1.
Eric Laithwaite
–
Eric Roberts Laithwaite was an English electrical engineer, known as the Father of Maglev for his development of the linear induction motor and maglev rail system. Eric Roberts Laithwaite was born in Atherton, Lancashire, on 14 June 1921, raised in the Fylde, Lancashire and he joined the Royal Air Force in 1941. Through his service in World War II, he rose to the rank of Flying Officer, on demobilization in 1946, he attended the University of Manchester to study electrical engineering. His work on the Manchester Mark I computer earned him his masters degree and his subsequent doctoral work started his interest in linear induction motors. He derived an equation for goodness which parametrically describes the efficiency of a motor in general terms and he became professor of heavy electrical engineering at Imperial College London in 1964 where he continued his successful development of the linear motor. He also worked at applying linear motors on the Tracked Hovercraft until its cancellation, Laithwaite was an able communicator who made many television appearances. Memorable among these were his Royal Institution Christmas Lectures to young people in 1966 and 1974, the latter of these made much of the surprising phenomena of gyroscopes. In 1974, Laithwaite was invited by the Royal Institution to give a talk on a subject of his own choosing and he decided to lecture about gyroscopes, a subject in which he had only recently become interested. His interest had been aroused by an inventor named Alex Jones. After seeing a demonstration of Joness small prototype, Laithwaite became convinced that he had seen something impossible and this was part subject of the BBC science series Horizon - 2015-2016,2. Project Greenglow - The Quest for Gravity Control, at this time, Laithwaite suggested that Newtons laws of motion could not account for the behaviour of gyroscopes and that they could be used as a means of reactionless propulsion. The members of the Royal Institution rejected his ideas and his lecture was not published and they were subsequently published independently as Engineer Through The Looking-Glass. Laithwaite set up Gyron Ltd with William Dawson and, in 1993, see US5860317, GB2289757 and WO9530832 for the US, UK and PCT application for patents respectively. A United States Patent, Number 5860317, was granted in 1999, although Laithwaite is best known for his ideas concerning gyroscopes, he also held an idea concerning moths. It was that they communicate via short wave electromagnetic phenomena. He persisted in this even after the pheromone which they actually use had been isolated. This explanation did not account for where the energy might come from — a matter later taken up by P. S. Callahan. Laithwaite also had a habit of championing the ideas of amateurs over those of experts, such ideas included the ones that there are three types of magnetism and that the 196 problem is not a problem, terminating after relatively few iterations
2.
Alternating current
–
Alternating current, is an electric current which periodically reverses direction, whereas direct current flows only in one direction. A common source of DC power is a cell in a flashlight. The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, the usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power circuits is a sine wave. In certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves, audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. These types of alternating current carry information encoded onto the AC signal and these currents typically alternate at higher frequencies than those used in power transmission. Electrical energy is distributed as alternating current because AC voltage may be increased or decreased with a transformer, use of a higher voltage leads to significantly more efficient transmission of power. The power losses in a conductor are a product of the square of the current and this means that when transmitting a fixed power on a given wire, if the current is halved, the power loss will be four times less. Power is often transmitted at hundreds of kilovolts, and transformed to 100–240 volts for domestic use, high voltages have disadvantages, such as the increased insulation required, and generally increased difficulty in their safe handling. In a power plant, energy is generated at a convenient voltage for the design of a generator, near the loads, the transmission voltage is stepped down to the voltages used by equipment. Consumer voltages vary somewhat depending on the country and size of load, the voltage delivered to equipment such as lighting and motor loads is standardized, with an allowable range of voltage over which equipment is expected to operate. Standard power utilization voltages and percentage tolerance vary in the different mains power systems found in the world, high-voltage direct-current electric power transmission systems have become more viable as technology has provided efficient means of changing the voltage of DC power. HVDC systems, however, tend to be expensive and less efficient over shorter distances than transformers. Three-phase electrical generation is very common, the simplest way is to use three separate coils in the generator stator, physically offset by an angle of 120° to each other. Three current waveforms are produced that are equal in magnitude and 120° out of phase to each other, if coils are added opposite to these, they generate the same phases with reverse polarity and so can be simply wired together. In practice, higher pole orders are commonly used, for example, a 12-pole machine would have 36 coils. The advantage is that lower rotational speeds can be used to generate the same frequency, for example, a 2-pole machine running at 3600 rpm and a 12-pole machine running at 600 rpm produce the same frequency, the lower speed is preferable for larger machines. If the load on a system is balanced equally among the phases. Even in the worst-case unbalanced load, the current will not exceed the highest of the phase currents
3.
Linear motor
–
A linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor unrolled so that instead of producing a torque it produces a linear force along its length. However, linear motors are not necessarily straight, characteristically, a linear motors active section has ends, whereas more conventional motors are arranged as a continuous loop. The most common mode of operation is as a Lorentz-type actuator, in which the force is linearly proportional to the current. Many designs have been put forward for linear motors, falling into two categories, low-acceleration and high-acceleration linear motors. Low-acceleration linear motors are suitable for trains and other ground-based transportation applications. High-acceleration linear motors are normally rather short, and are designed to accelerate an object to a high speed. High-acceleration linear motors are used in studies of hypervelocity collisions, as weapons. They are usually of the AC linear induction motor design with an active three-phase winding on one side of the air-gap, however, the direct current homopolar linear motor railgun is another high acceleration linear motor design. These magnets can be permanent magnets or energized magnets, the Shanghai Transrapid motor is an LSM. In this design the rate of movement of the field is controlled, usually electronically. For cost reasons synchronous linear motors rarely use commutators, so the rotor often contains permanent magnets, examples include coilguns and the motors used on some maglev systems, as well as many other linear motors. In this design, the force is produced by a moving magnetic field acting on conductors in the field. The two opposing fields will repel each other, thus creating motion as the magnetic field sweeps through the metal, in this design a large current is passed through a metal sabot across sliding contacts that are fed from two rails. The magnetic field this generates causes the metal to be projected along the rails, piezoelectric drive is often used to drive small linear motors. A feasible linear induction motor is described in the U. S, patent 782,312, for driving trains or lifts. The German engineer Hermann Kemper built a model in 1935. In the late 1940s, Dr. Eric Laithwaite of Manchester University, in a single sided version the magnetic repulsion forces the conductor away from the stator, levitating it, and carrying it along in the direction of the moving magnetic field. He called the later versions of it magnetic river, because of these properties, linear motors are often used in maglev propulsion, as in the Japanese Linimo magnetic levitation train line near Nagoya
4.
Induction motor
–
An induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motors rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type, three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial drives because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans, although traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump, squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency drive applications. Tesla applied for U. S. patents in October and November 1887 and was granted some of these patents in May 1888, in April 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferrariss research on his AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor operation. George Westinghouse, who was developing an alternating current power system at time, licensed Tesla’s patents in 1888. Tesla was also employed for one year as a consultant, Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott was assigned to assist Tesla and later took over development of the induction motor at Westinghouse. Steadfast in his promotion of development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889. Furthermore, he claimed that Teslas motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor. The General Electric Company began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891, by 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Arthur E. Kennelly was the first to bring out full significance of the i to designate the 90-degree rotation operator in complex number analysis of AC problems. GEs Charles Proteus Steinmetz greatly developed application of AC complex quantities including in terms now commonly known as the induction motors Steinmetz equivalent circuit. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7. 5-horsepower motor in 1897. In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motors stator creates a field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motors rotor turns at the rate as the stator field. The induction motor stators magnetic field is changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces a current in the induction motors rotor, in effect the motors secondary winding. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor, the currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field
5.
Magnetic levitation
–
Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended with no support other than magnetic fields. Magnetic force is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational acceleration, Magnetic levitation is used for maglev trains, contactless melting, magnetic bearings and for product display purposes. Magnetic materials and systems are able to attract or press each other apart or together with a dependent on the magnetic field. To calculate the amount of lift, a pressure can be defined. Earnshaws theorem proves that using only paramagnetic materials it is impossible for a system to stably levitate against gravity. However, servomechanisms, the use of materials, superconduction. In some cases the force is provided by magnetic levitation. Static stability means that any small displacement away from a stable equilibrium causes a net force to push it back to the equilibrium point, Earnshaws theorem proved conclusively that it is not possible to levitate stably using only static, macroscopic, paramagnetic fields. Conductors can have a relative permeability to alternating magnetic fields of below one, dynamic stability occurs when the levitation system is able to damp out any vibration-like motion that may occur. Magnetic fields are conservative forces and therefore in principle have no built-in damping and this can permit vibration modes to exist that can cause the item to leave the stable region. Damping of motion is done in a number of ways, external mechanical damping, such as dashpots, from Earnshaws theorem at least one stable axis must be present for the system to levitate successfully, but the other axes can be stabilized using ferromagnetism. The primary ones used in maglev trains are servo-stabilized electromagnetic suspension, with a small amount of mechanical constraint for stability, achieving pseudo-levitation is a relatively straightforward process. If two magnets are mechanically constrained along an axis, for example, and arranged to repel each other strongly. Another geometry is where the magnets are attracted, but constrained from touching by a tensile member, another example is the Zippe-type centrifuge where a cylinder is suspended under an attractive magnet, and stabilized by a needle bearing from below. The attraction from a fixed strength magnet decreases with increased distance, for a stable system, the opposite is needed, variations from a stable position should push it back to the target position. Either system represents examples of ElectroMagnetic Suspension, for a very simple example, some tabletop levitation demonstrations use this principle, and the object cuts a beam of light or Hall effect sensor method is used to measure the position of the object. The electromagnet is above the object being levitated, the electromagnet is turned off whenever the object gets too close, such a simple system is not very robust, far more effective control systems exist, but this illustrates the basic idea. EMS magnetic levitation trains are based on this kind of levitation, The train wraps around the track, the servo controls keep it safely at a constant distance from the track
6.
Charles Wheatstone
–
Charles Wheatstone was born in Barnwood, Gloucester. His father was a music-seller in the town, who moved to 128 Pall Mall, London, four years later, Charles, the second son, went to a village school, near Gloucester, and afterwards to several institutions in London. One of them was in Kennington, and kept by a Mrs. Castlemaine, from another he ran away, but was captured at Windsor, not far from the theatre of his practical telegraph. As a boy he was shy and sensitive, liking well to retire into an attic. His father encouraged him in this, and finally took him out of the uncles charge. At the age of fifteen, Wheatstone translated French poetry, some lines of his on the lyre became the motto of an engraving by Bartolozzi. Small for his age, but with a fine brow, and intelligent blue eyes, he visited an old book-stall in the vicinity of Pall Mall. Most of his pocket-money was spent in purchasing the books which had taken his fancy, whether fairy tales, history, or science. One day, to the surprise of the bookseller, he coveted a volume on the discoveries of Volta in electricity and it was written in French, and so he was obliged to save again, until he could buy a dictionary. Then he began to read the volume, and, with the help of his brother, William, to repeat the experiments described in it, with a home-made battery. In constructing the battery, the boy philosophers ran short of money to procure the requisite copper-plates and they had only a few copper coins left. A happy thought occurred to Charles, who was the spirit in these researches, We must use the pennies themselves, said he. At Christchurch, Marylebone, on 12 February 1847, Wheatstone was married to Emma West and she was the daughter of a Taunton tradesman, and of handsome appearance. She died in 1866, leaving a family of five children to his care. His domestic life was quiet and uneventful, Sir Henry Taylor tells us that he once observed Wheatstone at an evening party in Oxford earnestly holding forth to Lord Palmerston on the capabilities of his telegraph. I must get you to tell that to the Lord Chancellor, and so saying, he fastened the electrician on Lord Westbury, and effected his escape. Wheatstone was knighted in 1868, after his completion of the automatic telegraph and he had previously been made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Some thirty-four distinctions and diplomas of home or foreign societies bore witness to his scientific reputation, the same year he was awarded the Ampere Medal by the French Society for the Encouragement of National Industry
7.
King's College London
–
Kings College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom, and a founding constituent college of the federal University of London. Kings was established in 1829 by King George IV and the Duke of Wellington, in 1836, Kings became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. Kings has five campuses, its main campus on the Strand in central London. In 2015/16, Kings had an income of £738.4 million, of which £193.2 million was from research grants and contracts and as of 2014/15. It has the fifth largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, and its academic activities are organised into nine faculties which are subdivided into numerous departments, centres and research divisions. Kings is home to six Medical Research Council centres and is a member of the Kings Health Partners academic health sciences centre, Francis Crick Institute. Kings College London, so named to indicate the patronage of King George IV, was founded in 1829 in response to the controversy surrounding the founding of London University in 1826. The need for such an institution was a result of the religious and social nature of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which then educated solely the sons of wealthy Anglicans. The secular nature of London University was disapproved by The Establishment, indeed, thus, the creation of a rival institution represented a Tory response to reassert the educational values of The Establishment. Winchilsea and about 150 other contributors withdrew their support of Kings College London in response to Wellingtons support of Catholic emancipation. In a letter to Wellington he accused the Duke to have in mind insidious designs for the infringement of our liberty, the letter provoked a furious exchange of correspondence and Wellington accused Winchilsea of imputing him with disgraceful and criminal motives in setting up Kings College London. The result was a duel in Battersea Fields on 21 March 1829, Winchilsea did not fire, a plan he and his second almost certainly decided upon before the duel, Wellington took aim and fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether Wellington missed on purpose, Wellington, noted for his poor aim, claimed he did, other reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology, duel Day is still celebrated on the first Thursday after 21 March every year, marked by various events throughout Kings, including reenactments. Kings opened in October 1831 with the cleric William Otter appointed as first principal, despite the attempts to make Kings Anglican-only, the initial prospectus permitted, nonconformists of all sorts to enter the college freely. William Howley, the governors and the professors, except the linguists, had to be members of the Church of England but the students did not, though attendance at chapel was compulsory. Kings was divided into a department and a junior department, also known as Kings College School
8.
Imperial College London
–
Imperial College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area comprised of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall, the Imperial Institute was opened by his wife, Queen Victoria, who laid the foundation stone in 1888. Imperial College London was granted a charter in 1907. In the same year, the joined the University of London. The curriculum was expanded to include medicine after merging with several medical schools. In 2004, Queen Elizabeth II opened the Imperial College Business School, Imperial is organized through faculties for Science, Engineering, Medicine, and Business. The main campus is located in South Kensington, the universitys emphasis is on emerging technology and its practical application. Imperials contributions to society include the discovery of penicillin, the development of fibre optics, Imperial is consistently ranked among the top universities in the world. In 2017, it ranked 8th in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, 9th in the QS World University Rankings, in 2015, Imperial was also ranked the most innovative university in Europe, and in 2017 as the 5th most international university in the world. Staff and alumni include 15 Nobel laureates,2 Fields Medalists,70 Fellows of the Royal Society,82 Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering, and 78 Fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences. The Great Exhibition in 1851 was organised by Prince Albert, Henry Cole, Francis Fuller and other members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. The Great Exhibition made a surplus of £186,000 used in creating an area in the South of Kensington encouraging culture and education for everyone. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area composed of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall. Several royal colleges and the Imperial Institute merged to form what is now Imperial College London, as a result of a movement earlier in the decade, many politicians donated funds to establish the college, including Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone and Robert Peel. It was also supported by Prince Albert, who persuaded August Wilhelm von Hofmann to be the first professor, William Henry Perkin studied and worked at the college under von Hofmann, but resigned his position after discovering the first synthetic dye, mauveine, in 1856. It is considered the highest honour given in the chemical industry. The Royal School of Mines was established by Sir Henry de la Beche in 1851, developing from the Museum of Economic Geology and he created a school which laid the foundations for the teaching of science in the country, and which has its legacy today at Imperial. The Royal College of Science was established in 1881, the main objective was to support the training of science teachers and to develop teaching in other science subjects alongside the Royal School of Mines earth sciences specialities
9.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
10.
Magnetic river
–
Magnetic river is a electrodynamic magnetic levitation system designed by Fredrick Eastham and Eric Laithwaite in 1974. It consists of a conductive plate on an AC linear induction motor. Due to the flux and the geometry, this gives it lift, stability. The name refers to the action that provides stability along the longitudinal axis, a linear induction motor is essentially a conventional induction motor with its primary unwound and laid out flat. The rotor, normally consisting of a series of conductors wound onto a form of some sort, is replaced by a sheet of magnetically susceptible metal, due to its good conductance to weight ratio, aluminium is almost always used for this stator plate. When the primaries are fed current, they induce a magnetic field in the stator plate, the simplest way to use these forces to produce linear motion is to arrange two such motors on either side of a single stator plate. That way the forces from one motor are opposite of the other. This is normally arranged in a C-shaped device which is hung above a vertical stator plate, arrangements of this sort can be commonly seen on many pioneering transit systems from the 1960s, normally running through a slot in the middle of the vehicle floor. By the late 1960s, a flaw in this sandwich motor arrangement had been discovered. The stator plate cannot be made of a casting, as it is kilometres long. Instead, it is made of smaller plates that are then welded together. The strength of these welds is much smaller than the plate itself, when the vehicle passes, any misalignment between the motor and the stator results in enormous forces being generated, pushing the plate back into the center of the motor. These forces may be enough to break the welds between the plates, or simply deform them. In this case, a motor on a vehicle can strike the plate. Looking to address the problems found in the motor, starting in 1967 Eric Laithwaite. In this arrangement there is no corresponding set of fields on the far side of the stator. The team initially considered small plates of iron, like those in a transformer core. The size of the arrangement, and thus the size of the iron plates required, was a function of vehicle speed, power frequency
11.
Magnetic field
–
A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude, as such it is represented by a vector field. The term is used for two distinct but closely related fields denoted by the symbols B and H, where H is measured in units of amperes per meter in the SI, B is measured in teslas and newtons per meter per ampere in the SI. B is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges, Magnetic fields can be produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum property, their spin. In quantum physics, the field is quantized and electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of photons. Magnetic fields are used throughout modern technology, particularly in electrical engineering. The Earth produces its own field, which is important in navigation. Rotating magnetic fields are used in electric motors and generators. Magnetic forces give information about the carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the discipline of magnetic circuits, noting that the resulting field lines crossed at two points he named those points poles in analogy to Earths poles. He also clearly articulated the principle that magnets always have both a north and south pole, no matter how finely one slices them, almost three centuries later, William Gilbert of Colchester replicated Petrus Peregrinus work and was the first to state explicitly that Earth is a magnet. Published in 1600, Gilberts work, De Magnete, helped to establish magnetism as a science, in 1750, John Michell stated that magnetic poles attract and repel in accordance with an inverse square law. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb experimentally verified this in 1785 and stated explicitly that the north and south poles cannot be separated, building on this force between poles, Siméon Denis Poisson created the first successful model of the magnetic field, which he presented in 1824. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic poles, three discoveries challenged this foundation of magnetism, though. First, in 1819, Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field encircling it, then in 1820, André-Marie Ampère showed that parallel wires having currents in the same direction attract one another. Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart discovered the Biot–Savart law in 1820, extending these experiments, Ampère published his own successful model of magnetism in 1825. This has the benefit of explaining why magnetic charge can not be isolated. Also in this work, Ampère introduced the term electrodynamics to describe the relationship between electricity and magnetism, in 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction when he found that a changing magnetic field generates an encircling electric field
12.
Eddy current
–
Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a changing magnetic field in the conductor, due to Faradays law of induction. Eddy currents flow in closed loops within conductors, in perpendicular to the magnetic field. By Lenzs law, an eddy current creates a field that opposes the magnetic field that created it. For example, a conductive surface will exert a drag force on a moving magnet that opposes its motion. This effect is employed in eddy current brakes which are used to stop rotating power tools quickly when they are turned off, the current flowing through the resistance of the conductor also dissipates energy as heat in the material. Eddy currents are used to heat objects in induction heating furnaces and equipment. The term eddy current comes from analogous currents seen in water in fluid dynamics, somewhat analogously, eddy currents can take time to build up and can persist for very short times in conductors due to their inductance. The first person to observe eddy currents was François Arago, the 25th Prime Minister of France, in 1824 he observed what has been called rotatory magnetism, and that most conductive bodies could be magnetized, these discoveries were completed and explained by Michael Faraday. Eddy currents produce a field that cancels a part of the external field. French physicist Léon Foucault is credited with having discovered eddy currents, the first use of eddy current for non-destructive testing occurred in 1879 when David E. Hughes used the principles to conduct metallurgical sorting tests. A magnet induces circular electric currents in a metal sheet moving past it and it shows a metal sheet moving to the right under a stationary magnet. The magnetic field of the north pole N passes down through the sheet. Since the metal is moving, the flux through the sheet is changing. At the part of the sheet under the edge of the magnet the magnetic field through the sheet is increasing as it gets nearer the magnet. From Faradays law of induction, this creates an electric field in the sheet in a counterclockwise direction around the magnetic field lines. This field induces a flow of electric current, in the sheet. At the trailing edge of the magnet the magnetic field through the sheet is decreasing, d B d t <0, the mobile charge carriers in the metal, the electrons, actually have a negative charge so their motion is opposite in direction to the conventional current shown. Both of these forces oppose the motion of the sheet, the kinetic energy which is consumed overcoming this drag force is dissipated as heat by the currents flowing through the resistance of the metal, so the metal gets warm under the magnet
13.
Electromagnetic induction
–
Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force across an electrical conductor due to its dynamic interaction with a magnetic field. Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831, Lenzs law describes the direction of the induced field. Faradays law was later generalized to become the Maxwell-Faraday equation, one of the four Maxwells equations in James Clerk Maxwells theory of electromagnetism, electromagnetic induction has found many applications in technology, including electrical components such as inductors and transformers, and devices such as electric motors and generators. Electromagnetic induction was first discovered by Michael Faraday, who made his discovery public in 1831 and it was discovered independently by Joseph Henry in 1832. In Faradays first experimental demonstration, he wrapped two wires around opposite sides of a ring or torus. He plugged one wire into a galvanometer, and watched it as he connected the wire to a battery. He saw a transient current, which he called a wave of electricity and this induction was due to the change in magnetic flux that occurred when the battery was connected and disconnected. Within two months, Faraday found several other manifestations of electromagnetic induction, Faraday explained electromagnetic induction using a concept he called lines of force. However, scientists at the time widely rejected his theoretical ideas, an exception was James Clerk Maxwell, who used Faradays ideas as the basis of his quantitative electromagnetic theory. Heavisides version is the form recognized today in the group of known as Maxwells equations. In 1834 Heinrich Lenz formulated the law named after him to describe the flux through the circuit, Lenzs law gives the direction of the induced EMF and current resulting from electromagnetic induction. Faradays law of induction makes use of the magnetic flux ΦB through a region of space enclosed by a wire loop. The magnetic flux is defined by an integral, Φ B = ∫ Σ B ⋅ d A. The dot product B·dA corresponds to an amount of magnetic flux. In more visual terms, the flux through the wire loop is proportional to the number of magnetic flux lines that pass through the loop. When the flux through the changes, Faradays law of induction says that the wire loop acquires an electromotive force. The direction of the force is given by Lenzs law which states that an induced current will flow in the direction that will oppose the change which produced it. This is due to the sign in the previous equation
14.
Lenz's law
–
Lenzs law is shown by the negative sign in Faradays law of induction, E = − ∂ Φ ∂ t, which indicates that the induced voltage and the change in magnetic flux have opposite signs. It is a law that specifies the direction of induced current. Lenzs law can be seen as analogous to Newtons third law in classic mechanics, for a rigorous mathematical treatment, see electromagnetic induction and Maxwells equations. If a change in the field of current i1 induces another electric current, i2. If these currents are in two coaxial circular conductors ℓ1 and ℓ2 respectively, and both are initially 0, then the currents i1 and i2 must counter-rotate, the opposing currents will repel each other as a result. Currents bound inside the atoms of strong magnets can create counter-rotating currents in a copper or aluminum pipe and this is shown by dropping the magnet through the pipe. The descent of the magnet inside the pipe is observably slower than when dropped outside the pipe, the induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the examples below, if the flux is increasing, the field acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the field acts in the direction of the applied field to oppose the change. In electromagnetism, when charges move along electric field lines work is done on them, when net positive work is applied to a charge q1, it gains speed and momentum. The net work on q1 thereby generates a field whose strength is proportional to the speed increase of q1. This magnetic field can interact with a neighboring charge q2, passing on this momentum to it, the charge q2 can also act on q1 in a similar manner, by which it returns some of the momentum that it received from q1. This back-and-forth component of momentum contributes to magnetic inductance, the closer that q1 and q2 are, the greater the effect. When q2 is inside a conductive medium such as a thick slab made of copper or aluminum, the energy of q1 is not instantly consumed as heat generated by the current of q2 but is also stored in two opposing magnetic fields. Momentum must be conserved in the process, so if q1 is pushed in one direction, however, the situation becomes more complicated when the finite speed of electromagnetic wave propagation is introduced. Famous 19th century electrodynamicist James Clerk Maxwell called this the electromagnetic momentum, yet, such a treatment of fields may be necessary when Lenzs law is applied to opposite charges. It is normally assumed that the charges in question have the same sign, if they do not, such as a proton and an electron, the interaction is different. An electron generating a field would generate an EMF that causes a proton to accelerate in the same direction as the electron
15.
Electrodynamic suspension
–
Electrodynamic suspension is a form of magnetic levitation in which there are conductors which are exposed to time-varying magnetic fields. This induces eddy currents in the conductors that creates a magnetic field which holds the two objects apart. These time varying fields can be caused by relative motion between two objects. Electrodynamic suspension can also occur when a driven by an AC electrical source produces the changing magnetic field, in some cases. EDS is used for trains, such as the Japanese SCMaglev. It is also used for classes of magnetically levitated bearings. Many examples of this have been used over the years, in this early configuration by Bedford, Peer, and Tonks from 1939, an aluminum plate is placed on two concentric cylindrical coils, and driven with an AC current. When the parameters are correct, the plate exhibits 6-axis stable levitation, in the 1950s, a technique was developed where small quantities of metal were levitated and melted by a magnetic field of a few tens of kHz. The coil was a pipe, allowing coolant to be circulated through it. The overall form was generally conical, with a flat top and this permitted an inert atmosphere to be employed, and was commercially successful. Eric Laithwaite and colleagues took the Bedford levitator, and by stages developed and improved it, first they made the levitator longer along one axis, and were able to make a levitator that was neutrally stable along one axis, and stable along all other axes. Further development included replacing the single phase energising current with an induction motor which combined levitation. They were also able to break the primary into convenient sections which made it easier to build. When they are displaced off-center, current flows and a field is generated by the coil which tends to restore the spacing. These schemes were proposed by Powell and Danby in the 1960s, Inductrack is a passive, fail-safe magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and permanent magnets on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in one of two configurations, a track and a laminated track. The ladder track is made of unpowered Litz wire cables, there are two designs, the Inductrack I, which is optimized for high speed operation, and the Inductrack II, which is more efficient at lower speeds. Electrodynamic bearings are a type of bearing that is a passive magnetic technology
16.
Motion control
–
Motion control is a sub-field of automation, encompassing the systems or sub-systems involved in moving parts of machines in a controlled manner. The main components involved typically include a controller, an energy amplifier. Motion control may be open loop or closed loop, in open loop systems, the controller sends a command through the amplifier to the prime mover or actuator, and does not know if the desired motion was actually achieved. Typical systems include stepper motor or fan control, for tighter control with more precision, a measuring device may be added to the system. When the measurement is converted to a signal that is sent back to the controller, typically the position or velocity of machines are controlled using some type of device such as a hydraulic pump, linear actuator, or electric motor, generally a servo. The latter is often called General Motion Control, Motion control is widely used in the packaging, printing, textile, semiconductor production, and assembly industries. Motion Control encompasses every technology related to the movement of objects and it covers every motion system from micro-sized systems such as silicon-type micro induction actuators to micro-siml systems such as a space platform. But, these days, the focus of motion control is the control technology of motion systems with electric actuators such as dc/ac servo motors. The basic architecture of a control system contains, A motion controller to generate set points. A drive or amplifier to transform the signal from the motion controller into energy that is presented to the actuator. Newer intelligent drives can close the position and velocity loops internally, a prime mover or actuator such as a hydraulic pump, pneumatic cylinder, linear actuator, or electric motor for output motion. Mechanical components to transform the motion of the actuator into the motion, including, gears, shafting, ball screw, belts, linkages. The interface between the controller and drives it controls is very critical when coordinated motion is required. Later interfaces capable of control include Ethernet/IP, Profinet IRT, Ethernet Powerlink. Common control functions include, Velocity control, position control, There are several methods for computing a motion trajectory. These are often based on the velocity profiles of a such as a triangular profile, trapezoidal profile. Impedance control, This type of control is suitable for environment interaction and object manipulation, electronic gearing, The position of a slave axis is mathematically linked to the position of a master axis. A good example of this would be in a system where two rotating drums turn at a ratio to each other
17.
Control system
–
A control system manages, commands, directs or regulates the behaviour of other devices or systems. It can range from a home heating using a thermostat controlling a domestic boiler to large Industrial control systems which are used for controlling processes or machines. In the most common form, the control system it is desired to control a process, called the plant, so its output follows a control signal. The control system compares the output of the plant to the control signal, an automatic sequential control system may trigger a series of mechanical actuators in the correct sequence to perform a task. For example, various electric and pneumatic transducers may fold and glue a cardboard box, fill it with product, programmable logic controllers are used in many cases such as this, but several alternative technologies exist. An example of this may increase the supply to a furnace when a measured temperature drops. PID controllers are common and effective in such as this. Control systems that include some sensing of the results they are trying to achieve are making use of feedback and so can, to some extent, open-loop control systems do not make use of feedback, and run only in pre-arranged ways. There are two classes of control systems, open loop control systems, and closed loop control systems. In an open loop system, the control action from the controller is independent of the process output. A good example of this is a central heating boiler controlled only by a timer, so heat is applied for a constant time. In a closed loop system, the control action from the controller is dependent on the desired. A closed loop controller therefore has a loop which ensures the controller exerts a control action to give a process output the same as the Reference input or set point. For this reason, closed loop controllers are also called feedback controllers, logic control systems for industrial and commercial machinery were historically implemented at mains voltage using interconnected relays, designed using ladder logic. Today, most such systems are constructed with programmable logic controllers or microcontrollers, the notation of ladder logic is still in use as a programming idiom for PLCs. Logic controllers may respond to switches, light sensors, pressure switches, etc. and can cause the machinery to start, logic systems are used to sequence mechanical operations in many applications. PLC software can be written in different ways – ladder diagrams. Examples include elevators, washing machines and other systems with interrelated stop-go operations, logic systems are quite easy to design, and can handle very complex operations
18.
Linimo
–
Linimo, formally the Aichi High-Speed Transit Tobu Kyuryo Line is a magnetic levitation train line in Aichi Prefecture, Japan, near the city of Nagoya. While primarily built to serve the Expo 2005 fair site, the line now operates to serve the local community, Linimo is owned and operated by Aichi Rapid Transit Co. Ltd. and is the first commercial maglev in Japan to use the High Speed Surface Transport type technology. It is also the worlds first unmanned commercial urban maglev, the line has nine stations and is 8.9 kilometres long, with a minimum operating radius of 75 metres and a maximum gradient of 6%. The line uses Automatic train control and Automatic train operation, construction of the track cost ¥60 billion while the Linimo trains themselves, built by Nippon Sharyo, cost ¥40.5 billion. The construction cost came to roughly $65 million per km without rolling stock, the trains for the line were designed by the Chubu HSST Development Corporation, which also operates a test track in Nagoya. They were built by Nippon Sharyo, cost ¥40.5 billion, the trains are fixed 3-car train sets. The end cars are 14.0 metres long and the middle car 13.5 metres, the cars are 2.6 metres wide. The Mc car has a capacity of 34 seated and 46 standing, the cars have a semi-monocoque construction of welded aluminum, with two emergency doors at each car end and two 1, 200-millimetre doors per side. On March 19,2005 and again on March 24, the number of people inside the trains exceeded the capacity of 244 passengers. The line also has to be shut down for safety reasons when wind speed exceeds 25 m/s, a relatively common occurrence in the area. During the Expo, the line carried an average of 31,000 passengers per day, but ridership dropped to only 12,000 in the first six months after the Expo, and the line lost over ¥3 billion in 2006. While ridership gradually increased to 16,500 passengers per day in 2008, the line was later cancelled in 2007. Expo 2005 High Speed Surface Transport Official website The International Maglevboard
19.
Maglev
–
Maglev is a transport method that uses magnetic levitation to move vehicles without making contact with the ground. With maglev, a vehicle travels along a guideway using magnets to create lift and propulsion, thereby reducing friction by a great extent and allowing very high speeds. In itself, maglev technology includes no moving parts, Maglev trains move more smoothly and more quietly than wheeled mass transit systems. The power needed for levitation is not a large percentage of its overall energy consumption, most goes to overcome drag. Maglev trains hold the record for trains. Compared to conventional trains, differences in construction affect the economics of maglev trains, for high-speed trains with wheels, wear and tear from friction from wheels on rails accelerates equipment wear and prevents high speeds. Conversely, maglev systems have much more expensive to construct. Despite decades of research and development, maglev systems are in operation in just three countries. In April 2004, Shanghais Transrapid system began commercial operations, in March 2005, Japan began operation of its relatively low-speed HSST Linimo line in time for the 2005 World Expo. In its first three months, the Linimo line carried over 10 million passengers, South Korea became the worlds fourth country to succeed in implementing maglev technology with the Incheon Airport Maglev beginning regular operation on February 3,2016. In Japan a new high speed line, the Chuo Shinkansen is planned to become operational in 2027. In the late 1940s, the British electrical engineer Eric Laithwaite and he became professor of heavy electrical engineering at Imperial College in 1964, where he continued his successful development of the linear motor. Since linear motors do not require physical contact between the vehicle and guideway, they became a fixture on advanced transportation systems in the 1960s and 70s. Laithwaite joined one such project, the hovercraft, although the project was cancelled in 1973. The linear motor was naturally suited to use with maglev systems as well, working at the British Rail Research Division in Derby, along with teams at several civil engineering firms, the transverse-flux system was developed into a working system. The first commercial maglev people mover was simply called MAGLEV and officially opened in 1984 near Birmingham and it operated on an elevated 600-metre section of monorail track between Birmingham Airport and Birmingham International railway station, running at speeds up to 42 km/h. The system was closed in 1995 due to reliability problems, High-speed transportation patents were granted to various inventors throughout the world. Early United States patents for a linear motor propelled train were awarded to German inventor Alfred Zehden, in 1907, another early electromagnetic transportation system was developed by F. S. Smith
20.
Nagoya
–
Nagoya is the largest city in the Chūbu region of Japan. It is Japans third-largest incorporated city and the fourth most populous urban area and it is located on the Pacific coast on central Honshu. It is the capital of Aichi Prefecture and is one of Japans major ports along with those of Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe, Yokohama, Chiba and it is also the center of Japans third-largest metropolitan region, known as the Chūkyō Metropolitan Area. As of 2015,2.28 million people lived in the city, the citys name was historically written as 那古野 or 名護屋. One possible origin is the adjective nagoyaka, meaning peaceful, the name Chūkyō is also used to refer to Nagoya. Notable examples of the use of the name Chūkyō include the Chūkyō Industrial Area, Chūkyō Metropolitan Area, Chūkyō Television Broadcasting, Chukyo University, oda Nobunaga and his protégés Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu were powerful warlords based in the Nagoya area who gradually succeeded in unifying Japan. In 1610, Tokugawa Ieyasu moved the capital of Owari Province from Kiyosu, about seven kilometers away, during this period Nagoya Castle was constructed, built partly from materials taken from Kiyosu Castle. During the construction, the town around Kiyosu Castle, consisting of around 60,000 people. Around the same time, the nearby ancient Atsuta Shrine was designated as a waystation, called Miya, on the important Tōkaidō road, a town developed around the temple to support travelers. The castle and shrine towns formed the city, during the Meiji Restoration Japans provinces were restructured into prefectures and the government changed from family to bureaucratic rule. Nagoya was proclaimed a city on October 1,1889, and designated a city on September 1,1956, Nagoya became an industrial hub for the region. Its economic sphere included the famous pottery towns of Tokoname, Tajimi and Seto, as well as Okazaki, other industries included cotton and complex mechanical dolls called karakuri ningyō. Mitsubishi Aircraft Company was established in 1920 in Nagoya and became one of the largest aircraft manufacturers in Japan, the availability of space and the central location of the region and the well-established connectivity were some of the major factors that lead to the establishment of the aviation industry there. Nagoya was the target of US air raids during World War II, the population of Nagoya at this time was estimated to be 1.5 million, fourth among Japanese cities and one of the three largest centers of the Japanese aircraft industry. It was estimated that 25% of its workers were engaged in aircraft production, important Japanese aircraft targets were within the city itself, while others were to the north of Kagamigahara. It was estimated that produced between 40% and 50% of Japanese combat aircraft and engines, such as the vital Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter. The Nagoya area also produced machine tools, bearings, railway equipment, metal alloys, tanks, motor vehicles, the bombing continued through the spring of 1945, and included large-scale firebombing. Nagoya was the target of two of Bomber Command’s attacks and these incendiary attacks, one by day and one by night, devastated 15.3 square kilometres
21.
AirRail Link
–
The AirRail Link is a people mover linking Birmingham Airport with Birmingham International railway station and the National Exhibition Centre, in the United Kingdom. The current system, originally known as SkyRail, replaced the earlier Birmingham Maglev system in 2003, the Birmingham Maglev was opened in 1984 and was the first commercial Maglev transport system in the world. The system was automated and used an elevated concrete guideway. The current system is a fully automated cable-hauled system that takes passengers from the railway station concourse, over a dual carriageway. It has a length of 585 metres, is free to use, during the day, the trains run every few minutes each way. At off-peak times, trains operate on demand, and to facilitate this, initial feasibility studies for a link from the airport to the railway station and exhibition centre were started in 1979 by the owners of the airport at that time, West Midlands County Council. The selected solution was based on experimental work commissioned by the British government at the British Rail Research Division laboratory at Derby. Contracts were awarded in 1981 to a consortium involving GEC, Balfour Beatty, Brush Electrical Machines and Metropolitan Cammell under the name People Mover Group, the carriages were manufactured by MetroCammell at their Washwood Heath plant in Birmingham. The system was opened on 16 August 1984, as built, the length of the track was 600 metres, and trains flew at an altitude of 15 millimetres. The line operated successfully for eleven years, but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems. The system closed in July 1995 when an investigation concluding the cost of reinstating and maintaining the Maglev to be too high, initially the cars for the Maglev were stored by the airport owners, Birmingham International Airport Ltd. on the airport site. After closure, the original guideway lay dormant and a shuttle bus service was operated until development of a suitable replacement was found. The guideway was reused in 2003 when the replacement cable-hauled SkyRail people mover was opened, one of the Maglev carriages, as well as a model of the system, Carriage Three can be found in the National Railway Museum in York. Another carriage was put up for sale in an auction on eBay in late 2010 after lying unused at the airport since the systems closure. Carriage No.2 was sold for £25,100 with the going to two charities and now resides with a private buyer in Warwickshire. The replacement project was started on 30 March 2001 and completed on 7 March 2003 with the first day of public operation, the project contract cost £11 million. The current AirRail Link is a cable-propelled double shuttle system and it is built on top of the previous Maglev guideway, slightly shortened by an extension of the railway station concourse to accommodate a low-level bus station. It uses the Cable Liner technology from DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car, the Birmingham Airport Link was DCCs first airport system and replaced the temporary bus service that had been operating since 1995
22.
Birmingham Airport
–
It has a CAA Public Use Aerodrome Licence that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction. Passenger throughput in 2016 was over 11.6 million, making Birmingham the seventh busiest UK airport, the airport offers both domestic flights within the UK, and international flights to destinations in Europe, the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, North America and the Caribbean. Birmingham Airport is a base for BMI Regional, Flybe, Jet2. com, Monarch, Ryanair, Thomas Cook Airlines. Birmingham Airport is 5.5 NM east-south-east of Birmingham city centre and it is connected by the elevated AirRail Link with Birmingham International railway station on the West Coast Main Line. The relatively short north-east – south-west runway is not operational, and has incorporated into the taxiway for aircraft departing the end of runway 33. In 1928, the Birmingham City Council decided that the city required a municipal airport, Plans were submitted in 1933, identifying Elmdon as the site for the airport, delayed by the Great Depression. On 8 July 1939 the Duchess of Kent, Princess Marina of Greece, the airport was owned and operated by Birmingham City Council. Initial services flew to Croydon, Glasgow, Liverpool, Ryde, Shoreham, Manchester and Southampton. During World War II the airport was requisitioned by the Air Ministry and was used by the RAF and the Royal Navy as RAF Elmdon, an Elementary Flying School and a base for the Fleet Air Arm. During this time, the grass strip was replaced by two hard runways, 06/24 at 2,469 feet and 15/33 at 4,170 feet. Avro Lancaster and Stirling bombers manufactured at the Austin Aero Companys shadow factory at Cofton Hackett could not take off from the runways at Longbridge. Instead they were transported by road, minus the wings that would be attached at Elmdon and they were test flown from the aerodrome, and once declared airworthy they were flown to their operational units. On 8 July 1948, the returned to civilian use. During the post-war years, public events, such as air fairs,1961, An additional terminal building to handle international traffic was opened, called The International Building. 1967, The main runway was extended to 7,400 feet to allow jet operations,1984, Opening of the Maglev rail link train between the airport terminal and nearby railway station. 1993, The Government limited public sector borrowing and this meant that the airport could only expand by using private sector finance. 51% of the local council shares were sold to restructure the airport into a private sector company,1995, Closure of the Maglev rail link after 11 years, following a string of breakdowns. 20 October 2003, The Concorde made her final visit to Birmingham Airport on as part of her farewell tour, November 2007, The airport published a master plan for its development up to 2030, called Towards 2030, Planning a Sustainable Future for Air Transport in the Midlands
23.
Birmingham International railway station
–
Birmingham International is a railway station located in Solihull in the West Midlands, to the east of the city of Birmingham, England. The station is on the Rugby–Birmingham–Stafford Line 14 km east of Birmingham New Street, the station was designed by the architect Ray Moorcroft and opened on 26 January 1976. and has regular train services to many parts of the country. It was named Birmingham International after the adjacent airport which was at the time named Birmingham International Airport, the station is managed by Virgin Trains and is also served by Arriva Trains Wales, CrossCountry and London Midland. It has five platforms, consisting of two islands and one side platform numbered 1-5 from south to north, the train flew at an altitude of 15 mm over a track 620 m in length. It operated for nearly 11 years, but was scrapped because spare parts for the system were no longer available and it was temporarily replaced by a bus. The chosen replacement system, the DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car Cable Liner Shuttle, was announced in late 2000, the Interchange was opened in March 2003. The system was known as SkyRail but in 2004 it was renamed AirRail Link. The airport can also be reached via a dedicated fast bus service from Coleshill Parkway station, on the Birmingham to Peterborough Line, under cover walkways, escalators and Travelators connect the NEC buildings to the station and to the Air-Rail Link, which in turn connects to Birmingham Airport. A new Birmingham Interchange railway station is to be built on the side of the M42 motorway from the National Exhibition Centre, Birmingham Airport. The new interchange would be connected by a rapid transit people mover to the other sites, rail Around Birmingham and the West Midlands, Birmingham International station
24.
Obsolescence
–
Obsolescence is the state of being which occurs when an object, service, or practice is no longer wanted even though it may still be in good working order. Obsolescence frequently occurs because a replacement has become available that has, in sum, obsolete refers to something that is already disused or discarded, or antiquated. Typically, obsolescence is preceded by a decline in popularity. Driven by rapid changes, new components are developed and launched on the market with increasing speed. The result is a change in production methods of all components. A growing industry sector is facing issues where life cycles of products no longer fit together with life cycles of required components and this issue is known as obsolescence, the status given to a part when it is no longer available from its original manufacturer. However, obsolescence extends beyond electronic components to other items, such as materials, textiles, in addition, obsolescence has been shown to appear for software, specifications, standards, processes, and soft resources, such as human skills. It is highly important to implement and operate a management of obsolescence to mitigate. Technical obsolescence usually occurs when a new product or technology supersedes the old, on a smaller scale, particular products may become obsolete due to replacement by a newer version of the product. Many products in the industry become obsolete in this manner, for example. Singularly, rapid obsolescence of data formats along with their hardware and software can lead to loss of critical information. Another complementary reason for obsolescence can be that supporting technologies may no longer be available to produce or even repair a product and it is rarely worth redeveloping a product to get around these issues since its overall functionality and price/performance ratio has usually been superseded by that time as well. Some products are rendered obsolete due to changes in complementary products which results in the function of the first product being made unnecessary. For example, buggy whips became obsolete when people started to travel in cars rather than in horse-drawn buggies, items become functionally obsolete when they can no longer adequately perform the function for which they were created. This causes scarcity of parts and skilled technicians for repairs. This ultimately leads to prohibitive expense in keeping old technology functioning, the term obsolescence was first applied to the built environment in 1910 in an attempt to explain American skyscrapers sudden loss of value. For example, he suggested that hotels obsolescence will occur faster than banks due to their ever-changing functions, sometimes marketers deliberately introduce obsolescence into their product strategy, with the objective of generating long-term sales volume by reducing the time between repeat purchases. One example might be producing an appliance which is designed to wear out within five years of its purchase
25.
Railworld
–
Railworld Wildlife Haven is a charity run place looked after by volunteers for all to enjoy in Peterborough. It is located beside the Peterborough Nene Valley railway station, Railworld has model railways, a nature haven and other exhibits. Founded in 1985 as Museum of World Railways, it changed its name in 1992, the centre is open between Easter weekend and the first weekend in November. Alco switcher Railworld has an American Alco S1 switcher diesel locomotive number 804 and it is one of the five locomotives built by the American Locomotive Company for the Steel Company of Wales works at Margam. Danish Pacific There is also a Danish Pacific Vauclain compound, DSB No.996 built by Frichs in the 1950s, Railworld has two vehicles that are unique, Tracked Hovercrafts RTV31. Over the next few years a new centre is being built called the Transeco Centre. This will promote sustainable transport as well as looking after the heritage vehicles
26.
Tracked Hovercraft
–
Tracked Hovercraft was an experimental high speed train developed in the United Kingdom during the 1960s. It was noticed early on in the development of the hovercraft that the energy needed to lift a vehicle was directly related to the smoothness of the surface it travelled on. This is the purpose of the skirt found on most hovercraft, what was a surprise was that the amount of energy needed to move a given vehicle could be lower than steel wheeled vehicles, at least at high speeds. Although the energy needed to keep a hovercraft in motion also increased with speed and that implied that for travel above some critical speed, a hovercraft could be more efficient than a wheeled vehicle running on the same route. Better yet, this vehicle would also all of the positive qualities of a hovercraft. Small imperfections in the surface would have no effect on the quality. This could greatly reduce infrastructure capital costs, in 1960 several engineers at Christopher Cockerells Hovercraft Development Ltd. in Hythe, Kent began early studies on the hovertrain concept. At the time, a problem was selecting a suitable power source. As the hovercraft had no contact with a running surface, propulsion was normally provided by an aircraft-like solution. This limits both the acceleration as well as the efficiency of the system, a limitation for a design concept that would compete with aircraft on the same routes. Through the same period, Eric Laithwaite had been developing the linear induction motor at the University of Manchester, by 1961 he had built a small demonstration system consisting of a 20-foot-long LIM reaction plate and a four-wheeled cart with a seat on top. In 1962 he started consulting with British Rail on the idea of using LIMs for high-speed trains, after moving to Imperial College London in 1964, Laithwaite was able to devote more time to this work and perfect the first working examples of large LIMs suitable for transport systems. LIMs provide traction through the interaction of magnetic fields generated on the vehicle, the external conductor was normally made of plates of aluminium, chosen due to its high conductivity in relation to its price. The active portion of the consists of a conventional electric motor winding stretched out under the vehicle. When the motor windings are energised, a magnetic field is induced in the nearby reaction plate. By moving the fields down the windings, the motor pushes itself along the plate with the force that is normally used to create rotation in a conventional motor. A LIM eliminates the need for physical contact with the track. It has no moving parts, an advantage over conventional traction
27.
Tokyo
–
Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
28.
Bombardier Transportation
–
Bombardier Transportation is the rail equipment division of the Canadian firm Bombardier Inc. Bombardier Transportation is one of the worlds largest companies in the rail vehicle, the division is headquartered in Berlin, Germany, and has regional offices and major development facilities in Canada and the United States. Bombardier Transportation has many production and development facilities worldwide. Bombardier Transportation produces a range of products including passenger rail vehicles, locomotives, bogies, propulsion and controls. Laurent Troger is the president and chief operating officer of Bombardier Transportation, in January 2011, the company had 34,900 employees,25,400 of them in Europe, and 60 manufacturing locations around the world. Bombardier Transportations first order for mass transit rolling stock was in 1974 for the Société de transport de Montréal to build trains for the Montreal Metro. The core of the Transportation group was formed with the purchase of Montreal Locomotive Works in 1975, with that purchase, Bombardier acquired MLWs LRC tilting train design which it produced in the 1980s. The group also purchased Urban Transportation Development Corporation from the Government of Ontario, MLW was sold to General Electric in 1988. GE ended railcar operations in Canada in 1993, Bombardier Transportation continues to operate the railcar operations in Thunder Bay. In 1987, Bombardier bought the assets of US railcar manufacturers Budd, in 1990, Procor Engineering Ltd. of Horbury near Wakefield, UK, a manufacturer of bodyshells, was acquired, and renamed Bombardier Prorail. In 1991, the grouping Bombardier Eurorail was formed consisting of the companys European subsidiaries, BN, ANF-Industrie, Prorail, in 1992, the company acquired Mexicos largest railway rolling-stock manufacturer, Concarril, from the Mexican government. In 1995, Waggonfabrik Talbot KG in Aachen, Germany, and in 1998, Deutsche Waggonbau AG, DWA encompassed the major portion of the railway equipment industry of the former East Germany, and had its principal sites in Bautzen and Görlitz. In 2001, Bombardier Transportation acquired Adtranz from DaimlerChrysler, and became by many measurements the Western worlds largest rail-equipment manufacturer, the addition of ADtranz made Bombardier a manufacturer of locomotives along with its existing product lines of passenger carriages, multiple-unit trains, and trams. With the acquisition of ADtranz, Bombardier also gained competence in the propulsion components business. Other sites had their work reduced in scope, or were closed. In Sep 2014 the downsizing and eventual closure of the Maryborough factory was announced, in January 2015, the government of Hungary nationalised the loss-making and under-utilised Bombardier carriage works at Dunakeszi, acquiring a 64. 9% stake for $7.8 million. An IPO was planned for late 2015, the investment initially representing a 30% stake - a valuation of $5 billion. The sale was required in part to continue the financing of the parent companys C-Series jet, in Aug 2016 Bombardier opened a 6,000 square metres production facility in Isando, Johannesburg, South Africa
29.
Bombardier Innovia Metro
–
Innovia Metro is the current name given to an automated rapid transit system manufactured by Bombardier Transportation. A new version of the technology being marketed by Bombardier is compatible with standard electric rotary propulsion, the design was originally developed in the 1970s by the Urban Transportation Development Corporation, a Crown corporation owned by the government of Ontario, Canada. During development the system was known as the ICTS, sales of the ICTS were made for metro lines in Vancouver, Toronto and Detroit. Further sales were not forthcoming and the Ontario government lost interest in the company, Lavalin ran into serious financial difficulties and the UTDC returned to Ontario control, only to be immediately sold to Bombardier. Bombardier used the name Advanced Rapid Transit after its acquisition of the technology, the latest version of the technology is being marketed as the Innovia Metro, while previous models are retroactively branded as Innovia ART. The largest Innovia Metro system today is part of the Vancouver SkyTrain metro network and it operates just under 50 km of track compatible with Innovia Metro trains. Vancouver was the first to order INNOVIA Metro 300 vehicles, since then vehicle orders for the latest INNOVIA Metro technology has been made by transit authorities in Kuala Lumpur and Riyadh. During the 1950s, Toronto experienced the sort of urban sprawl that was sweeping through the United States. This caused enormous traffic problems within the city, and a network of new highways to address the problem became part of the Official Plan in 1959, activists such as Jane Jacobs successfully rallied local groups to oppose development of the Spadina Expressway project. The government reconsidered and cancelled the construction of the Spadina Expressway, instead of expressways, Davis and his new Minister of Transport, William Goodfellow, outlined the GO-Urban plan. GO-Urban called for a system of three advanced mass transit lines that would be run by the newly formed GO Transit. The idea was to select a system with low costs, one that would be cost effective in low-density areas where a traditional subway would be too expensive to build. Designed to have a design capacity half-way between buses and subways, the new system was referred to as the Intermediate Capacity Transit System or ICTS, the space age automated guideway transit systems being designed in the late 1960s seemed like the right solution. Toronto was not the city looking for such a solution. As GO-Urban was larger than most networks being considered, practically every company working on an AGT, or hoping to, the first cut reduced the field to a still-large fourteen proposals. After a year-long selection process, GO selected the Krauss-Maffei Transurban maglev as the preferred solution, as a maglev, the system would be silent, addressing concerns about noise on elevated portions of the track. Additionally, the linear induction motor did not require physical contact for traction. Krauss-Maffei agreed to do all vehicle construction in Ontario, and allow the local office to handle all efforts in North America - a stipulation most US companies were not willing to agree to
30.
Rapid transit
–
Rapid transit, also known as heavy rail, metro, subway, tube, or underground, is a type of high-capacity public transport generally found in urban areas. The stations typically have high platforms, without steps inside the trains and they are typically integrated with other public transport and often operated by the same public transport authorities. However, some transit systems have at-grade intersections between a rapid transit line and a road or between two rapid transit lines. It is unchallenged in its ability to transport large numbers of people quickly over short distances with little use of land, variations of rapid transit include people movers, small-scale light metro, and the commuter rail hybrid S-Bahn. The worlds first rapid-transit system was the partially underground Metropolitan Railway which opened as a railway in 1863. In 1868, New York opened the elevated West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway, china has the largest number of rapid transit systems in the world. The worlds longest single-operator rapid transit system by length is the Shanghai Metro. The worlds largest single rapid transit service provider by both length of revenue track (665 miles and number of stations is the New York City Subway. The busiest rapid transit systems in the world by annual ridership are the Tokyo subway system, the Seoul Metropolitan Subway, the Moscow Metro, the Beijing Subway, Metro is the most common term for underground rapid transit systems used by non-native English speakers. One of these terms may apply to a system, even if a large part of the network runs at ground level. In Scotland, however, the Glasgow Subway underground rapid transit system is known as the Subway, in the US, underground mass transit systems are primarily known as subways, whereas the term metro is a shortened reference to a metropolitan area. In that vein, Chicagos commuter rail system, serving the area, is called Metra. Exceptions in naming rapid transit systems are Washington DCs subway system the Washington Metro, Los Angeles Metro Rail, and the Miami Metrorail, the opening of Londons steam-hauled Metropolitan Railway in 1863 marked the beginning of rapid transit. Initial experiences with steam engines, despite ventilation, were unpleasant, experiments with pneumatic railways failed in their extended adoption by cities. Electric traction was more efficient, faster and cleaner than steam, in 1890 the City & South London Railway was the first electric-traction rapid transit railway, which was also fully underground. Both railways were merged into London Underground. The 1893 Liverpool Overhead Railway was designed to use electric traction from the outset, budapest in Hungary and Glasgow, Chicago and New York all converted or purpose-designed and built electric rail services. Advancements in technology have allowed new automated services, hybrid solutions have also evolved, such as tram-train and premetro, which incorporate some of the features of rapid transit systems
31.
Vancouver
–
Vancouver is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, the Greater Vancouver area had a population of 2,463,431 in 2016, making it the third largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre. With over 250,000 residents, Vancouver municipality is the fourth most densely populated city in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. In that census, Vancouver was one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada, Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the annual TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home, several matches of the 2015 FIFA Womens World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place Stadium. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west, Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B. I. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third largest port by tonnage in the Americas, 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the territories of the Squamish, Musqueam. They had villages in various parts of present-day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey, the city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his became the first known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present-day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey. The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, a sawmill established at Moodyville in 1863, began the citys long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the shore of the inlet. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed, the mills central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the economy until it closed in the 1920s. The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew up quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by Gassy Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property
32.
SkyTrain (Vancouver)
–
SkyTrain is the metropolitan rail system of Greater Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. SkyTrain has 79.5 km of track and uses automated trains on grade-separated tracks running on underground and elevated guideways. SkyTrain has the worlds longest cable-supported transit-only bridge, known as SkyBridge, the opening of the Evergreen Extension on December 2,2016, made SkyTrain the longest rapid transit system in Canada and the longest fully automated driverless system in the world. SkyTrain has 53 stations serving three lines, the Expo, Millennium, and Canada Lines, the Expo Line and Millennium Line are operated by British Columbia Rapid Transit Company under contract from TransLink, a regional government transportation agency. The Canada Line is operated on the principles by the private concessionaire ProTrans BC under contract to TransLink. SkyTrain uses a system shared with other local transit services. SkyTrain Attendants provide first aid, directions and customer service, inspect fares, monitor train faults, the Expo Line was built in 1985 in time for Expo 86. The Expo Line ran only as far as New Westminster Station initially, in 1989, it was extended to Columbia Station and in 1990, once the Skybridge was finished, it continued across the Fraser River to Scott Road Station in Surrey. In 1994, the terminus of the Expo line became King George Station in central Surrey and it was built on a budget of $854 million. During peak periods, every third Expo Line train provides service to Production Way–University, off-peak and it was built on a $1. 2-billion budget and the final extension from Commercial Drive Station to VCC–Clark Station was opened on January 6,2006. From October 22,2016 to December 1,2016, the Millennium Line operated from VCC–Clark to Lougheed Town Centre station, since December 2,2016, the Millennium Line has operated between VCC–Clark Station in Vancouver and Lafarge Lake–Douglas station in Coquitlam. The Millennium Line has 17 stations, three of which are transfer stations with the Expo Line and two which connect with the West Coast Express commuter train, the original Millennium Lines stations were designed by British Columbias top architects and are very different from those on the Expo Line. In 2004, Busby and Associates Architects, designers of the Brentwood Town Centre station in Burnaby, were honoured for their work with a Governor Generals Medal in Architecture and this extension adds 11 km and 6 new stations to the Millennium Line. The Canada Line begins at the Waterfront Station hub, then south to the City of Richmond. Opened on August 17,2009, the Canada Line added 15 stations and 19.2 km to the SkyTrain network, the Canada Line cost $1.9 billion, financed by the Governments of Canada and British Columbia, TransLink, and InTransitBC. Canada Line tracks do not interconnect with the older SkyTrain network, current operation, Former operation, SkyTrain provides high-frequency service, with trains arriving every 2–7 minutes at all stations during peak hours. Trains operate between 5,00 a. m. and 1,30 a. m. on weekdays, with reduced hours on weekends on Expo and Millennium lines. SkyTrain has longer hours of service during special events, such as New Years Eve, the Vancouver 2010 Olympics, TransLinks SkyTrain service area is divided into three zones, with fares varying depending on how many zone boundaries are crossed during one trip
33.
Launched roller coaster
–
The launched roller coaster is a modern form of roller coaster which has increased in use in the last decade. These are some of the fastest rides in the world, Launched coasters mainly feature improved speed, and capability to accommodate more thrilling layouts. These coasters, however, can be less reliable than traditional chain-lifted coasters, the first launched roller coaster was Montezumas Revenge at Knotts Berry Farm in Southern California. Electricity is transferred into a motor so that it controls the speed at which it will urge the car forward, LIMs are mainly used in Premier Rides roller coasters and Intamin impulse coasters. However, LIMs are also used for systems and the Tomorrowland Transit Authority in the Magic Kingdom for low acceleration. Hydraulic-launched roller coasters give the high acceleration, yet with improved smoothness, over the electromagnetic. The Swiss manufacturer Intamin pioneered this new style, the heart of the system is several powerful hydraulic pumps, each capable of producing around 500 horsepower. Hydraulic fluid is pumped into several different hydraulic accumulators containing two compartments separated by a piston, as the incompressible hydraulic fluid is pumped into one compartment a gas in the other compartment is compressed. The catch-car moves in a groove in the center of the track with the motor at one end. While the train inches forward, the pusher moves back from the motor towards the train, once the pusher connects, the anti-rollback braking system drops beneath the track, giving the train the green light to be launched. In the Kingda Ka roller coaster, the system as a whole can produce a power of up to 20,800 hp for each launch. These launches are considered capable of giving a far greater and smoother acceleration than the LIM/LSM styles, the first hydraulic launch coaster was Xcelerator reaching 82 mph in 2.3 seconds. The worlds current tallest and 2nd fastest coaster Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure, hydraulic launched rides usually have a tower after the launch, with differing layouts afterwards depending on the parks financial resources. Rita at Alton Towers does not have a tower, only airtime hills, stealth at Thorpe Park has a large tower that travels to the left over the top hat, and then slows on an airtime hill with magnetic brakes. Xcelerator at Knotts Berry Farm offers two overbanked turns after the tower, along with the height and speed, these coasters, named Rocket Coasters in the industry, are considered more comfortable because of a smoother launch than LIM-style launches. The cars imitate real motorcycles, and the sit in the same posture as real bikers. Hydraulic launch technology faces competition from S&S Power, a manufacturer in vertical amusement rides. Their coaster model, the Thrust Air 2000, was first built in Kings Dominion in Doswell, Virginia, USA, the coaster has been clocked to launch from the rest at station to 80 mph in 1.8 seconds
34.
Tram
–
A tram is a rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets, and also sometimes on a segregated right of way. The lines or networks operated by tramcars are called tramways, Tramways powered by electricity, the most common type historically, were once called electric street railways. However, trams were used in urban areas before the universal adoption of electrification. Tram lines may run between cities and/or towns, and/or partially grade-separated even in the cities. Very occasionally, trams also carry freight, Tram vehicles are usually lighter and shorter than conventional trains and rapid transit trains, but the size of trams is rapidly increasing. Some trams may also run on railway tracks, a tramway may be upgraded to a light rail or a rapid transit line. For all these reasons, the differences between the modes of rail transportation are often indistinct. In the United States, the tram has sometimes been used for rubber-tired trackless trains. Today, most trams use electrical power, usually fed by a pantograph, in some cases by a sliding shoe on a third rail. If necessary, they may have dual power systems — electricity in city streets, trams are now included in the wider term light rail, which also includes segregated systems. The English terms tram and tramway are derived from the Scots word tram, referring respectively to a type of truck used in coal mines and the tracks on which they ran. The word tram probably derived from Middle Flemish trame, a Romanesque word meaning the beam or shaft of a barrow or sledge, the identical word la trame with the meaning crossbeam is also used in the French language. The word Tram-car is attested from 1873, although the terms tram and tramway have been adopted by many languages, they are not used universally in English, North Americans prefer streetcar, trolley, or trolleycar. The term streetcar is first recorded in 1840, and originally referred to horsecars, when electrification came, Americans began to speak of trolleycars or later, trolleys. The troller design frequently fell off the wires, and was replaced by other more reliable devices. The terms trolley pole and trolley wheel both derive from the troller, Modern trams often have an overhead pantograph mechanical linkage to connect to power, abandoning the trolley pole altogether. Conventional diesel tourist buses decorated to look like streetcars are sometimes called trolleys in the US, the term may also apply to an aerial ropeway, e. g. the Roosevelt Island Tramway. Over time, the trolley has fallen into informal use
35.
AirTrain JFK
–
AirTrain JFK is a 3-line,8. 1-mile-long people mover system and elevated railway in New York City providing a 24/7 service to John F. Kennedy International Airport. It is operated by Bombardier Transportation under contract to the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the service operates all day, year-round. A railroad link to JFK Airport had been proposed since 1968 as part of the Program for Action, from the 1970s to the early 1990s, various plans surfaced to try to build such a link. In 1995, the current people-mover system started construction, the system opened on December 17,2003, with connections to the New York City Subway and Long Island Rail Road. The Program for Action contained a plan to extend the Long Island Rail Road to the airport and this plan would have been implemented under Phase 2 of expansion. It ran from 1978 through 1990, transporting passengers to Howard Beach via subway, for many years, shuttle buses were also used to transport passengers even between the different terminals of the airport, within JFKs Central Terminal Area. There had long been a desire for a connection to JFK Airport. However, efforts to build a system took time to bear fruit, the original line was to begin in Midtown Manhattan at the foot of the Queensboro Bridge and cross the East River via the side roads, formerly used by trolley cars, on the lower level. It would then use the Sunnyside Yards as a right-of-way towards LaGuardia Airport, from there, the AirTrain would connect to the LIRRs former Rockaway Beach Branch, head south to Howard Beach and then go onto JFK Airport. Another suggestion proposed bypassing the LIRR line and instead following the Grand Central Parkway and Van Wyck Expressway south towards Jamaica, the line between LaGuardia/JFK and Manhattan was canceled in May 1995, at which time the JFK Airport connection was proposed to be a 7. 5-mile monorail. Eventually, the Port Authority decided on a rail system, with the qualities of a people mover. The new set of extensions proposed by the RPA, dubbed MetroLink, consisted of 31 new metro stations,3 recycled commuter rail stations, ultimately, only the portions linking Jamaica and Howard Beach to JFK Airport were approved and built. The project, as a whole, also faced criticism from southeast Queens residents who feared the project could become a boondoggle, residents were also concerned about the noise that an elevated structure would create, which was a main factor in the cancellation of the LaGuardia Airport connection. The $1.9 billion AirTrain system was financed in part by a federal Passenger Facility Charge, the use of this funding required FAA approval. Several airlines challenged the use of the PFC funds for this project and they also appealed the funding decision in court along with a small number of Ozone Park residents. The airlines subsequently withdrew from the following negotiations with the Port Authority while the residents continued the legal battle. The Port Authority also contributed $100 million toward the renovation of the Jamaica LIRR station, the purpose of this renovation was, in part, to facilitate AirTrain connections. The state also spent $75 million to renovate the Howard Beach station and this would provide faster service to JFK via a one-seat ride and LIRR service to Lower Manhattan via a transfer at Jamaica
36.
Mining
–
Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
37.
Accessibility
–
Accessibility refers to the design of products, devices, services, or environments for people who experience disabilities. The concept of design and practice of accessible development ensures both direct access and indirect access meaning compatibility with a persons assistive technology. Accessibility can be viewed as the ability to access and benefit from some system or entity and this is about making things accessible to all people. Article 9 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities commits signatories to provide for full accessibility in their countries. Accessible facilities therefore extend to such as Braille signage, elevators, audio signals at pedestrian crossings, walkway contours, website design. Government mandates including Section 508, WCAG, DDA are all enforcing practices to standardize accessibility testing engineering in product development, existing private businesses are required to increase the accessibility of their facilities when making any other renovations in proportion to the cost of the other renovations. The United States Access Board is A Federal Agency Committed to Accessible Design for People with Disabilities, the Job Accommodation Network discusses accommodations for people with disabilities in the workplace. Many states in the US have their own disability laws, in Australia, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 has numerous provisions for accessibility. In South Africa the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 2000 has numerous provisions for accessibility, in the UK, the Equality Act 2010 has numerous provisions for accessibility. In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court, on 27 April 2011 gave an order to boost the inherent right of disabled persons to have unhindered access to public buildings. The Act refers to legislation regarding accessibility in e. g. ICT. In Canada, relevant federal legislation includes the Canadian Human Rights Act, the Employment Equity Act, legislation may also be enacted on a state, provincial or local level. In Ontario, Canada, the Ontarians with Disabilities Act of 2001 is meant to improve the identification, removal, the European Union, which has signed the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, also has adopted a European Disability Strategy for 2010-20. A European Accessibility Act was proposed in late 2012 and this Act would establish standards within member countries for accessible products, services, and public buildings. Assistive technology is the creation of a new device that assists a person in completing a task that would otherwise be impossible. Adaptive technology is the modification, or adaptation, of existing devices, methods, or the creation of new uses for existing devices, to enable a person to complete a task. Examples include the use of controls, and the autocomplete feature in computer word processing programs. Adaptations to wheelchair tires are another example, widening the tires enables wheelchair users to move over soft surfaces, such as snow on ski hills
38.
Alstom Citadis
–
The Citadis is a family of low-floor trams and light rail vehicles built by Alstom. An evolution of Alstoms earlier TFS vehicle, most Citadis trams are made in Alstoms factories in La Rochelle, Reichshoffen and Valenciennes, France, and in Barcelona, Spain, also, Gaziantep bought second-hand TFSs from Rouen. The Citadis family includes both partial and fully low-floor trams and LRVs, in versions with three, five, seven, and nine sections, own Russian name according unifying system of rolling stock classification, 71-801. This train type can be built as a dual-voltage or electro-diesel vehicle with various configurations.5 to 5 km, a total of 31 sets have been ordered by the SNCF at an average cost of €3.2 million per train set. Like most trams, Citadis vehicles are powered by overhead electric wires collected by a pantograph. On the networks in France and in Sydney, the switch to conventional overhead wires in outer areas. Another option is to use batteries to store electrical power. The Citadis trams in Nice operate off a set of nickel metallic hydride batteries in two open spaces where overhead wires would be an eyesore
39.
Eurotram
–
The Eurotram was an electric tramcar designed for the tram system of Compagnie de Transports Strasbourgeois. Eurotrams have been used on the Strasbourg tramway, the Azienda Trasporti Milanesi, the appearance was stylised by Belgian designer Philippe Neerman. The tram design was modular, consisting 2.575 metres cabs,7.550 metres passenger units, the initial Strasbourg vehicles used seven modules, two cabs, three passenger units and two articulation sections, for a train length of 33. Each wheel of a bogie was separately powered by bogie mounted three phase asynchronous motors, connected via a gearbox, with the wheel and motor axises of rotation parallel. The maximum capacity of the Strasbourg seven module trams was 285 with 66 seated, total installed traction power was 324 and 416 kilowatts } for the seven and nine module trams. After the acquisition of Adtranz by Bombardier the design was marketed as part of the Flexity Outlook family, the Eurotram design was planned to be used on the Nottingham tram system which was under development in 1998. Twenty-six 33. 1m Eurotrams were delivered to CTS for service on Strasbourgs line A between 1994 and 1995, CTS placed a second order in 1996 for twenty-seven units, nine of which were 7 module trains, and eighteen were 9 module trains. The Milan tram system acquired 20 units from Adtranz,72 units were built for the Porto tram network were constructed from 2004 at Bombardiers factory in Amadora Portugal. Over 150 units were built between 1994 and 2004, wansbeek, C. J. Strasbourg, Interurban tram strategy strengthens city system, Tramways and Urban Transit, archived from the original on 20 July 2011 Darter, Michael I. Hall, Kathleen Theresa, Applicability of low-floor light rail vehicles in North America, Transit Cooperative Research Program Report, National Research Council
40.
Technical drawing
–
Technical drawing, drafting or drawing, is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually communicate how something functions or is constructed. Technical drawing is essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering, to make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. Together, such conventions constitute a language and help to ensure that the drawing is unambiguous. Many of the symbols and principles of drawing are codified in an international standard called ISO128. The need for communication in the preparation of a functional document distinguishes technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the visual arts. Artistic drawings are subjectively interpreted, their meanings are multiply determined, Technical drawings are understood to have one intended meaning. A drafter, draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person who makes a drawing, a professional drafter who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting technician. Professional drafting is a desirable and necessary function in the design and manufacture of mechanical components. Professional draftspersons bridge the gap between engineers and manufacturers and contribute experience and technical expertise to the design process, the basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drawing board. A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, parallel lines can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen along the T-squares edge. The T-square is used to other devices such as set squares or triangles. Modern drafting tables come equipped with a machine that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel, in addition, the drafter uses several technical drawing tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, a spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves. Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task and this basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles and these machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well
41.
Switched reluctance motor
–
The switched reluctance motor is a type of a stepper motor, an electric motor that runs by reluctance torque. Unlike common DC motor types, power is delivered to windings in the rather than the rotor. With modern electronic devices, precisely timed switching is not a problem, and its main drawback is torque ripple. However, motor company Striatech developed controller technology that limits torque ripple with the high torque at low speeds shown in switched reluctance. An alternate use of the mechanical design is as a generator when driven mechanically. Such generators can be run at higher speeds than conventional types as the armature can be made as one piece of magnetisable material. In this case use of the abbreviation SRM is extended to mean Switched Reluctance Machine, although SRG, a topology that is both motor and generator is useful for starting the prime mover, as it saves a dedicated starter motor. The SRM has wound field coils as in a DC motor for the stator windings, the rotor however has no magnets or coils attached. It is a solid salient-pole rotor made of magnetic material. When power is applied to the windings, the rotors magnetic reluctance creates a force that attempts to align the rotor pole with the nearest stator pole. This absence of makes it possible to know the rotor position exactly. If the poles A0 and A1 are energised then the rotor will align itself with these poles, once this has occurred it is possible for the stator poles to be de-energised before the stator poles of B0 and B1 are energized. The rotor is now positioned at the stator poles b and this sequence continues through c before arriving back at the start. This sequence can also be reversed to achieve motion in the opposite direction, a much more stable system can be found by using the following quadrature sequence. First, stator poles like A0 and A1 are energized, then stator poles of B0 and B1 are energized which pulls the rotor so that it is aligned in between the stator poles of A and B. This sequence can also be reversed to achieve motion in the opposite direction, as at any time two coils are energised, and there are more steps between positions with identical magnetisation, so the onset of missed steps occurs at higher speeds or loads. In addition to stable operation, this approach leads to a duty cycle of each phase of 1/2. The control system is responsible for giving the required sequential pulses to the circuitry in order to activate the phases as required
42.
Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System
–
The main advantage is that this system allows for a more graded acceleration, inducing less stress on the aircrafts airframe. Other advantages include lower system weight, with a lower cost. The design includes the ability to launch aircraft that are heavier or lighter than the system can accommodate. In addition, the system requires far less water, reducing the need for energy-intensive desalination. Steam catapults were developed in the 1950s and have been exceptionally reliable, for over 50 years, at least one of the four catapults has been able to launch an aircraft 99. 5% of the time. However, there are a number of drawbacks, one group of Navy engineers wrote, The foremost deficiency is that the catapult operates without feedback control. With no feedback, there often occurs large transients in tow force that can damage or reduce the life of the airframe, the steam system is massive, inefficient, and hard to control. These control problems allow Nimitz-class steam-powered catapults to launch aircraft, but not aircraft as light as many UAVs. The EMALS is being developed by General Atomics for the U. S. Navys newest aircraft carriers, a somewhat similar system, Westinghouses electropult, had been developed in 1946 but not deployed. The EMALS uses an induction motor, which uses electric currents to generate magnetic fields that propel a carriage along a track to launch the aircraft. The EMALS consists of four elements, The linear induction motor consists of a row of stator coils that have the function of a conventional motor’s armature. When energized, the motor accelerates the carriage along the track, only the section of the coils surrounding the carriage is energized at any given time, thereby minimizing reactive losses. The EMALS 300-foot LIM will accelerate a 100, 000-pound aircraft to 130 kn, during a launch, the induction motor requires a large surge of electric power that exceeds what the ships own continuous power source can provide. Each rotor delivers up to 121 MJ from 6400 rpm and can be recharged within 45 seconds of a launch, a max launch using 121 MJ of energy from each disk alternator slows the rotors from 6400 rpm to 5205 rpm. During launch, the power conversion subsystem releases the energy from the disk alternators using a cycloconverter. The cycloconverter provides a controlled rising frequency and voltage to the LIM, operators control the power through a closed loop system. Hall effect sensors on the track monitor its operation, allowing the system to ensure that it provides the desired acceleration, the closed loop system allows the EMALS to maintain a constant tow force, which helps reduce launch stresses on the plane’s airframe. Aircraft Compatibility Testing Phase 1 concluded in late 2011 following 134 launches using the EMALS demonstrator installed at Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst, 1–2 June 2010, Successful launch of a T-45 Goshawk
43.
Elevator
–
An elevator or lift is a type of vertical transportation that moves people or goods between floors of a building, vessel, or other structure. Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, in agriculture and manufacturing, an elevator is any type of conveyor device used to lift materials in a continuous stream into bins or silos. Several types exist, such as the chain and bucket elevator, grain auger screw conveyor using the principle of Archimedes screw, or the chain, languages other than English may have loanwords based on either elevator or lift. Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a requirement in new multistory buildings. The earliest known reference to an elevator is in the works of the Roman architect Vitruvius, some sources from later historical periods mention elevators as cabs on a hemp rope powered by hand or by animals. In 1000, the Book of Secrets by al-Muradi in Islamic Spain described the use of a lifting device. In the 17th century the prototypes of elevators were located in the buildings of England. Louis XV of France had a flying chair built for one of his mistresses at the Chateau de Versailles in 1743. Ancient and medieval elevators used drive systems based on hoists or winders, the invention of a system based on the screw drive was perhaps the most important step in elevator technology since ancient times, leading to the creation of modern passenger elevators. The first screw drive elevator was built by Ivan Kulibin and installed in Winter Palace in 1793, several years later another of Kulibins elevators was installed in Arkhangelskoye near Moscow. The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of raw materials including coal, the technology developed by these industries and the introduction of steel beam construction worked together to provide the passenger and freight elevators in use today. Starting in the mines, by the mid-19th century elevators were operated with steam power and were used for moving goods in bulk in mines and factories. It elevated paying customers to a height in the center of London. Early, crude steam-driven elevators were refined in the decade, – in 1835 an innovative elevator called the Teagle was developed by the company Frost. The elevator was belt-driven and used a counterweight for extra power, the hydraulic crane was invented by Sir William Armstrong in 1846, primarily for use at the Tyneside docks for loading cargo. These quickly supplanted the steam driven elevators, exploiting Pascals law. A water pump supplied a variable level of pressure to a plunger encased inside a vertical cylinder. Counterweights and balances were used to increase the lifting power of the apparatus
44.
ThyssenKrupp
–
ThyssenKrupp AG /ˈtɪsɛn. krʊp/ is a German multinational conglomerate, based in Duisburg and Essen and divided into 670 subsidiaries worldwide. It is one of the worlds largest steel producers, it was ranked tenth-largest worldwide by revenue in 2015, the company is the result of the 1999 merger of Thyssen AG and Krupp, and now has its operational headquarters in Essen. In addition to production, ThyssenKrupps products range from machines and industrial services to high-speed trains. The subsidiary ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems manufactures frigates, corvettes and submarines for German, ThyssenKrupp has 5,500 employees and generates €1.6 billion in revenue in Spain, where it mainly manufactures elevators. Italy, where the company produces most of its stainless steel, the businesses in those two countries make up 9% of all sales for the company. Construction of the headquarters began in 2007. The first buildings were complete in 2010, the phase of building was completed in June 2015. Situated in the west of Essen, the campus was designed by Chaix & Morel et associeés. Their design was selected for construction in a design competition in 2006. ThyssenKrupp is the result of a merger of two German steel companies, Thyssen AG founded in 1891 under the name Gewerkschaft Deutscher Kaiser, as early as the 1980s, the companies began negotiations on a merger and began closely cooperating in some business areas. In 1997, the companies combined their flat steel activities, with a merger completed in March 1999. Krupp 1811, Friedrich Alfred Krupp establishes a cast steel factory in Essen,1826, After Friedrich Krupps death in 1826, his widow Therese Krupp runs the company together with other relatives and her eldest son Alfred, who was 14 years old at the time. 1833, Krupp manufactures complete rolling machines,1847, Expansion of the railroads increases demand for durable cast steel, triggering the company’s first surge of growth. Supplies include axles, springs and the tires that can withstand increasing speed without cracking. 1859, The Prussian military orders 300 gun barrels, marking development of the second major production segment. 1862, Construction of the first Bessemer steel plant on the continent for mass production of rails, 1864–1872, The company purchases various iron ore mines to avoid dependency on external suppliers. In 1873, Krupp establishes his own shipping company in Rotterdam to transport ore from the Spanish company Orconera Iron Ore Co. in which he owns shares,1872, Alfred Krupp issues a General Directive establishing company hierarchy from foreman to management. Thyssen 1867, Establishment of Thyssen, Fossoul & Co. a company making hoop iron for barrels, crates, baling etc
45.
Electric motor
–
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
46.
Direct current
–
Direct current is a flow of electrical charge carriers that always takes place in the same direction. The current need not always have the magnitude, but if it is to be defined as dc. This contrasts with alternating current which varies the direction of flow, sources of direct current include power supplies, electrochemical cells and batteries, and photovoltaic cells and panels. The intensity, or amplitude, of a direct current might fluctuate with time, in some such cases the dc has an ac component superimposed on it. An example of this is the output of a cell that receives a modulated light communications signal. A source of dc is sometimes called a dc generator, batteries and various other sources of dc produce a constant voltage. This is called pure dc and can be represented by a straight, the peak and effective values are the same. The peak to peak value is zero because the instantaneous amplitude never changes, in some instances the value of a dc voltage pulsates or oscillates rapidly with time, in a manner similar to the changes in an ac wave. The unfiltered output of a wave or a full wave rectifier. In 1820, Hans Christian Orsted discovered that electrical current creates a magnetic field and this discovery made scientists relate magnetism to the electric phenomena. In 1879, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. He improved a 50-year-old idea using lower current electricity, a vacuum inside the globe and a small carbonized filament. At that time, the idea of lightning was not new. Edison not only invented an incandescent electric light, but an electric lighting system contained all the necessary elements to make the incandescent light safe, economical. Prior to 1879, direct current electricity had been used in lighting for the outdoors and it was in the 1880s when the modern electric utility industry began. It was an evolution from street lighting systems and from gas and it was located in Lower Manhattan, on Pearl Street. This station provided light and electricity to customers in a one square mile range, the station was called Thomas Edisons Pearl Street Electricity Generating Station. This station introduced four elements of an electric utility system, Efficient distribution, competitive price, reliable central generation
