses, rené Descartes metaphysical system of Cartesian Dualism describes two kinds of substance, matter and mind. Humankinds mental engagement with nature certainly predates civilization and the record of history, Philosophical, and specifically non-religious thought about the natural world, goes back to ancient Greece. These lines of thought began before Socrates, who turned from his studies from speculations about nature to a consideration of man. The thought of philosophers such Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Democritus centered on the natural world
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Galileo Galilei
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Galileo Galilei was an Italian polymath, astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician. He played a role in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass, Galileos championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of a stellar parallax. He was tried by the Inquisition, found vehemently suspect of heresy and he spent the rest of his life under house arrest. He has been called the father of observational astronomy, the father of modern physics, the father of scientific method, and the father of science. Galileo was born in Pisa, Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia, three of Galileos five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo, also became a noted lutenist and composer although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileos young adulthood, Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their fathers promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and these financial burdens may have contributed to Galileos early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence and he then was educated in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. It was common for mid-sixteenth century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents surname, hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name Galileo derives from the Latin Galilaeus, meaning of Galilee, the biblical roots of Galileos name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileos opponents, in it he made a point of quoting Acts 1,11, Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven. Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba and they had two daughters, Virginia and Livia, and a son, Vincenzo. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life, both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent and she died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life, Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri
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Galileo affair
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In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius, describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope, namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. With these observations he promoted the theory of Nicolaus Copernicus. Galileos initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas. Galileo went on to propose a theory of tides in 1616, in 1632 Galileo, now an old man, published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was immensely popular. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642, other observations followed, including the phases of Venus and the existence of sunspots. In 1611, Galileo visited the Collegium Romanum in Rome, where the Jesuit astronomers by that time had repeated his observations, truly, just as the asp stops its ears, so do these philosophers shut their eyes to the light of truth. Brahe argued that the distance to the stars in the Copernican system would have to be 700 times greater than the distance from the sun to Saturn, Galileo became involved in a dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots with Christoph Scheiner, a Jesuit. This became a lifelong feud. Neither of them, however, was the first to recognise sunspots—the Chinese had already been familiar with them for centuries, at this time, Galileo also engaged in a dispute over the reasons that objects float or sink in water, siding with Archimedes against Aristotle. The debate was unfriendly, and Galileos blunt and sometimes sarcastic style, though not extraordinary in academic debates of the time, according to Cigoli, one of the plotters asked a priest to denounce Galileos views from the pulpit, but the latter refused. Nevertheless, three years later another priest, Tommaso Caccini, did in fact do precisely that, as described below. Geostaticism agreed with an interpretation of Scripture in several places, such as 1 Chronicles 16,30, Psalm 93,1, Psalm 96,10, Psalm 104,5. Heliocentrism, the theory that the Earth was a planet, which along with all the others revolved around the Sun, contradicted both geocentrism and the prevailing theological support of the theory. One of the first suggestions of heresy that Galileo had to deal with came in 1613 from a professor of philosophy, poet and specialist in Greek literature, Galileo was defended on the spot by his former student Benedetto Castelli, now a professor of mathematics and Benedictine abbot. Later, in 1615, he expanded this into his much longer Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, in late 1614 or early 1615, one of Caccinis fellow Dominicans, Niccolò Lorini, acquired a copy of Galileos letter to Castelli. Lorini and other Dominicans at the Convent of San Marco considered the letter of doubtful orthodoxy, Lorini and his colleagues decided to bring Galileos letter to the attention of the Inquisition. Were taking it upon themselves to expound the Holy Scripture according to their private lights, on March 19, Caccini arrived at the Inquisitions offices in Rome to denounce Galileo for his Copernicanism and various other alleged heresies supposedly being spread by his pupils. Galileo soon heard reports that Lorini had obtained a copy of his letter to Castelli and was claiming that it contained many heresies and he also heard that Caccini had gone to Rome and suspected him of trying to stir up trouble with Lorinis copy of the letter
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Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
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Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
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Hiroshima
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Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshu - the largest island of Japan. The citys name, 広島, means Broad Island in Japanese, Hiroshima gained city status on April 1,1889. On April 1,1980, Hiroshima became a designated city, as of August 2016, the city had an estimated population of 1,196,274. The GDP in Greater Hiroshima, Hiroshima Metropolitan Employment Area, is US$61.3 billion as of 2010, kazumi Matsui has been the citys mayor since April 2011. Hiroshima was established on the river delta coastline of the Seto Inland Sea in 1589 by powerful warlord Mōri Terumoto, Hiroshima Castle was quickly built, and in 1593 Terumoto moved in. Terumoto was on the side at the Battle of Sekigahara. The winner of the battle, Tokugawa Ieyasu, deprived Mōri Terumoto of most of his fiefs, including Hiroshima and gave Aki Province to Masanori Fukushima, after the han was abolished in 1871, the city became the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture. Hiroshima became an urban center during the imperial period, as the Japanese economy shifted from primarily rural to urban industries. During the 1870s, one of the seven government-sponsored English language schools was established in Hiroshima, Ujina Harbor was constructed through the efforts of Hiroshima Governor Sadaaki Senda in the 1880s, allowing Hiroshima to become an important port city. The Sanyō Railway was extended to Hiroshima in 1894, and a line from the main station to the harbor was constructed for military transportation during the First Sino-Japanese War. During that war, the Japanese government moved temporarily to Hiroshima, New industrial plants, including cotton mills, were established in Hiroshima in the late 19th century. Further industrialization in Hiroshima was stimulated during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the Hiroshima Prefectural Commercial Exhibition Hall was constructed in 1915 as a center for trade and exhibition of new products. Later, its name was changed to Hiroshima Prefectural Product Exhibition Hall, during World War I, Hiroshima became a focal point of military activity, as the Japanese government entered the war on the Allied side. About 500 German prisoners of war were held in Ninoshima Island in Hiroshima Bay, during World War II, the 2nd General Army and Chugoku Regional Army were headquartered in Hiroshima, and the Army Marine Headquarters was located at Ujina port. The city also had large depots of supplies, and was a key center for shipping. The bombing of Tokyo and other cities in Japan during World War II caused widespread destruction, there were no such air raids on Hiroshima. However, a real threat existed and was recognized, in order to protect against potential firebombings in Hiroshima, school children aged 11–14 years were mobilized to demolish houses and create firebreaks. On Monday, August 6,1945, at 8,15 a. m, by the end of the year, injury and radiation brought the total number of deaths to 90, 000–166,000
29.
American Film Theatre
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The American Film Theatre was a limited run series of film adaptations of stage plays, produced by Ely Landau. Two seasons were produced from 1973 to 1975, the 14 films were contracted to be exhibited in 500 theaters in 400 cities, admission based on subscription to the entire series. By design, these were not films of stage productions — they were translated to the film medium. The films were released on DVD in 2003 by Kino International, Harold Pinters play was directed by Peter Hall. Eugene ONeills play was directed by John Frankenheimer, edward Albees play was directed by Tony Richardson. John Osbornes play was directed by Guy Green, eugene Ionescos play was directed by Tom OHorgan. Simon Grays play was directed by Harold Pinter, U. S. release by AFT in 1974. Anton Chekhovs play was directed by Laurence Olivier and John Sichel, kurt Weill-Maxwell Andersons musical was directed by Daniel Mann. The Man in the Glass Booth, robert Shaws play was directed by Arthur Hiller. Jacques Brel Is Alive and Well and Living in Paris, eric Blaus musical was directed by Denis Héroux. Bertolt Brechts play was directed by Joseph Losey, david Storeys play was directed by Lindsay Anderson. Jean Genets play was directed by Christopher Miles and this film was not released during the 1974–75 season, but was included in the DVD releases of 2003. It was not specifically produced for the American Film Theater, John Quested both produced and directed the film. American Film Theatre at the Internet Movie Database
30.
Galileo (1975 film)
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The film is an adaptation of Bertolt Brechts play of the same name. The film was produced and released as part of the American Film Theatre, Brechts play was recently called a masterpiece by veteran theater critic Michael Billington, as Martin Esslin had in 1960. The films director, Joseph Losey, had directed the first performances of the play in 1947 in the US — with Brechts active participation. The film is true to those first performances, and is thus of historical significance as well. The film closely follows the American version of Brechts play Galileo, in 1609 Galileo is a mathematics professor in Padua, Italy. While his salary is inadequate, he possesses the freedom to pursue scientific studies under the protection of the Venetian republic. Part of his involves the use of a telescope, a relatively new scientific instrument brought from the Netherlands. Using the telescope, Galileo seeks to test the theories put forth by Nicolaus Copernicus that place the sun –, as his research progress, Galileo accepts a more prestigious academic position in Florence, Italy. Joseph Losey had a relationship with Bertolt Brecht that commenced in the 1930s. After these, Losey mainly worked as a film director, Losey was blacklisted in the US in the early 1950s due to his political activities, which effectively ended his career in the US film industry. He emigrated to England, where he was able to re-establish his career, over the years he made several efforts to produce a film based on Brechts play. These were finally realized when Losey was engaged to direct a film of Galileo for the 1974–1975 season of the American Film Theatre, in its two seasons, American Film Theater presented fourteen films based on well-known plays. By design, these were not films of stage productions — they were translated to the film medium. While the films were intended for US movie theaters, Galileo was produced in England, the screenplay for Galileo was written by Barbara Bray and Losey. Bray had a career as an editor, translator. She is also noted as the companion and mistress of Samuel Becket. Besides Galileo, she wrote two screenplays with Losey. Their screenplay for Galileo relies primarily on the American version of Brechts play that was first performed in 1947 and this English language version was written between 1944 and 1947 by Brecht with Charles Laughton, his collaborator and translator
31.
Chaim Topol
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Chaim Topol, mononomously known as Topol, is an Israeli theatrical and film performer, singer, actor, comedian, voice artist, writer and producer. He is best known for his role as Tevye the dairyman in the production of Fiddler on the Roof on both stage and film and he has been nominated for an Academy Award and a Tony Award, and has won two Golden Globe Awards. Topol was born in Tel Aviv in 1935 in what was then British mandated Palestine, to Rel and he first practiced acting in amateur theatrical plays staged by the Israeli Army. Subsequently he established his own troupe in Tel Aviv. The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, in 1966, Topol made his first English-language screen appearance as Abou Ibn Kaqden in the big-budget Mickey Marcus biopic Cast a Giant Shadow. He came to greatest prominence in the role of Tevye the milkman in the musical show Fiddler on the Roof. After a major success on the West End stage, he starred in the 1971 film version. In 1972, Topol won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for a Best Actor Oscar for his performance in the film and he was on active service with the Israeli Army at the time, but was granted permission to attend the awards ceremonies. In 1976, Topol originated the role of the baker, Amiable, in the new musical The Bakers Wife. In 1983, he reprised the role of Tevye in a London revival of Fiddler on the Roof, in the late 1980s, he played the role in a touring United States production. He was by then the age of the character. Also, the playing his wife, Golde, in that production – Rosalind Harris – had played his eldest daughter, Tzeitel. Topol again played Tevye in a 1994 London revival, which became a touring production and he has since played the part in various productions including stages in Europe, Australia, and Japan. His most recent film roles were in Left Luggage in the role of Mr. Apfelschnitt, in November 2005, Topol reprised Tevye in an Australian production at the Capitol Theatre in Sydney. In April 2006, he followed Sydney with a Brisbane production at the Lyric Theatre, finally, in June of that year, he brought his Tevye to Her Majestys Theatre in Melbourne. In April 2007, he played the role in Wellington, New Zealand, in September 2008, Topol played the part of Honore in Gigi at the Open Air Theatre in Regents Park, London. On January 20,2009, Topol began a tour of Fiddler on the Roof as Tevye, opening in Wilmington, Delaware. He was forced to withdraw from the tour owing to a shoulder injury and his autobiography, Chaim Topol on Topol, was published in London and Israel
32.
House Un-American Activities Committee
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The House Un-American Activities Committee was an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives. The HUAC was created in 1938 to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of citizens, public employees. In 1969, the House changed the name to House Committee on Internal Security. When the House abolished the committee in 1975, its functions were transferred to the House Judiciary Committee, the committees anti-communist investigations are often associated with those of Joseph McCarthy who, as a U. S. Senator, had no direct involvement with this House committee. McCarthy was the chairman of the Government Operations Committee and its Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U. S. Senate, not the House. The Overman Committee was a subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary chaired by North Carolina Democratic Senator Lee Slater Overman that operated from September 1918 to June 1919, the subcommittee investigated German as well as Bolshevik elements in the United States. This committee was concerned with investigating pro-German sentiments in the American liquor industry. Among the committees targets were the American Civil Liberties Union and communist presidential candidate William Z. Foster, the committee was widely known as the McCormack-Dickstein committee. Its records are held by the National Archives and Records Administration as records related to HUAC, the committee investigated allegations of a fascist plot to seize the White House, known as the business plot. Although the plot was reported as a hoax, the committee confirmed some details of the accusations. It is unclear whether he passed on any information. It was chaired by Martin Dies, Jr. and therefore known as the Dies Committee, in 1938, Hallie Flanagan, the head of the Federal Theatre Project, was subpoenaed to appear before the committee to answer the charge the project was overrun with communists. Flanagan was called to testify for only a part of one day, in 1939, the committee investigated leaders of the American Youth Congress, a Communist International affiliate organization. The committee also put together an argument for the internment of Japanese Americans known as the Yellow Report, a number of anti-WRA arguments were presented in subsequent hearings, but Director Dillon Myer debunked the more inflammatory claims. Twenty years later, in 1965–1966, however, the committee did conduct an investigation into Klan activities under chairman Edwin Willis, the House Committee on Un-American Activities became a standing committee in 1945. Democratic Representative Edward J. Hart of New Jersey became the committees first chairman, under this mandate, the committee focused its investigations on real and suspected communists in positions of actual or supposed influence in the United States society. A significant step for HUAC was its investigation of the charges of espionage brought against Alger Hiss in 1948 and this investigation ultimately resulted in Hisss trial and conviction for perjury, and convinced many of the usefulness of congressional committees for uncovering communist subversion. In 1947, the committee held nine days of hearings into alleged communist propaganda, after conviction on contempt of Congress charges for refusal to answer some questions posed by committee members, The Hollywood Ten were blacklisted by the industry
33.
Communism
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Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
34.
East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
35.
Cologne
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Cologne is the largest city in the German federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth-largest city in Germany. It is located within the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, one of the major European metropolitan areas, and with more than ten million inhabitants, Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River, less than eighty kilometres from Belgium. The citys famous Cologne Cathedral is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, the University of Cologne is one of Europes oldest and largest universities. Cologne was founded and established in Ubii territory in the first century AD as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, Cologne, the French version of the citys name, has become standard in English as well. The city functioned as the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior, during the Middle Ages it flourished on one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval. Up until World War II the city had several occupations by the French. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the bombing reduced the population by 95%, mainly due to evacuation, and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many buildings as possible. Cologne is a cultural centre for the Rhineland, it hosts more than thirty museums. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics, the Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina. The first urban settlement on the grounds of modern-day Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, in 50 AD, the Romans founded Colonia on the Rhine and the city became the provincial capital of Germania Inferior in 85 AD. The city was named Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in 50 AD, considerable Roman remains can be found in present-day Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a notable discovery of a 1900-year-old Roman boat was made in late 2007. From 260 to 271 Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius, in 310 under Constantine a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Roman imperial governors resided in the city and it one of the most important trade. Cologne is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map, maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until occupied by the Ripuarian Franks in 462, parts of the original Roman sewers are preserved underneath the city, with the new sewerage system having opened in 1890. Early medieval Cologne was part of Austrasia within the Frankish Empire, Cologne had been the seat of a bishop since the Roman period, under Charlemagne, in 795, bishop Hildebold was promoted to archbishop
36.
Royal Shakespeare Company
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The Royal Shakespeare Company is a major British theatre company, based in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England. The companys home is in Stratford-upon-Avon, where it has recently redeveloped its Royal Shakespeare, the theatres re-opened in November 2010, having closed in 2007. The new buildings attracted 18,000 visitors within the first week, performances in Stratford-upon-Avon continued throughout the Transformation project at the temporary Courtyard Theatre. The 2011-season began with performances of Macbeth and a re-imagined lost play The History of Cardenio, the fiftieth birthday season also featured The Merchant of Venice with Sir Patrick Stewart and revivals of some of the RSCs greatest plays, including a new staging of Marat/Sade. For the London 2012 Festival as part of the Cultural Olympiad, in 2013 the company began live screenings of its Shakespeare productions – called Live from Stratford-upon-Avon – which are screened around the world. In 2016, the company collaborated with Intel and The Imaginarium Studios to stage The Tempest, John Wards Birmingham-based company, the Warwickshire Company of Comedians, agreed to perform it. A surviving copy of the records that the company performed Othello. The first building erected to commemorate Shakespeare was David Garricks Jubilee Pavilion in 1769, the first permanent commemorative building to Shakespeares works in the town was a theatre built in 1827, in the gardens of New Place, but has long since been demolished. The RSCs history began with the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, which was the brainchild of a local brewer and he donated a two-acre site by the River Avon and in 1875 launched an international campaign to build a theatre in the town of Shakespeares birth. The theatre, a Victorian-Gothic building seating just over 700 people, opened on 23 April 1879, with a performance of Much Ado About Nothing, a title which gave ammunition to several critics. From 1919, under the direction of William Bridges-Adams and after a slow start, the theatre received a Royal Charter of Incorporation in 1925, which gave it status. On the afternoon of 6 March 1926, when a new season was about to commence rehearsals, fire broke out, and the mass of half-timbering chosen to ornament the interior provided dry tinder. By the following morning the theatre was a blackened shell, the company transferred its Shakespeare festivals to a converted local cinema. Fund-raising began for the rebuilding of the theatre, with generous donations arriving from philanthropists in America, george Bernard Shaw commented that her design was the only one that showed any theatre sense. Her modernist plans for an art deco structure came under fire from many directions, later it came under the direction of Sir Barry Jackson in 1945, Anthony Quayle from 1948 to 1956 and Glen Byam Shaw 1957–1959, with an impressive roll-call of actors. Scotts building, with minor adjustments to the stage, remained in constant use until 2007 when it was closed for a major refit of the interior. Timeline,1932 – new Shakespeare Memorial Theatre opens, abutting the remains of the old,1961 – chartered name of the corporation and the Stratford theatre becomes ‘Royal Shakespeare. ’1974 – The Other Place opened, created from a prefabricated former store/rehearsal room in Stratford. 1986 – the Swan Theatre opened, created from the shell of the 1879 Memorial Theatre,1991 – Purpose-built new Other Place, designed by Michael Reardon, opens
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Mark Ravenhill
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Mark Ravenhill is an English playwright, actor and journalist. His plays include Shopping and Fucking, Some Explicit Polaroids and Mother Claps Molly House and he made his acting debut in his monologue Product, at the 2005 Edinburgh Festival Fringe. He often writes for the section of The Guardian. He is Associate Director of Londons Little Opera House at The Kings Head Theatre, Ravenhill is the elder of two sons born to Ted and Angela Ravenhill. He grew up in West Sussex, England and cultivated an interest in early in life, putting on plays with his brother when they were eight and seven. He studied English and Drama at Bristol University from 1984–1987, and held jobs as a freelance director, workshop leader. In 1997, Ravenhill became the director of a new writing company. In 2003, when Nicholas Hytner took over as director of the National Theatre. In the mid-nineties, Ravenhill was diagnosed as HIV+, his partner of the early 1990s having died from AIDS, although he was at the heart of new British playwriting in the 1990s and 2000s, Ravenhill respects historical theatre. He has said that he would like to see directors focus more on the classics, Ravenhill has a love of traditional pantomime, he presented a Radio 4 documentary about the form and wrote Dick Whittington for the Barbican Theatre in 2006. Ravenhills work has transformed and developed in the 2000s and his earlier short plays for young people, Totally Over You and Citizenship, both written for the National Theatres National Theatre Connections Programme, continue to be produced. In November 2007, he announced in the Guardian that for the moment and they express his ambiguous and politically indirect later style. The following year, he presented readings of this work at St. Anns Warehouse in Brooklyn, NY, bourne worked with Ravenhill previously on a short play, Ripper, playing Queen Victoria at the Union Theatre in London in 2007. He is also working on a TV series, Ravenhill is a regular contributor to the annual Terror Season at the Southwark Playhouse in London, England. His short play The Exclusion Zone premiered in October 2010, Ravenhill was appointed Associate Director of Londons Little Opera House at The Kings Head Theatre in September 2010. He played a role in the venues relaunch as Londons third Opera House along with patron Sir Jonathan Miller, Robin Norton-Hale. In 2012, Mark Ravenhill became the Royal Shakespeare Companys Writer in Residence, the same year, he was commissioned by the London Gay Mens Chorus for a piece to mark the choirs 21st anniversary. With the music composed by Conor Mitchell, the piece, entitled Shadow Time, the piece will be premiered at the Royal Festival Hall, on 6 May 2012 during the Chorus summer concert, A Band of Brothers
38.
Swan Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon
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The Swan Theatre is a theatre belonging to the Royal Shakespeare Company in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. Trevor Nunn and Terry Hands were joint artistic directors of the RSC when the company opened The Swan, designed by Michael Reardon, it has a deep thrust stage, and is a galleried, intimate auditorium holding around 450 people. The space was to be dedicated to playing the works of William Shakespeares contemporaries, the works of European writers, the theatre was launched on 8 May 1986 with a production of The Two Noble Kinsmen by William Shakespeare and John Fletcher. It was directed by Barry Kyle, the Swan has subsequently been used for many other types of drama including the works of Chekhov, Ibsen and Tennessee Williams. The Swan Theatre has recently been refurbished as part of the Royal Shakespeare Companys £112.8 million transformation project, improvements to the Swan include re-carpeting of the auditorium on all levels and re-upholstering of seats. The project also enabled a number of changes, so the Swan Theatre now has more storage space and shares back-of-house. The two theatres are linked together for the first time by a new Colonnade, the whole building is now accessible for the first time for all visitors, performers and staff. In 2011 the theatre, won a British Construction Industry Award, the Royal Shakespeare Company, A History of Ten Decades. The Company, A Biographical Dictionary of the Royal Shakespeare Company, the Company, A Biographical Dictionary of the RSC, Online database by Simon Trowbridge
39.
Michael Billington (critic)
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Michael Keith Billington OBE is a British author and arts critic. Billington was born on 16 November 1939, in Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, England, and attended Warwick School and he attended St Catherines College, Oxford from 1958 to 1961, graduating with a BA degree. After leaving Oxford, in 1961, Billington began working as a critic in Liverpool. From 1962 to 1964, he served as liaison officer and director for the Lincoln Theatre Company. In October 1971, he left The Times to become theatre critic for The Guardian, beginning in the 1980s, he was a London arts correspondent for The New York Times, and, since 1988, he has also served as drama critic for Country Life. Billingtons broadcasting career had begun by 1965, philip French, then a BBC radio producer, asked him to review two short radio plays by the then virtually unknown Tom Stoppard which were being broadcast on the BBC Third Programme. Later, he was a presenter in Critics Forum, which ended in 1990, and he has contributed to other British arts and drama radio and television programmes. In April 2007, Billington presented a paper on Is British Theatre As Good As It Claims. Billington has spoken about the book at venues, including the Warwick Arts Centre, at the University of Warwick. At the end of January and that it will be released first as an e-book and he is currently writing a biography of Dion Boucicault, which will be published only in braille. Billington blogs for guardian. co. uk and formerly also for Whatsonstage. com, Billington married Jeanine Bradlaugh in 1978, they have one daughter and live in London. He is a supporter of the Labour Party, Billington was made an Honorary Fellow of St Catherines College, Oxford in 2005 and was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by The University of Warwick in July 2009. He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to the theatre, books by Billington The Modern Actor. How Tickled I Am, A Celebration of Ken Dodd, one Night Stands, A Critics View of British Theatre 1971–1991. The Life and Work of Harold Pinter, state of the Nation, British Theatre since 1945. Book reviews The Life and Work of Harold Pinter, salem on Literature, Magill Book Reviews. Whos Who 2007, An Annual Biographical Dictionary, London, A & C Black,2007. Featured Alumni, Michael Billington, Author and Arts Critic, St Catherines College, international Whos Who of Authors and Writers 2004
