1.
National Museum of the United States Air Force
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The National Museum of the United States Air Force is the official museum of the United States Air Force located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,6 miles northeast of Dayton, Ohio. The NMUSAF has one of the worlds largest collections with more than 360 aircraft, the museum draws more than 1 million visitors each year, making it one of the most frequently visited tourist attractions in Ohio. The museum dates to 1923, when the Engineering Division at Daytons McCook Field first collected technical artifacts for preservation, in 1927, it moved to then-Wright Field in a laboratory building. In 1932, the collection was named the Army Aeronautical Museum, in 1948, the collection remained private as the Air Force Technical Museum. In 1954, the Air Force Museum became public and was housed in its first permanent facility, Building 89 of the former Patterson Field in Fairborn, many of its aircraft were parked outside and exposed to the weather. It remained there until 1971, when the current facility opened. Not including its annex on Wright Field proper, the museum has more than tripled in square footage since 1971, with the addition of a hangar in 1988, a third in 2003. The museum announced a new name for the facility in October 2004, the former name, United States Air Force Museum, changed to National Museum of the United States Air Force. The museum is a component of the National Aviation Heritage Area. The museums collection contains many rare aircraft of historical or technological importance, in 2010, the museum launched its 360-degree Virtual Tour, allowing most aircraft and exhibits to be viewed online. The museum has several Presidential aircraft, including those used by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower. The centerpiece of the aircraft collection is SAM26000, a modified Boeing 707 known as a VC-137C, used regularly by Presidents John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson. This aircraft took President and Mrs. Kennedy to Dallas on November 22, vice President Johnson was sworn in as president aboard it shortly after the assassination, and the aircraft then carried Kennedys body back to Washington. It became the presidential aircraft after Nixons first term. It was temporarily removed from display on December 5,2009, all presidential aircraft are now displayed in the Presidential Gallery, in the new fourth building. A large section of the museum is dedicated to pioneers of flight, especially the Wright Brothers, a replica of the Wrights 1909 Military Flyer is on display, as well as other Wright brothers artifacts. The building also hosts the National Aviation Hall of Fame, which includes educational exhibits. The museum has many pieces of U. S. Army Air Forces and U. S. Air Force clothing, at any time, more than 50 World War II-vintage A-2 leather flying jackets are on display, many of which belonged to famous figures in Air Force history
2.
Aerial reconnaissance
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Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance for a military or strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance aircraft. This role can fulfil a variety of requirements, including the collection of intelligence, observation of enemy maneuvers. The balloon found its first use in the 1794 conflict with Austria, moreover, the presence of the balloon had a demoralizing effect on the Austrian troops which improved the likelihood of victory for the French troops. After the invention of photography, primitive aerial photographs were made of the ground from manned and unmanned balloons, starting in the 1860s, an example was Arthur Batuts kite-borne camera photographs of Labruguière starting from 1889. In the early 20th century, Julius Neubronner experimented with pigeon photography, the pigeons carried small cameras with timers. Ludwig Rahrmann in 1891 patented a means of attaching a camera to a large calibre artillery projectile or rocket, Alfred Nobel in 1896 had already built the first rocket carrying a camera, which took photographs of the Swedish landscape during its flights. The first use of airplanes in combat missions was by the Italian Air Force during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912, on 23 October 1911, an Italian pilot, Capt. The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the First World War, as used for reconnaissance purposes were outfitted with cameras to record enemy movements. At the start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, frederick Charles Victor Laws started experiments in aerial photography in 1912 with No.1 Squadron RAF using the British dirigible Beta. The dirigibles were eventually allocated to the Royal Navy, so Laws formed the first aerial unit of fixed-wing aircraft. Germany was one of the first countries to adopt the use of a camera for aerial reconnaissance, opting for a Görz, French Military Aviation began the war with several squadrons of Bleriot observation planes, equipped with cameras for reconnaissance. The French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time, the camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. In 1916, the Austro-Hungarian Empire made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making. In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No.1 Squadron AFC to photograph a 624 square miles area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front and this was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography. Beginning 5 January, they flew with an escort to ward off enemy fighters. In 1928, the RAF developed a heating system for the aerial camera. This allowed reconnaissance aircraft to take pictures from very high altitudes without the camera parts freezing, although this seems obvious now, with modern reconnaissance tasks performed by fast, high flying aircraft, at the time it was radical thinking. They proposed the use of Spitfires with their armament and radios removed and replaced with extra fuel and this led to the development of the Spitfire PR variants
3.
Unmanned aerial vehicle
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An unmanned aerial vehicle, commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system, which include a UAV, a controller. The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy, either under control by a human operator, or fully or intermittently autonomously. Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs are often preferred for missions too dull, civilian drones now vastly outnumber military drones, with estimates of over a million sold by 2015. Multiple terms are used for unmanned vehicles, which generally refer to the same concept. The term drone, more used by the public, was coined in reference to the resemblance of navigation. The term has encountered opposition from aviation professionals and government regulators. This term emphasizes the importance of other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground stations, data links. A similar term is a vehicle system remotely piloted aerial vehicle. Many similar terms are in use, therefore, missiles are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a weapon that is not reused, though it is also unmanned and in some cases remotely guided. The relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear, UAVs may or may not include model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight, however, a radio-controlled aircraft becomes a drone with the addition of an autopilot artificial intelligence, and ceases to be a drone when an AI is removed. In 1849 Austria sent unmanned, bomb-filled balloons to attack Venice, UAV innovations started in the early 1900s and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. UAV development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time, the earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Lows Aerial Target in 1916. Nikola Tesla described a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles in 1915. Advances followed during and after World War I, including the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, the first scaled remote piloted vehicle was developed by film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny in 1935. More emerged during World War II – used both to train gunners and to fly attack missions
4.
Lockheed Corporation
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The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace company. Lockheed was founded in 1912 and later merged with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin in 1995, the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company was established in San Francisco in 1912 by the brothers Allan and Malcolm Loughead. Following the Model F-1, the company invested heavily in the design, however, the asking price of $2500 could not compete in a market that was saturated with post World War 1 $350 Curtiss JN-4s and De Haviland trainers. The Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company closed its doors in 1921, in 1926, Allan Loughead, Jack Northrop, and Kenneth Jay secured funding to form the Lockheed Aircraft Company in Hollywood. This new company utilized some of the technology originally developed for the Model S-1 to design the Vega Model. In March 1928, the relocated to Burbank, California. From 1926-28 the company produced over 80 aircraft and employed more than 300 workers who by April 1929 were building five aircraft per week, in July 1929, majority shareholder Fred Keeler sold 87% of the Lockheed Aircraft Company to Detroit Aircraft Corporation. In August 1929, Allan Lockheed resigned, the Great Depression ruined the aircraft market, and Detroit Aircraft went bankrupt. A group of headed by brothers Robert and Courtland Gross. The syndicate bought the company for a mere $40,000, ironically, Allan Lockheed himself had planned to bid for his own company, but had raised only $50,000, which he felt was too small a sum for a serious bid. In 1934, Robert E. Gross was named chairman of the new company, the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and his brother Courtlandt S. Gross was a co-founder and executive, succeeding Robert as Chairman following his death in 1961. The company was named the Lockheed Corporation in 1977, in the 1930s, Lockheed spent $139,400 to develop the Model 10 Electra, a small twin-engined transport. The company sold 40 in the first year of production, amelia Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, flew it in their failed attempt to circumnavigate the world in 1937. Subsequent designs, the Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior and the Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra expanded their market. The Lockheed Model 14 formed the basis for the Hudson bomber and its primary role was submarine hunting. The Model 14 Super Electra were sold abroad, and more than 100 were license-built in Japan for use by the Imperial Japanese Army, the P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day. It filled ground-attack, air-to-air, and even strategic bombing roles in all theaters of the war in which the United States operated, the Lockheed Vega factory was located next to Burbanks Union Airport which it had purchased in 1940. During the war, the area was camouflaged to fool enemy aerial reconnaissance
5.
Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
6.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
7.
Supersonic speed
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Supersonic travel is a rate of travel of an object that exceeds the speed of sound. For objects traveling in dry air of a temperature of 20 °C at sea level, speeds greater than five times the speed of sound are often referred to as hypersonic. Flights during which some parts of the air surrounding an object, such as the ends of rotor blades. This occurs typically somewhere between Mach 0.8 and Mach 1.23, sounds are traveling vibrations in the form of pressure waves in an elastic medium. In gases, sound travels longitudinally at different speeds, mostly depending on the mass and temperature of the gas. Since air temperature and composition varies significantly with altitude, Mach numbers for aircraft may change despite a constant travel speed, in water at room temperature supersonic speed can be considered as any speed greater than 1,440 m/s. In solids, sound waves can be polarized longitudinally or transversely and have higher velocities. Supersonic fracture is crack motion faster than the speed of sound in a brittle material, at the beginning of the 20th century, the term supersonic was used as an adjective to describe sound whose frequency is above the range of normal human hearing. The modern term for this meaning is ultrasonic, the tip of a bullwhip is thought to be the first man-made object to break the sound barrier, resulting in the telltale crack. The wave motion traveling through the bullwhip is what makes it capable of achieving supersonic speeds, most modern fighter aircraft are supersonic aircraft, but there have been supersonic passenger aircraft, namely Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144. Both these passenger aircraft and some modern fighters are also capable of supercruise, since Concordes final retirement flight on November 26,2003, there are no supersonic passenger aircraft left in service. Some large bombers, such as the Tupolev Tu-160 and Rockwell B-1 Lancer are also supersonic-capable, most modern firearm bullets are supersonic, with rifle projectiles often travelling at speeds approaching and in some cases well exceeding Mach 3. Most spacecraft, most notably the Space Shuttle are supersonic at least during portions of their reentry, during ascent, launch vehicles generally avoid going supersonic below 30 km to reduce air drag. Note that the speed of sound decreases somewhat with altitude, due to lower temperatures found there, at even higher altitudes the temperature starts increasing, with the corresponding increase in the speed of sound. When an inflated balloon is burst, the pieces of latex contracts at a supersonic speed. Supersonic aerodynamics is simpler than subsonic aerodynamics because the airsheets at different points along the plane often cant affect each other, Supersonic jets and rocket vehicles require several times greater thrust to push through the extra aerodynamic drag experienced within the transonic region. Designers use the Supersonic area rule and the Whitcomb area rule to minimize changes in size. However, in applications, a supersonic aircraft will have to operate stably in both subsonic and supersonic profiles, hence aerodynamic design is more complex
8.
Lockheed A-12
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The Lockheed A-12 was a reconnaissance aircraft built for the United States Central Intelligence Agency by Lockheeds Skunk Works, based on the designs of Clarence Kelly Johnson. The aircraft was designated A-12, the 12th in a series of internal design efforts for Archangel and it competed in the CIAs Oxcart program against the Convair Kingfish proposal in 1959, and won for a variety of reasons. CIAs representatives initially favored Convairs design for its smaller radar cross-section, the companies respective track records proved decisive. Convairs work on the B-58 had been plagued with delays and cost overruns, whereas Lockheed had produced the U-2 on time, in addition, it had experience running a “black” project. The A-12 was produced from 1962 to 1964, and operated from 1963 to 1968, the A-12s final mission was flown in May 1968, and the program and aircraft retired in June. The program was revealed in the mid-1990s. A CIA officer later wrote, OXCART was selected from a random list of codenames to designate this R&D, the aircraft itself came to be called that as well. The crews named the A-12 the Cygnus, suggested by pilot Jack Weeks to follow the Lockheed practice of naming aircraft after celestial bodies, under Project Gusto the designs were nicknamed Archangel, after the U-2 program, which had been known as Angel. As the aircraft designs evolved and configuration changes occurred, the internal Lockheed designation changed from Archangel-1 to Archangel-2 and these names for the evolving designs soon simply became known as A-1, A-2, etc. The CIA program to develop the aircraft to the U-2 was code-named Oxcart. These designs had reached the A-11 stage when the program was reviewed, the A-11 was competing against a Convair proposal called Kingfish, of roughly similar performance. However, the Kingfish included a number of features that reduced its radar cross-section. Lockheed responded with an update of the A-11, adding twin canted fins instead of a single right-angle one. On 26 January 1960, the CIA ordered 12 A-12 aircraft, because the A-12 was way ahead of its time, many new technologies had to be invented specifically for the Oxcart project, some still in use today. One of the biggest problems that engineers faced at that time was working with titanium, the Russians never had an inkling of how they were actually contributing to the creation of the airplane being rushed into construction to spy on their homeland. After development and production at the Skunk Works, in Burbank, California, on 25 April 1962 it was taken on its first flight with Lockheed test pilot Louis Schalk at the controls. The first official flight took place on 30 April and subsequent supersonic flight on 4 May 1962. The first five A-12s, in 1962, were flown with Pratt & Whitney J75 engines capable of 17,000 lbf thrust each
9.
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
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The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is an American long-range, subsonic, jet-powered strategic bomber. The B-52 was designed and built by Boeing, which has continued to provide support and it has been operated by the United States Air Force since the 1950s. The bomber is capable of carrying up to 70,000 pounds of weapons, the B-52 took its maiden flight in April 1952. Built to carry weapons for Cold War-era deterrence missions, the B-52 Stratofortress replaced the Convair B-36. A veteran of wars, the B-52 has dropped only conventional munitions in combat. The B-52s official name Stratofortress is rarely used, informally, the aircraft has become referred to as the BUFF. The B-52 has been in service with the USAF since 1955. As of December 2015,58 were in service with 18 in reserve. The B-52 completed sixty years of service with its original operator in 2015. After being upgraded between 2013 and 2015, it is expected to serve into the 2040s, the aircraft was to have a crew of five or more turret gunners, and a six-man relief crew. It was required to cruise at 300 mph at 34,000 feet with a radius of 5,000 miles. The armament was to consist of a number of 20 mm cannon and 10,000 pounds of bombs. On 13 February 1946, the Air Force issued bid invitations for these specifications, with Boeing, Consolidated Aircraft, and Glenn L. Martin Company submitting proposals. On 5 June 1946, Boeings Model 462, an aircraft powered by six Wright T35 turboprops with a gross weight of 360,000 pounds. On 28 June 1946, Boeing was issued a letter of contract for US$1.7 million to build a full-scale mock-up of the new XB-52 and do preliminary engineering and testing. However, by October 1946, the air began to express concern about the sheer size of the new aircraft. In response, Boeing produced Model 464, a smaller version with a 230,000 pound gross weight. Boeing responded with two powered by the T-35 turboprops
10.
Skunk Works
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Skunk Works is an official alias for Lockheed Martins Advanced Development Programs, formerly called Lockheed Advanced Development Projects. The name Skunk Works was taken from the factory in the comic strip Lil Abner. There are conflicting observations about the birth of Skunk Works, Ben Rich and Kelly Johnson set the origin as June 1943 in Burbank, California, they relate essentially the same chronology in their autobiographies. Theirs is the official Lockheed Skunk Works story, The Air Tactical Service Command of the Army Air Force met with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation to express its need for a jet fighter. A rapidly growing German jet threat gave Lockheed an opportunity to develop an airframe around the most powerful jet engine that the forces had access to. Lockheed was chosen to develop the jet because of its past interest in jet development, one month after the ATSC and Lockheed meeting, the young engineer Clarence L. “Kelly” Johnson and other associate engineers hand delivered the initial XP-80 proposal to the ATSC. Two days later the go-ahead was given to Lockheed to start development, the formal contract for the XP-80 did not arrive at Lockheed until October 16,1943, some four months after work had already begun. This would prove to be a practice within the Skunk Works. Many times a customer would come to the Skunk Works with a request and on a handshake the project would begin, no contracts in place, Kelly Johnson and his Skunk Works team designed and built the XP-80 in only 143 days, seven less than was required. Warren M. Kelsey to build for the United States Army Air Corps a high speed, Kelly Johnson set them apart from the rest of the factory in a walled-off section of one building, off limits to all but those involved directly. As a result, the XP-38 was the first 400 mph fighter in the world, when the Army Air Forces officially asked for a range extension solution it was ready. Some of the group of independent-minded engineers were involved with the XP-80 project. Mary G. Ross, the first Native American female engineer, was among the 40 founding engineers. In 1955, the Skunk Works received a contract from the CIA to build a spyplane known as the U-2 with the intention of flying over the Soviet Union and photographing sites of strategic interest. The U-2 was tested at Groom Lake in the Nevada desert, the first overflight took place on July 41956. The U-2 ceased overflights when Francis Gary Powers was shot down during a mission on May 1,1960, the Skunk Works had predicted that the U-2 would have a limited operational life over the Soviet Union. In late 1959, the Skunk Works received a contract to build five A-12 aircraft at a cost of $96 million, Building a Mach 3. 0+ aircraft out of titanium posed enormous difficulties, and the first flight did not occur until 1962. Several years later, the U. S. Air Force became interested in the design, and it ordered the SR-71 Blackbird and this aircraft first flew in 1966 and remained in service until 1998, and the Flight Test Engineer in charge was Joseph F. Ware, Jr
11.
Reconnaissance aircraft
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A reconnaissance aircraft is a manned or unmanned military aircraft designed, or adapted, to carry out aerial reconnaissance. Their roles are to collect intelligence, signals intelligence, and measurement. During the Napoleonic Wars and Franco-Prussian War, balloons were used for reconnaissance by the French. In World War I, aircraft were deployed during the phases in reconnaissance roles to aid ground forces. Aerial reconnaissance was carried out by versions of standard fighters and bombers equipped with cameras. Today, much of the role has passed over to satellites. This was proven by the use by Israel and by the Desert Storm operation by the United States. King Hawes, Lt Col, USAF Bonnier Corporation, army-Lockheed YO-3A Silent Airplane in Vietnam
12.
1960 U-2 incident
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Powers parachuted safely and was captured. The U-2 flew at altitudes that could not be reached by Soviet fighter jets of the era, a facility established in Badaber,10 miles from Peshawar, was a cover for a major communications intercept operation run by the United States National Security Agency. Badaber was an excellent location because of its proximity to Soviet central Asia and this enabled the monitoring of missile test sites, key infrastructure and communications. The U-2 spy-in-the-sky was allowed to use the Pakistan Air Force portion of Peshawar Airport to gain photo intelligence in an era before satellite observation. At a time like the Cold War, any act of aggression could spark open conflict between the two countries, with the United Kingdom still reeling from the aftermath of the Suez Crisis and in no position to snub American requests, the British government was amenable to the proposal. The final two missions before the summit were to be flown by American pilots, the U-2 left Soviet air space and landed at an Iranian airstrip at Zahedan. It was clear that the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency had successfully performed an extraordinary intelligence operation. The next flight of the U-2 spyplane from Peshawar airport was planned for late April, Lockheed U-2C spy plane, Article 358, was ferried from Incirlik Air Base in Turkey to the US base at Peshawar airport by pilot Glen Dunaway. Fuel for the aircraft had been ferried to Peshawar the previous day in a US Air Force C-124 transport, a US Air Force C-130 followed, carrying the ground crew, mission pilot Francis Gary Powers, and the back up pilot, Bob Ericson. On the morning of 29 April, the crew in Badaber was informed that the mission had been delayed one day, as a result, Bob Ericson flew Article 358 back to Incirlik and John Shinn ferried another U-2C, Article 360, from Incirlik to Peshawar. On 30 April, the mission was delayed one day further because of bad weather over the Soviet Union, at the time, the USSR had six ICBM launch pads, two at Baikonur and four at Plesetsk. Mayak, then named Chelyabinsk-65, an important industrial center of plutonium processing, was another of the targets that Powers was to photograph. A close study of Powerss account of the shows that one of the last targets he overflew. Because of the U-2s extreme operating altitude, Soviet attempts to intercept the plane using fighter aircraft failed. The U-2s course was out of range of several of the nearest SAM sites, the U-2 was eventually brought down near Kosulino, Ural Region, by the first of three SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles fired by a battery commanded by Mikhail Voronov. The SA-2 site had previously identified by the CIA, using photos taken during Vice President Richard Nixons visit to Sverdlovsk the previous summer. Powers bailed out but neglected to disconnect his oxygen hose first and struggled with it until it broke, Powers was captured soon after parachuting safely down onto Russian soil. Powers carried with him a silver dollar which contained a lethal, shellfish-derived saxitoxin-tipped needle
13.
Lockheed U-2
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It provides day and night, high-altitude, all-weather intelligence gathering. The U-2 has also used for electronic sensor research, satellite calibration. Early versions of the U-2 were involved in several events through the Cold War, being flown over the Soviet Union, China, Vietnam, in 1960, Gary Powers was shot down in a CIA U-2A over the Soviet Union by a surface-to-air missile. Another U-2, piloted by Major Rudolf Anderson, Jr. was lost in a fashion during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The U-2 is one of a handful of types to have served the USAF for over 50 years. The newest models entered service in the 1980s, the current model, the U-2S, received its most recent technical upgrade in 2012. They have taken part in post–Cold War conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, after World War II, the U. S. military desired better strategic aerial reconnaissance to help determine Soviet capabilities and intentions. Richard Leghorn of the USAF suggested that an aircraft that could fly at 60,000 feet should be safe from the MiG-17, the Soviet Unions best interceptor, which could barely reach 45,000 feet. He and others believed that Soviet radar, which used American equipment provided during the war, the highest-flying aircraft available to America and its allies at the time was the English Electric Canberra, which could reach 48,000 feet. Air Research and Development Command mandated design changes made the aircraft more durable for combat. The Soviet Union, unlike the United States and Britain, had improved radar technology after the war and it was thought that an aircraft that could fly at 70,000 feet would be beyond the reach of Soviet fighters, missiles, and radar. Another USAF officer, John Seaberg, wrote a request for proposal in 1953 for an aircraft that could reach 70,000 feet over a target with 1,500 nmi of operational radius. The USAF decided to solicit designs only from smaller companies that could give the project more attention. Under the code name Bald Eagle, it contracts to Bell Aircraft, Martin Aircraft. Officials at Lockheed Aircraft Corporation heard about the project and decided to submit an unsolicited proposal, to save weight and increase altitude, Lockheed executive John Carter suggested that the design eliminate landing gear and avoid attempting to meet combat load factors for the airframe. The company asked Clarence Kelly Johnson to come up such a design. Johnson was Lockheeds best aeronautical engineer, responsible for the P-38 and he was also known for completing projects ahead of schedule, working in a separate division of the company, informally called the Skunk Works. Johnsons design, named CL-282, was based on the Lockheed XF-104 with long, slender wings, the design was powered by the General Electric J73 engine and took off from a special cart and landed on its belly
14.
Francis Gary Powers
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Powers was born August 17,1929, in either Jenkins, Kentucky, or Burdine, Kentucky, the son of Oliver Winfield Powers, a coal miner, and his wife Ida Melinda Powers. His family eventually moved to Pound, Virginia, just across the state border and he was the second born and only male of six children. His family lived in a town, and because of the hardships associated with the life in such a town. He hoped his son would achieve the higher earnings of such a profession, graduating from Milligan College in Tennessee in June 1950, he enlisted in the Air Force in October. Powers was then assigned to the 468th Strategic Fighter Squadron at Turner Air Force Base, Georgia, in January 1956 he was recruited by the CIA. He married Barbara Gay Moore in April 1956, in May 1956 he began U-2 training at Watertown Strip, Nevada. His training was complete by August 1956 and his unit, the Second Weather Observational Squadron or Detachment 10-10, was deployed to Incirlik Air Base, by 1960, Powers was already a veteran of many covert aerial reconnaissance missions. Powers was discharged from the Air Force in 1956 with the rank of captain and he then joined the CIAs U-2 program at the civilian grade of GS-12. U-2 pilots flew espionage missions at altitudes above 70,000 feet, the U-2 was equipped with a state-of-the-art camera designed to take high-resolution photos from the edge of the stratosphere over hostile countries, including the Soviet Union. U-2 missions systematically photographed military installations and other important sites, the primary mission of the U-2s was overflying Russia. The border surveillance and atomic sampling, though vital, were secondary, additionally, the U-2 flew special missions. If there was a spot in the Middle East, the U-2s observed it. Beginning on September 27,1956 and continuing until 1960, the United States was spying not only on most of the countries in the Middle East and these included France, the United Kingdom, and Israel during the Suez Crisis. Soviet intelligence had been aware of encroaching U-2 flights at least since 1958 if not sooner, on May 1,1960, Powers U-2 departed from a military airbase in Peshawar, Pakistan, with support from the U. S. Air Station at Badaber. This was to be the first attempt to fly all the way across the Soviet Union. the planned route would take us deeper into Russia than we had ever gone, while traversing important targets never before photographed. Powers was shot down by an S-75 Dvina surface-to-air missile over Sverdlovsk, a total of fourteen were launched, one of which hit a MiG-19 jet fighter which was sent to intercept the U-2 but could not reach a high enough altitude. Its pilot, Sergei Safronov, ejected but died of his injuries, another Soviet aircraft, a newly manufactured Su-9 in transit flight, also attempted to intercept Powers U-2. The unarmed Su-9 was directed to ram the U-2 but missed because of the differences in speed
15.
Kelly Johnson (engineer)
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Clarence Leonard Kelly Johnson was an American aeronautical and systems engineer. He is recognized for his contributions to a series of important aircraft designs, most notably the Lockheed U-2, as a member and first team leader of the Lockheed Skunk Works, Johnson worked for more than four decades and is said to have been an organizing genius. Hall Hibbard, Johnsons Lockheed boss, referring to Johnsons Swedish ancestry once remarked to Ben Rich, Johnson also helped to design the Lockheed AQM-60 Kingfisher a decade before the famous SR-71. The Kingfisher was a successful single engine Mach 4.3 capable Ramjet composed mainly of steel. The information and experience Johnson gained was used to produce the A-12 spy plane for the Central Intelligence Agency. Johnson then used the knowledge of the Kingfisher and A-12 to produce the SR-71 Blackbird. Kelly Johnson was born in the mining town of Ishpeming. His parents were Swedish, from the city of Malmö, county of Scania, Kelly was ashamed of his familys poverty, and vowed to return one day in prominence. Johnson was 13 years old when he won a prize for his first aircraft design, while attending grade school in Michigan, he was ridiculed for his name, Clarence. Some boys started calling him Clara, one morning while waiting in line to get into a classroom, one boy started with the normal routine of calling him Clara. Johnson tripped him so hard the boy broke a leg, the boys then decided that he was not a Clara after all, and started calling him Kelly. The nickname came from the song at the time, Kelly With the Green Neck Tie. Henceforth he was known as Kelly Johnson. In 1937, Johnson married Althea Louise Young, who worked in Lockheeds accounting department, in May 1971, he married his secretary Maryellen Elberta Meade of New York, she died after a long illness on October 13,1980, aged 46. He married Meades friend Nancy Powers Horrigan in November 1980 and his autobiography, titled Kelly, More Than My Share of it All, was published in 1985. Johnson died at the age of 80 at St. Joseph Medical Center in Burbank after an illness that lasted for several years. He is buried at Forest Lawn Cemetery, Los Angeles, California, at the University of Michigan, Johnson conducted wind tunnel tests of Lockheeds proposed twin-engined Lockheed Model 10 Electra airliner. He found that the aircraft did not have directional stability
16.
Delta wing
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The delta wing is a wing shaped in the form of a triangle. It is named for its similarity in shape to the Greek uppercase letter delta, triangular stabilizing fins for rockets were described ca. 1529-1556 by Conrad Haas and in the 17th century by Kazimierz Siemienowicz, the lifting delta wing was pioneered by Alexander Lippisch in Germany after World War I, initially using a very gentle angle so that the wing appeared almost straight. He flew the first tailless aircraft in 1931, followed by four improved designs. None of these designs were easy to handle at low speed, during World War II Lippisch studied a more advanced tailless delta wing of greater angle intended for high-speed and even supersonic flight, for use in interceptor aircraft. One progressed as far as a glider prototype, the British later developed jet aircraft based on the data from Lippisch, notably the Avro Vulcan strategic bomber and the Gloster Javelin fighter. In America Robert T. Jones, working at NACA during World War II, first published in January 1945, this approach differed from Lippischs earlier work on thick delta wings by combining a delta planform with a thin airfoil. This design proved to be superior and would form the basis of all practical supersonic deltas such as those first made by Convair. The tailless delta became a design for high-speed aircraft, and was used almost to the exclusion of other designs by Convair and by Dassault Aviation. The F-102 Delta Dagger and Douglas F4D Skyray were two of the first operational jet fighters with a delta wing when they entered service in 1956. The tailed delta configuration was adopted by the TsAGI, to take advantage of both high angle-of-attack flying capability and high speeds. It was used in the MiG-21 and Sukhoi Su-9/Su-11/15 fighters, built by the tens of thousands in several different communist countries, through the 1960s Saab AB developed a close-coupled canard delta configuration, with a delta foreplane just in front of and above the main delta wing. Patented in 1963, it first flew on the Viggen fighter in 1967, the close coupling modifies the airflow over the wing, most notably when flying at high angles of attack. In contrast to the classic tail-mounted elevators, the canards add to the lift, enabling the execution of extreme maneuvers. This configuration has become common on supersonic fighter aircraft. When supersonic transport aircraft were developed, the tailless delta wing was chosen for both the Anglo-French Concorde and the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144, the Tupolev first flying in 1968. Pure delta wings suffer from some undesirable characteristics, notably flow separation at high angles of attack and this originally limited them primarily to high-speed, high-altitude interceptor roles. Since then the design has been modified in different ways to overcome some of these problems
17.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
18.
Radar cross-section
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Radar cross-section is a measure of how detectable an object is with a radar. A larger RCS indicates that an object is more easily detected, an object reflects a limited amount of radar energy back to the source. Radar cross-section is used to detect planes in a variation of ranges. For example, an aircraft will have design features that give it a low RCS. RCS is integral to the development of stealth technology, particularly in applications involving aircraft. RCS data for current military aircraft is most highly classified, in some cases, it is of interest to look at an area on the ground that includes many objects. Informally, the RCS of an object is the area of a perfectly reflecting sphere that would produce the same strength reflection as would the object in question. Somewhat less informally, the RCS of a target is an effective area that intercepts the transmitted radar power. This power density is intercepted by the target with radar cross-section σ, thus, the product P t G t 4 π r 2 σ has the dimensions of power, and represents a hypothetical total power intercepted by the radar target. The second 14 π r 2 term represents isotropic spreading of this power from the target back to the radar receiver. Thus, the product P t G t 4 π r 2 σ14 π r 2 represents the power density at the radar receiver. The receiver antenna then collects this power density with effective area A e f f, the scattering of incident radar power by a radar target is never isotropic, and the RCS is a hypothetical area. In this light, RCS can be viewed simply as a factor that makes the radar equation work out right for the experimentally observed ratio of P r / P t. However, RCS is an extremely valuable concept because it is a property of the target alone, thus, RCS allows the performance of a radar system with a given target to be analysed independent of the radar and engagement parameters. In general, RCS is a function of the orientation of the radar and target, or, for the bistatic. A targets RCS depends on its size, reflectivity of its surface, as a rule, the larger an object, the stronger its radar reflection and thus the greater its RCS. Also, radar of one band may not even detect certain size objects, for example,10 cm can detect rain drops but not clouds whose droplets are too small. Materials such as metal are strongly radar reflective and tend to produce strong signals, wood and cloth or plastic and fibreglass are less reflective or indeed transparent to radar making them suitable for radomes
19.
Ramjet
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A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a flying stovepipe or an athodyd, is a form of airbreathing jet engine that uses the engines forward motion to compress incoming air without an axial compressor. Because ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed, they move an aircraft from a standstill. A ramjet-powered vehicle, therefore, requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a speed where it begins to produce thrust, ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3. This type of engine can operate up to speeds of Mach 6, ramjets can be particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple mechanism for high-speed use, such as missiles. Weapon designers are looking to use technology in artillery shells to give added range. They have also used successfully, though not efficiently, as tip jets on the end of helicopter rotors. Ramjets differ from pulsejets, which use an intermittent combustion, ramjets employ a continuous combustion process, as speed increases, the efficiency of a ramjet starts to drop as the air temperature in the inlet increases due to compression. As the inlet temperature gets closer to the exhaust temperature, less energy can be extracted in the form of thrust, to produce a usable amount of thrust at yet higher speeds, the ramjet must be modified so that the incoming air is not compressed nearly as much. This means that the air flowing through the chamber is still moving very fast, in fact it will be supersonic—hence the name Supersonic Combustion Ramjet. LAutre Monde, ou les États et Empires de la Lune was the first of three novels written by Cyrano de Bergerac, that are considered among the first science fiction stories. Arthur C Clarke credited this book with inventing the ramjet, the ramjet was conceived in 1913 by French inventor René Lorin, who was granted a patent for his device. Attempts to build a prototype failed due to inadequate materials, fonó submitted his invention to the Austro-Hungarian Army, but the proposal was rejected. In an additional patent application, he adapted the engine for subsonic speed, the patent was finally granted in 1932 after four years of examination. In the Soviet Union, a theory of supersonic ramjet engines was presented in 1928 by Boris Stechkin, yuri Pobedonostsev, chief of GIRDs 3rd Brigade, carried out a great deal of research into ramjet engines. The first engine, the GIRD-04, was designed by I. A, Merkulov and tested in April 1933. To simulate supersonic flight, it was fed by air compressed to 20,000 kilopascals, the GIRD-08 phosphorus-fueled ramjet was tested by firing it from an artillery cannon. These shells may have been the first jet-powered projectiles to break the speed of sound, in 1939, Merkulov did further ramjet tests using a two-stage rocket, the R-3. In August of that year, he developed the first ramjet engine for use as a motor of an aircraft
20.
Marquardt Corporation
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Marquardt Corporation was one of the few aeronautical engineering firms that was dedicated almost solely to the development of the ramjet engine. Marquardt designs were developed through the 1940s into the 1960s, but the ramjet never became a major design and they suffered a particularly bad financial crisis with the ending of the Cold War, and went bankrupt in the 1990s. Roy Marquardt was an engineering graduate from Caltech who had worked at Northrop during World War II on the YB-35 flying-wing bomber project. While working on cooling the engines, which were buried in the wings. This started his interest in the principle, and in November 1944 he started Marquardt Aircraft in Venice, California to develop. In the late 1940s the company relocated to Van Nuys, California, marquardts first products were wind tunnels, but by the end of their first year they had delivered an experimental 20 inch ramjet to the United States Navy for testing. The United States Army Air Forces purchased two of the same early in 1946, and fitted them to the wingtips of a P-51 Mustang fighter for in-flight testing. By this time the Navy had fitted theirs to a F7F Tigercat, later Navy tests fitted the same engine to a XP-83 and F-82 Twin Mustang. In 1947 Martin built the Gorgon IV missile testbed, powered by the 20 engine. Four Gorgon flights with the new engines were made that year at Mach 0.85 at 10,000 feet altitude, and in 1948 a newer engine pushed the speeds to Mach 0.9. Martin eventually won a contract to convert the Gorgon design into a drone, becoming the KDM-1 Plover. An even larger 48 design was built as a booster for a new interceptor design, the same year the company also started conversion of the existing engine designs to operate at supersonic speeds. This requires the airflow to be slowed to subsonic speeds for combustion, starting with the existing 20 design from 1947, work progressed until the new engine was ready for use in 1949. By this point the company had outgrown its Venice plant, but was unable to fund a larger factory. Marquardt sold a controlling interest in the company to General Tire and Rubber Company in 1949, and used the funds to move to a new site in Van Nuys, the former Timm Aircraft factories. The purchase wasnt a one for General Tire due to management differences, after making only 25% return in one year. Eventually such an investor was found, and General Tire sold their stake to Laurance Rockefeller in 1950 for $250,000, in the early 1950s supersonic cruise missile and target drone projects for various roles were quite common. Many of them were designs to be shot down as target drones, or simply crash or explode at the end of their mission, so simplicity and this made the ramjet ideally suited to these roles
21.
Boeing
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The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
22.
CIM-10 Bomarc
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The Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc was a supersonic long-range surface-to-air missile used during the Cold War for the air defense of North America. In addition to being the first operational long-range SAM, it was the only SAM deployed by the US Air Force and this lofted trajectory allowed the missile to operate at a maximum range as great as 250 miles. Controlled from the ground for most of its flight, when it reached the area it was commanded to begin a dive. A radar proximity fuse detonated the warhead, either a conventional explosive or the W40 nuclear warhead. The Air Force originally planned for a total of 52 sites covering most of the major cities, the US Army was deploying their own systems at the same time, and the two services fought constantly both in political circles and in the press. As testing continued, the Air Force reduced its plans to sixteen sites, the first US site was declared operational in 1959, but with only a single working missile. Bringing the rest of the missiles into service years, by which time the system was totally obsolete. Deactivations began in 1969 and by 1972 all Bomarc sites had been shut down, a small number were used as target drones, and only a few remain on display today. In 1946, Boeing started to study surface-to-air guided missiles under the United States Army Air Forces project MX-606, by 1950, Boeing had launched more than 100 test rockets in various configurations, all under the designator XSAM-A-1 GAPA. Because these tests were promising, Boeing received a USAF contract in 1949 to develop a pilotless interceptor under project MX-1599. The MX-1599 missile was to be a ramjet-powered, nuclear-armed long-range surface-to-air missile to defend the Continental United States from high-flying bombers, the Michigan Aerospace Research Center was added to the project soon afterward, and this gave the new missile its name Bomarc. Test flights of XF-99 test vehicles began in September 1952 and continued through early 1955, the XF-99 tested only the liquid-fueled booster rocket, which would accelerate the missile to ramjet ignition speed. In February 1955, tests of the XF-99A propulsion test vehicles began and these included live ramjets, but still had no guidance system or warhead. The designation YF-99A had been reserved for the operational test vehicles, in August 1955, the USAF discontinued the use of aircraft-like type designators for missiles, and the XF-99A and YF-99A became XIM-99A and YIM-99A, respectively. Originally the USAF had allocated the designation IM-69, but this was changed to IM-99 in October 1955, in October 1957, the first YIM-99A production-representative prototype flew with full guidance, and succeeded to pass the target within destructive range. In late 1957, Boeing received the contract for the IM-99A Bomarc A interceptor missile, and in September 1959. The IM-99A had a radius of 200 miles and was designed to fly at Mach 2. 5–2.8 at a cruising altitude of 60,000 feet. It was 46.6 ft long and weighed 15,500 pounds and its armament was either a 1,000 pounds conventional warhead or a W40 nuclear warhead
23.
Surface-to-air missile
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A surface-to-air missile, or ground-to-air missile, is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles. It is one type of system, in modern armed forces, missiles have replaced most other forms of dedicated antiaircraft weapons. The first serious attempts at SAM development took place during World War II, further development in the 1940s and 1950s led to the first operational systems being introduced by most major forces during the second half of the 1950s. Smaller systems, suitable for work, evolved through the 1960s and 1970s. The American Nike Ajax was the first operational guided missile SAM system, widely used modern examples include the Patriot and S-300 wide-area systems, SM-6 naval missiles, and short-range man-portable systems like the Stinger and Strela-3. The first known idea for a guided missile was in 1925. A selenium cell was mounted on the tip of each of the rockets four tail fins, when one selenium cell was no longer in the light beam, it would be steered in the opposite direction back into the beam. During World War II, efforts were started to develop surface-to-air missiles as it was considered that flak was of little use against bombers of ever-increasing performance. The lethal radius of a shell is fairly small. Against the Boeing B-17, which operated just within the range of the numerous German eighty-eights flak guns, bombers flying at higher altitudes require larger guns and shells to reach them. This greatly increases the cost of the system, and slows the rate of fire, faster aircraft fly out of range more quickly, reducing the number of rounds fired against them. Against late-war designs like the Boeing B-29 Superfortress or jet-powered designs like the Arado Ar 234, the first serious consideration of a SAM development project was a series of conversations that took place in Germany during 1941. Von Braun became convinced a better solution was a manned rocket interceptor, the directors of the Luftwaffe flak arm were not interested in manned aircraft, and the resulting disagreements between the teams delayed serious consideration of a SAM for two years. None of these saw any real development until 1943, when the first large-scale raids by the Allied air forces started. As the urgency of the problem grew, new designs were added, including Enzian and Rheintochter, in general, these designs could be split into two groups. One set of designs would be boosted to altitude in front of the bombers and these designs included the Feuerlilie, Schmetterling and Enzian. The second group were high-speed missiles, typically supersonic, that flew directly towards their targets from below, both types used radio control for guidance, either by eye, or by comparing the returns of the missile and target on a single radar screen. Development of all systems was carried out at the same time
24.
Mockup
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In manufacturing and design, a mockup, or mock-up, is a scale or full-size model of a design or device, used for teaching, demonstration, design evaluation, promotion, and other purposes. A mockup is an if it provides at least part of the functionality of a system. Mock-ups are used by designers mainly to acquire feedback from users, mock-ups address the idea captured in a popular engineering one-liner, You can fix it now on the drafting board with an eraser or you can fix it later on the construction site with a sledge hammer. Mockups are used as design tools virtually everywhere a new product is designed, mockups are used in the automotive device industry as part of the product development process, where dimensions, overall impression, and shapes are tested in a wind tunnel experiment. They can also be used to test consumer reaction, mockups, wireframes and prototypes are not so cleanly distinguished in software and systems engineering, where mockups are a way of designing user interfaces on paper or in computer images. A software mockup will thus look like the thing. A software prototype, on the hand, will look. In many cases it is best to design or prototype the user interface before source code is written or hardware is built, to avoid having to go back, early layouts of a World Wide Web site or pages are often called mockups. A large selection of proprietary or open-source software tools are available for this purpose, mockups are an integral part of the military acquisition process. Mockups are often used to test human factors and aerodynamics, for example, in this context, mockups include wire-frame models. They can also be used for display and demonstration purposes prior to the development of a prototype. Mockups are used in the consumer goods industry as part of the development process, where dimensions, human factors, overall impression. Mockups are commonly required by designers, architects, and end users for custom furniture, the intention is often to produce a full-sized replica, using inexpensive materials in order to verify a design. Mockups are often used to determine the proportions of the piece, relating to various dimensions of the piece itself, the ability to see how the design of the piece relates to the rest of the space is also an important factor in determining size and design. When designing a piece of furniture, such as a desk or table. Designs that fail to consider these issues may not be practical to use, mockups can also be used to test color, finish, and design details which cannot be visualized from the initial drawings and sketches. Mockups used for this purpose can be on a reduced scale, the cost of making mockups is often more than repaid by the savings made by avoiding going into production with a design which needs improvement. Software UI mockups can range from very simple hand drawn screen layouts, through realistic bitmaps, mockups are often used to create unit tests - there they are usually called mock objects
25.
Wind tunnel
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A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to study the effects of air moving past solid objects. A wind tunnel consists of a passage with the object under test mounted in the middle. Air is made to move past the object by a fan system or other means. The test object, often called a wind tunnel model, is instrumented with sensors to measure aerodynamic forces, pressure distribution. The earliest wind tunnels were invented towards the end of the 19th century, in the days of aeronautic research. In that way an observer could study the flying object in action. The development of wind tunnels accompanied the development of the airplane, large wind tunnels were built during World War II. Wind tunnel testing was considered of importance during the Cold War development of supersonic aircraft. Determining such forces was required before building codes could specify the required strength of such buildings, in these studies, the interaction between the road and the vehicle plays a significant role, and this interaction must be taken into consideration when interpreting the test results. The advances in fluid dynamics modelling on high speed digital computers has reduced the demand for wind tunnel testing. However, CFD results are not completely reliable and wind tunnels are used to verify CFD predictions. Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways in wind tunnels, air velocity through the test section is determined by Bernoullis principle. Measurement of the pressure, the static pressure, and the temperature rise in the airflow. The direction of airflow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn attached to the aerodynamic surfaces, the direction of airflow approaching a surface can be visualized by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model. Smoke or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the upstream of the test model. Aerodynamic forces on the test model are usually measured with beam balances, connected to the test model with beams, strings, or cables. Pressure distributions can more conveniently be measured by the use of pressure-sensitive paint, the strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface with tape, and it sends signals depicting the pressure distribution along its surface. The aerodynamic properties of an object can not all remain the same for a scaled model, however, by observing certain similarity rules, a very satisfactory correspondence between the aerodynamic properties of a scaled model and a full-size object can be achieved
26.
Cruise missile
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A cruise missile is a guided missile used against terrestrial targets that remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight path at approximately constant speed. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a warhead over long distances with high precision. Modern cruise missiles are capable of travelling at supersonic or high speeds, are self-navigating. The idea of a torpedo was shown in the British 1909 film The Airship Destroyer. In 1916, Lawrence Sperry built and patented an aerial torpedo, a small biplane carrying a TNT charge, a Sperry autopilot, inspired by these experiments, the United States Army developed a similar flying bomb called the Kettering Bug. Germany had also flown trials with remote-controlled aerial gliders built by Siemens-Schuckert beginning in 1916, in the period between the World Wars the United Kingdom developed the Larynx, which underwent a few flight tests in the 1920s. In the Soviet Union, Sergei Korolev headed the GIRD-06 cruise missile project from 1932 to 1939, the 06/III and 06/IV contained gyroscopic guidance systems. The vehicle was designed to boost to 28 km altitude and glide a distance of 280 km, in 1944, Germany deployed the first operational cruise missiles in World War II. The V-1, often called a bomb, contained a gyroscope guidance system and was propelled by a simple pulsejet engine. Accuracy was sufficient only for use against very large targets, while the range of 250 km was significantly lower than that of a bomber carrying the same payload, the main advantages were speed and expendability. The production cost of a V-1 was only a fraction of that of a V-2 supersonic ballistic missile. Unlike the V-2, however, the deployments of the V-1 required stationary launch ramps which were susceptible to bombardment. Immediately after the war the United States Air Force had 21 different guided missile projects, all were cancelled by 1948, except four — the Air Materiel Command BANSHEE, the SM-62 Snark, the SM-64 Navaho, and the MGM-1 Matador. The BANSHEE design was similar to Operation Aphrodite, like Aphrodite, it failed, during the Cold War period both the United States and the Soviet Union experimented further with the concept, deploying early cruise missiles from land, submarines and aircraft. The main outcome of the United States Navy submarine missile project was the SSM-N-8 Regulus missile, the United States Air Forces first operational surface-to-surface missile was the winged, mobile, nuclear-capable MGM-1 Matador, also similar in concept to the V-1. Deployment overseas began in 1954, first to West Germany and later to the Republic of China and this alert was in response to the crisis posed by the Soviet attack on Hungary which suppressed the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Between 1957 and 1961 the United States followed an ambitious and well-funded program to develop a nuclear-powered cruise missile and it was designed to fly below the enemys radar at speeds above Mach 3 and carry a number of hydrogen bombs that it would drop along its path over enemy territory. Although the concept was sound and the 500 megawatt engine finished a successful test run in 1961
27.
Camera magazine
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A camera magazine is a light-tight chamber or pair of chambers designed to hold film and move motion picture film stock before and after it has been exposed in the camera. In most movie cameras, the magazine is a piece of equipment. Many still photo cameras also have removable camera magazines, a film cartridge serves the same function, but is usually not reusable. In 16 mm filmmaking, most magazines are designed to accommodate up to 400 feet of film stock, use of 1000 foot magazines on Steadicam tends to be rare due to the larger amount of shifting weight and the greater total weight of the camera. All magazines are composed of a feed or pay-out side, in which the film is held before exposure, furthermore, in between these two sides there are always two separate slots or throats where the film exits and then re-enters the magazine. These must also be designed to be enough to allow the film to exit the magazine without letting any light into the magazine itself. Various types of magazines handle the film in between the two sides differently, another major categorization is the type of design, is the magazine one chamber or two chambers. If the latter, are the two horizontal or axial to each other, cameras with the single chamber magazine design include all Panavision and Moviecam cameras, most 35 mm Arri cameras, and all older 16 mm Arri cameras. Some old cameras, such as the Mitchell, have two separate chambers horizontal to each other, which looks similar to a one chamber design. More popular today in two design, however, are two chamber axial magazines, where the feed and take-up rolls are stacked one atop the other. Cameras with this design in 16 mm include the Aaton and Arri SR models. Because of the length of motion picture film, the film usually is wound around a core, therefore, the loading of motion picture film must be done in a dark room or light-tight changing bag by the clapper loader. As the loader cannot see what he is doing, the loader must already be familiar with the prior to loading a hot roll. When learning, usually a loader will start by practicing with unusably fogged rolls in light, the advantage of using a two chambered roll becomes most apparent when loading. Since each chamber is light-tight, a loader only needs to load the feed side in darkness - once that chamber is secured, the remainder of the loading can take place in light. The small amount of film which is exposed on the side would not be used for exposure under any design. This can be an advantage when filming requires reloading that takes only seconds. Virtually all magazines are designed for the side to contain film stock wound with the emulsion facing inwards
28.
Inertial navigation system
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It is used on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Other terms used to refer to inertial navigation systems or closely related devices include inertial guidance system, inertial instrument, inertial measurement units, older INS systems generally used an inertial platform as their mounting point to the vehicle, and the terms are sometimes considered synonymous. Inertial measurement units typically contain three orthogonal rate-gyroscopes and three accelerometers, measuring angular velocity and linear acceleration respectively. By processing signals from these devices it is possible to track the position and orientation of a device, Inertial navigation is used in a wide range of applications including the navigation of aircraft, tactical and strategic missiles, spacecraft, submarines and ships. Recent advances in the construction of systems have made it possible to manufacture small. These advances have widened the range of applications to include areas such as human. An inertial navigation system includes at least a computer and a platform or module containing accelerometers, gyroscopes, the advantage of an INS is that it requires no external references in order to determine its position, orientation, or velocity once it has been initialized. An INS can detect a change in its position, a change in its velocity. It does this by measuring the acceleration and angular velocity applied to the system. Since it requires no external reference, it is immune to jamming, Inertial navigation systems are used in many different moving objects, including vehicles—such as aircraft, submarines, spacecraft—and guided missiles. However, their cost and complexity place constraints on the environments in which they are practical for use, Gyroscopes measure the angular velocity of the sensor frame with respect to the inertial reference frame. By using the orientation of the system in the inertial reference frame as the initial condition and integrating the angular velocity. This can be thought of as the ability of a passenger in a car to feel the car turn left and right or tilt up. Based on this alone, the passenger knows what direction the car is facing but not how fast or slow it is moving. Accelerometers measure the acceleration of the moving vehicle in the sensor or body frame. Performing integration on the inertial accelerations using the correct kinematic equations yields the inertial velocities of the system, therefore, the position must be periodically corrected by input from some other type of navigation system. The inaccuracy of a good-quality navigational system is less than 0.6 nautical miles per hour in position and on the order of tenths of a degree per hour in orientation. Accordingly, inertial navigation is used to supplement other navigation systems
29.
Intake
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An intake or inlet is an opening on a car or aircraft body capturing air for operation of an internal combustion engine. An ideal intake system should increase the velocity of the air until it travels into the chamber, while minimizing turbulence. However, in aircraft, particularly supersonic aircraft, the purpose of the intake is to slow, early automobile intake systems were simple air inlets connected directly to carburetors. The first air filter was implemented on the 1915 Packard Twin Six, the modern automobile air intake system has three main parts, an air filter, mass flow sensor, and throttle body. Some modern intake systems can be complex, and often include specially-designed intake manifolds to optimally distribute air. Many cars today now include a silencer to minimize the noise entering the cabin, silencers impede air flow and create turbulence which reduce total power, so performance enthusiasts often remove them. All the above is accomplished by flow testing on a flow bench in the port design stage. Cars with turbochargers or superchargers which provide pressurized air to the engine usually have highly refined intake systems to improve performance dramatically, production cars have specific-length air intakes to cause the air to vibrate and buffet at a specific frequency to assist air flow into the combustion chamber. These designs became more complex as aircraft speeds increased to Mach 3.0 and Mach 3.2, design points for the XB-70, the inlet is part of the fuselage or part of the nacelle. Cold air intake Warm air intake Short ram air intake Ram-air intake Intake ramp Inlet manifold
30.
Lockheed C-130 Hercules
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The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built originally by Lockheed. Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medevac and it is now the main tactical airlifter for many military forces worldwide. Over forty variants and versions of the Hercules, including a civilian one marketed as the Lockheed L-100, the C-130 entered service with the U. S. in the 1950s, followed by Australia and others. During its years of service, the Hercules family has participated in numerous military, the C-130 Hercules is the longest continuously produced military aircraft at over 60 years, with the updated Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules currently being produced. The new transport would have a capacity of 92 passengers,72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers in a compartment that was approximately 41 feet long,9 feet high. Unlike transports derived from passenger airliners, it was to be designed from the ground-up as a transport with loading from a hinged loading ramp at the rear of the fuselage. A key feature was the introduction of the Allison T56 turboprop powerplant, as was the case on helicopters of that era, such as the UH-1 Huey, turboshafts produced much more power for their weight than piston engines. Lockheed would subsequently use the engines and technology in the Lockheed L-188 Electra. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter also had a ramp, which made it possible to drive vehicles onto the plane. The ramp on the Hercules was also used to airdrop cargo, the new Lockheed cargo plane design possessed a range of 1,100 nmi, takeoff capability from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to fly with one engine shut down. Fairchild, North American, Martin, and Northrop declined to participate, the remaining five companies tendered a total of ten designs, Lockheed two, Boeing one, Chase three, Douglas three, and Airlifts Inc. one. The contest was an affair between the lighter of the two Lockheed proposals and a four-turboprop Douglas design. The Lockheed design team was led by Willis Hawkins, starting with a 130-page proposal for the Lockheed L-206, both Hibbard and Johnson signed the proposal and the company won the contract for the now-designated Model 82 on 2 July 1951. The first flight of the YC-130 prototype was made on 23 August 1954 from the Lockheed plant in Burbank, the aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the second prototype, but the first of the two to fly. The YC-130 was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61-minute flight to Edwards Air Force Base, Jack Real, kelly Johnson flew chase in a Lockheed P2V Neptune. After the two prototypes were completed, production began in Marietta, Georgia, where over 2,300 C-130s have been built through 2009. The initial production model, the C-130A, was powered by Allison T56-A-9 turboprops with three-blade propellers, deliveries began in December 1956, continuing until the introduction of the C-130B model in 1959. Some A-models were equipped with skis and re-designated C-130D, four-bladed Hamilton Standard propellers replaced the Aeroproducts three-blade propellers that distinguished the earlier A-models
31.
Honeywell
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The company operates three business units, known as Strategic Business Units – Honeywell Aerospace, Honeywell Automation and Control Solutions, and Honeywell Performance Materials and Technologies. Honeywell is a Fortune 100 company, in 2016, Honeywell ranked 75th in the Fortune 500. Honeywell has a workforce of approximately 130,000, of whom approximately 58,000 are employed in the United States. The company is headquartered in Morris Plains, New Jersey and its current chief executive officer is Darius Adamczyk. The company and its predecessors were part of the Dow Jones Industrial Average Index from December 7,1925 until February 9,2008. The companys current name, Honeywell International Inc. is the product of a merger in which Honeywell Inc. was acquired by the much larger AlliedSignal in 1999. The company headquarters were consolidated with AlliedSignals headquarters in Morristown, New Jersey, in 2015, the headquarters were moved to Morris Plains. Honeywell has many brands that commercial and retail consumers may recognize, including its line of home thermostats, the following year he founded the Butz Thermo-Electric Regulator Company. As the years passed, CTCC struggled with growing debts, in 1906, Mark Honeywell founded the Honeywell Heating Specialty Company in Wabash, Indiana to manufacture and market his invention, the mercury seal generator. As Honeywell’s company grew it began to clash with the renamed Minneapolis Heat Regulator Company and this led to the merging of the two companies into the publicly held Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company in 1927. Honeywell named its first president, W. R. Sweatt as its first chairman, W. R. Sweatt and his son Harold provided 75 years of uninterrupted leadership for the company. W. R. Sweatt survived rough spots and turned an innovative idea – thermostatic heating control – into a thriving business. Harold, who took over in 1934, led Honeywell through a period of growth, the merger into the Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company proved to be a saving grace for the corporation. This expansion into international markets continued in 1936, with their first distributorship in London, by 1937, ten years after the merger, Minneapolis-Honeywell had over 3,000 employees, with $16 million in annual revenue. Having survived the Depression, Minneapolis-Honeywell was approached by the US military for engineering and manufacturing projects, in 1941, Minneapolis-Honeywell developed a superior tank periscope and camera stabilizers, as well as the C-1 autopilot. The C-1 revolutionized precision bombing in the war effort, and was used on the two B-29 bombers that dropped atomic bombs on Japan in 1945, Honeywell also helped develop and manufacture the RUR-5 ASROC for the US Navy. Technologically, this effort had parallels to contemporary efforts in missile guidance, Honeywell also developed the Wagtail missile with the USAF. From the 1950s until the mid-1970s, Honeywell was the United States importer of Pentax cameras, through most of the 1960s, Honeywell was one of the Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs of computing
32.
Avionics
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Avionics are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites, and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of systems. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform. The term avionics is a portmanteau of the aviation and electronics. The term avionics was coined by the journalist Philip J. Klass as a portmanteau of aviation electronics, many modern avionics have their origins in World War II wartime developments. For example, autopilot systems that are today were started to help bomber planes fly steadily enough to hit precision targets from high altitudes. Famously, radar was developed in the UK, Germany, modern avionics is a substantial portion of military aircraft spending. Aircraft like the F‑15E and the now retired F‑14 have roughly 20 percent of their budget spent on avionics, most modern helicopters now have budget splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics. The civilian market has seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up development costs, the major change has been the recent boom in consumer flying. As more people begin to use planes as their method of transportation. The majority of power their avionics using 14- or 28‑volt DC electrical systems, however, larger. One source of international standards for equipment are prepared by the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee. Communications connect the deck to the ground and the flight deck to the passengers. On‑board communications are provided by systems and aircraft intercoms. The VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000 MHz to 136.975 MHz, each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33 kHz in Europe,25 kHz elsewhere. VHF is also used for line of communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft. Amplitude modulation is used, and the conversation is performed in simplex mode, aircraft communication can also take place using HF or satellite communication
33.
Vertical stabilizer
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It is analogous to a skeg on boats and ships. On aircraft, vertical stabilizers generally point upwards and these are also known as the vertical tail, and are part of an aircrafts empennage. If the vertical stabilizer was mounted on the underside, it would produce a positive feedback whenever the aircraft dove or banked, the trailing end of the stabilizer is typically movable, and called the rudder, this allows the aircraft pilot to control yaw. Often navigational radio or airband transceiver antennas are placed on or inside the vertical tail, in all known trijets, the vertical stabilizer houses the central engine or engine inlet duct. Vertical stabilizers, or fins, have also used in automobiles, specifically in top level motor sports. A few aircraft models have a fin under the rear end. Normally this is small, or can fold sideways, to allow landing, the vertical stabilizer is mounted exactly vertically, and the horizontal stabilizer is directly mounted to the empennage. This is the most common vertical stabilizer configuration, a T-tail has the horizontal stabilizer mounted at the top of the vertical stabilizer. It is commonly seen on aircraft, such as the Bombardier CRJ200, the Fokker 70, the Boeing 727, the Vickers VC10 and Douglas DC-9. T-tails are often incorporated on configurations with fuselage mounted engines to keep the horizontal stabilizer away from the engine exhaust plume, T-tail aircraft are more susceptible to pitch-up at high angles of attack. This pitch-up results from a reduction in the horizontal stabilizers lifting capability as it passes through the wake of the wing at moderate angles of attack and this can also result in a deep stall condition. T-tails present structural challenges since loads on the stabilizer must be transmitted through the vertical tail. The cruciform tail is arranged like a cross, the most common configuration having the horizontal stabilizer intersecting the vertical tail somewhere near the middle, the PBY Catalina uses this configuration. Falconjets from Dassault always have cruciform tail, rather than a single vertical stabilizer, a twin tail has two. These are vertically arranged, and intersect or are mounted to the ends of the horizontal stabilizer, the Beechcraft Model 18 and many modern military aircraft such as the American F-14, F-15, and F/A-18 use this configuration. A variation on the tail, it has three vertical stabilizers. An example of configuration is the Lockheed Constellation. On the Constellation it was done to give the maximum vertical stabilizer area while keeping the overall height low enough so that it could fit into maintenance hangars
34.
Aerodynamics
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Aerodynamics, from Greek ἀήρ aer + δυναμική, the study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, the term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that gas dynamics applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the sense in the eighteenth century. Most of the efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to flow, turbulence. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle, in 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows, the Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier-Stokes equations. The Navier-Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow, in 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond dAlembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, in 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift. Building on these developments as well as carried out in their own wind tunnel. During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Wilhelm Kutta, Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil, as aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near or greater than the speed of sound. The differences in air flows under such conditions leds to problems in control, increased drag due to shock waves. The ratio of the speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of supersonic flow. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds around Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly, by the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an line of high performance aircraft. Understanding the motion of air around an object enables the calculation of forces, in many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight, lift, drag, thrust, and weight
35.
Drag (physics)
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In fluid dynamics, drag is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two layers or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are independent of velocity. Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow, even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity. Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the object in the fluids path. In the case of viscous drag of fluid in a pipe, in physics of sports, the drag force is necessary to explain the performance of runners, particularly of sprinters. Types of drag are generally divided into the categories, parasitic drag, consisting of form drag, skin friction, interference drag, lift-induced drag. The phrase parasitic drag is used in aerodynamics, since for lifting wings drag it is in general small compared to lift. For flow around bluff bodies, form and interference drags often dominate, further, lift-induced drag is only relevant when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed either in aviation or in the design of semi-planing or planing hulls. Wave drag occurs either when an object is moving through a fluid at or near the speed of sound or when a solid object is moving along a fluid boundary. Drag depends on the properties of the fluid and on the size, shape, at low R e, C D is asymptotically proportional to R e −1, which means that the drag is linearly proportional to the speed. At high R e, C D is more or less constant, the graph to the right shows how C D varies with R e for the case of a sphere. As mentioned, the equation with a constant drag coefficient gives the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid at relatively large velocity. This is also called quadratic drag, the equation is attributed to Lord Rayleigh, who originally used L2 in place of A. Sometimes a body is a composite of different parts, each with a different reference areas, in the case of a wing the reference areas are the same and the drag force is in the same ratio to the lift force as the ratio of drag coefficient to lift coefficient. Therefore, the reference for a wing is often the area rather than the frontal area. For an object with a surface, and non-fixed separation points—like a sphere or circular cylinder—the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re. For an object with well-defined fixed separation points, like a disk with its plane normal to the flow direction
36.
Aerobatic maneuver
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Aerobatic maneuvers are flight paths putting aircraft in unusual attitudes, in air shows, dogfights or competition aerobatics. Aerobatics can be performed by an aircraft or in formation with several others. Nearly all aircraft are capable of performing aerobatics maneuvers of some kind, aerobatics consist of five basic maneuvers, Lines, loops, rolls, spins, and hammerheads. Most aerobatic figures are composites of these basic maneuvers with rolls superimposed, the pilot will be inverted at the top of the loop. A loop can also be performed by going inverted and making the same maneuver and it can be visualized as making a loop of ribbon, hence the name it is given. A roll is simply rotating the plane about its roll axis and it can be done in increments of 360 degrees. A spin is more complex, involving intentionally stalling a single wing, causing the plane to descend spiraling around its yaw axis in a corkscrew motion. A Hammerhead is performed by pulling the aircraft up until its pointing straight up and he then uses the rudder to rotate the aircraft around its yaw axis until it has turned 180deg and is pointing straight down, facing the direction he came from. The aircraft gains speed, and he continues back exactly the way he came and it is also known as a tailslide, from the yawing turn, which is different from the typical method of turning an aircraft in the pitch axis. Most of these can be entered either erect or inverted, flown backwards or have extra rolls added, where appropriate, the Aresti Catalog symbols have been included. Not all the figures are figures, and so some do not have diagrams to accompany the description. Reading the diagrams, a figure begins at the solid circle. Inverted flight is depicted by dashed red lines, the small arrow indicates a rolling maneuver. Dive, extreme nose down attitude, resulting in an increase in airspeed and descent rate. Lazy eight, 1/4 looping up, wingover, 1/2 looping down+up, wingover, 1/4 looping down Lomcovak, family of autorotational, in all varierties, the aircraft appears to tumble out of control. For example, one involves the aircraft tumbling nose over tail and wingtip over wingtip in a negative-g. Introduced by Czechoslovaks such as Ladislav Bezák, and others, pugachevs Cobra, the nose of the aircraft is pulled up suddenly. The aircraft pitches up to 90–120° angle of attack, barrel roll, a combination of a loop and a roll
37.
AGM-28 Hound Dog
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The North American Aviation AGM-28 Hound Dog was a supersonic, turbojet-propelled, air-launched cruise missile developed in 1959 for the United States Air Force. It was primarily designed to be capable of attacking Soviet ground-based air defense prior to a potential air attack by B-52 Stratofortress long range bombers during the Cold War. The Hound Dog was first given the designation B-77, then redesignated GAM-77 and it was conceived as a temporary standoff missile for the B-52, to be used until the GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile was available. During the 1950s the US became aware of developments regarding the Soviet Unions surface-to-air missiles, one solution to this problem is to extend the range of the bomb, either through glide bomb techniques, or more practically, by mounting them in a short-to-medium-range missile. The Air Forces solution to this problem was the introduction of stand-off missiles, if the American missile was to be used to attack enemy air bases as well, an extended range of several hundred kilometers would be needed. A missile with these capabilities was called for in General Operational Requirement 148, GOR148 called for a supersonic air-to-surface cruise missile with a weight of not more than 5,700 kilograms to be carried in pairs by the B-52 Stratofortress. Each B-52 would carry two of the missiles, one under each wing, on a pylon located between the B-52s fuselage and its pair of engines. Both Chance Vought and North American Aviation submitted GAM-77 proposals to the USAF in July 1957, voughts submission was for an air-launched version of the Regulus missile, developed for the US Navy, while North Americans was adapted from their Navaho missile. On August 21,1957, North American Aviation was awarded a contract to develop Weapon System 131B, today, more than 90 percent of our retaliatory capacity is made up of aircraft and missiles which have fixed, un-protectable bases whose location is known to the Russians. The Hound Dog missiles airframe was an adaptation of technology developed in the SM-64 Navaho missile, the Hound Dogs design was based on that of the Navaho G-38 missile, which featured small delta wings and forward canards. A Pratt & Whitney J52-P-3 turbojet propelled the Hound Dog, instead of Navahos ramjet engine, the J52 engine was located in a pod located beneath the rear fuselage, giving it an appearance similar to the Lockheed X-7 high-speed experimental drone. The J52-P-3 used in the Hound Dog, unlike J52s installed in aircraft like the A-4 Skyhawk or the A-6 Intruder, was optimized to run at maximum power during the missiles flight. As a result, the Hound Dogs version of the J52 had an operating lifetime of only six hours. However, in combat, the Hound Dog was expected to self-destruct in less than six hours, a derivative of the Navahos NAA Autonetics Division N-6 inertial navigation system, the N5G, was used in the Hound Dog. The INS could also be used to determine the position after the initial calibration and leveling process. The Hound Dog had a circular error probable of 3.5 kilometres, the thermonuclear warhead carried by the Hound Dog was the W28 Class D. The W28 warhead could be preset to yield an explosive power of between 70 kilotons and 1.45 megatons, detonation of the Hound Dogs W28 warhead could be programmed to occur on impact or air burst at a preset altitude. An air burst would have used against a large area
38.
Tail gunner
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A tail gunner or rear gunner is a crewman on a military aircraft who functions as a gunner defending against enemy fighter attacks from the rear, or tail, of the plane. The tail gunner operates a machine gun emplacement in the tail end of the aircraft with an unobstructed view toward the rear of the aircraft. The tail gun armament and arrangement varied between countries, typical armament was two 0.50 inch M2 Browning machine guns. This position was blocked by the fuselage but allowed better weight distribution, the tail gunners role was mainly as a lookout for attacking enemy fighters, particularly in British bombers operating at night. The British slang term for tail gunners was Tail-end Charlies, while in the Luftwaffe they were called Heckschwein, in the autumn of 1944, the British began deploying Lancasters fitted with the Automatic Gun-Laying Turret, which was fitted with a 3 GHz radar. The first aircraft to ever have incorporated a tail gunner position was the Sikorsky Ilya Muromets bomber, during World War I, the Ilya Muromets prototype flew for the first time in 1913, with no guns on board and no rear position for the crew. When the war broke out, in 1914, only a few Ilya Muromets copies were built and this is how, on March 1916, saw light of day the model S-25 of the Sikorsky Ilya Muromets bomber plane. This aircraft was the first in history to include on its ending tail area a gunner position, mass-production of Ilya Muromets bombers, all in all variants included, lasted in 1918 with a total of more than 80 copies. Those Ilya Muromets copies that served after the Russian Revolution, served with red star insignias in the Red Air Force. One of the first aircraft to operate a fully enclosed tail gun turret was the British Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, after a first flight in 1936, the British Whitleys were in service until the end of World War II. The tail gunner was mainly last used in combat during the Vietnam War, on 18 December 1972, during Operation Linebacker II, USAF B-52 Stratofortresses of the Strategic Air Command conducted a major bombing campaign against North Vietnam. As the bombers approached the target, SAMs exploded around the Stratofortresses, after completing its bombing run, callsign Brown III was warned of Vietnam Peoples Air Force MiGs. Brown IIIs tail gunner, SSGT Samuel O. Turner, shot down a MiG-21 interceptor, the aircraft took evasive action and dropped chaff and flares while the gunner fired around 800 rounds from 2,000 yards, causing the MiG-21 to fall, on fire. That incident was the last tail gunner to shoot down an aircraft with machine guns during wartime. The last combat usage of tail gunners by the United States was in 1991, during the war, a missile struck a B-52 by locking onto the tail gunners radar. It is disputed whether or not it was friendly fire by an F-4 Phantom or a missile fired from a MiG-29. On 1 October 1991, Master Sergeant Tom Lindsey became the last USAF tail gunner to serve on a B-52 sortie and this is a list of aircraft with tail gun positions. Avro Lancaster – heavy bomber, 4-gun Nash & Thompson tail turrets, some aircraft received Village Inn automatic radar aiming
39.
Electronic warfare
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Electronic warfare is any action involving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy to control the spectrum, attack of an enemy, or impede enemy assaults via the spectrum. The purpose of warfare is to deny the opponent the advantage of, and ensure friendly unimpeded access to. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems, Military operations are executed in an information environment increasingly complicated by the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum portion of the environment is referred to as the electromagnetic environment. Within the information operations construct, EW is an element of warfare, more specifically. NATO has a different and arguably more encompassing and comprehensive approach to EW, a Military Committee conceptual document from 2007 recognised the EME as an operational manoeuvre space and warfighting environment/domain. In NATO, EW is considered to be warfare in the EME, NATO has adopted simplified language which parallel those used in the other warfighting environments like maritime, land and air/space. For example, Electronic Attack is offensive use of EM energy, ED is electronic defence and ES electronic surveillance. The use of the traditional NATO EW measures has been retained as they contribute to and support EA, ED, besides EW, other EM operations include ISTAR and SIGINT. Subsequently NATO has issued EW Policy and Doctrine and is addressing the other NATO defence lines of development, Electronic warfare is any military action involving the use of the EM spectrum to include directed energy to control the EM spectrum or to attack an enemy. This is not limited to radio or radar frequencies but includes IR, visible, ultraviolet and this includes self-protection, standoff, and escort jamming, and antiradiation attacks. EW is a tool that enhances many air and space functions at multiple levels of conflict. The purpose of EW is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EM spectrum, EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems. EW is employed to support operations involving various levels of detection, denial, deception, disruption, degradation, protection. Expanding reliance on the EM spectrum increases both the potential and the challenges of EW in information operations, all of the core, supporting, and related information operations capabilities either directly use EW or indirectly benefit from EW. The principal EW activities have developed over time to exploit the opportunities and vulnerabilities that are inherent in the physics of EM energy. Electronic warfare includes three major subdivisions, electronic attack, electronic protection, and electronic warfare support, in the case of EM energy, this action is referred to as jamming and can be performed on communications systems or radar systems. Jamming is not part of EP, it is an EA measure, the use of flare rejection logic on an Infrared homing missile to counter an adversary’s use of flares is EP
40.
Telemetry
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Telemetry is an automated communications process by which measurements and other data are collected at remote or inaccessible points and transmitted to receiving equipment for monitoring. The word is derived from Greek roots, tele = remote, systems that need external instructions and data to operate require the counterpart of telemetry, telecommand. Many modern telemetry systems take advantage of the low cost and ubiquity of GSM networks by using SMS to receive, a telemeter is a device used to remotely measure any quantity. It consists of a sensor, a path, and a display, recording. Telemeters are the devices used in telemetry. Electronic devices are used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired. Other technologies are possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic. Telemetry may be commutated to allow the transmission of data streams in a fixed frame. Telemetering information over wire had its origins in the 19th century, One of the first data-transmission circuits was developed in 1845 between the Russian Tsars Winter Palace and army headquarters. In 1874, French engineers built a system of weather and snow-depth sensors on Mont Blanc that transmitted real-time information to Paris, in 1901 the American inventor C. Michalke patented the selsyn, a circuit for sending synchronized rotation information over a distance, in 1906 a set of seismic stations were built with telemetering to the Pulkovo Observatory in Russia. In 1912, Commonwealth Edison developed a system of telemetry to monitor electrical loads on its power grid, the Panama Canal used extensive telemetry systems to monitor locks and water levels. Wireless telemetry made early appearances in the radiosonde, developed concurrently in 1930 by Robert Bureau in France, mochanovs system modulated temperature and pressure measurements by converting them to wireless Morse code. In the US and the USSR, the Messina system was replaced with better systems. Early Soviet missile and space telemetry systems which were developed in the late 1940s used either pulse-position modulation or pulse-duration modulation, in the United States, early work employed similar systems, but were later replaced by pulse-code modulation. Later Soviet interplanetary probes used redundant radio systems, transmitting telemetry by PCM on a decimeter band, telemetry has been used by weather balloons for transmitting meteorological data since 1920. Telemetry is used to transmit drilling mechanics and formation evaluation information uphole, in real time and these services are known as Measurement while drilling and Logging while drilling. Information acquired thousands of feet below ground, while drilling, is sent through the hole to the surface sensors
41.
Solid-propellant rocket
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A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants. The earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder, they were used in warfare by the Chinese, Indians, Mongols and Persians, all rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are used today in model rockets and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability. Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for periods, and then reliably launch on short notice. Solids are, however, frequently used as boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as launch vehicles for low Earth orbit payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 500 kilograms. A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain, the grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a predictable fashion and producing exhaust gases. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can not only be throttled but also be extinguished, also, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments and that can be ignited upon command are available. Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel/oxidizer mass, grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics. The following are chosen or solved simultaneously, the results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and case geometries, The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber pressure. The chamber pressure is determined by the orifice diameter and grain burn rate. Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design, the length of burn time is determined by the grain web thickness. The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing, case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible. Common modes of failure in rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding. All of these produce an increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure. Another failure mode is casing seal failure, seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and this was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
42.
Electrostatic discharge
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Electrostatic discharge is the sudden flow of electricity between two electrically charged objects caused by contact, an electrical short, or dielectric breakdown. A buildup of static electricity can be caused by tribocharging or by electrostatic induction, the ESD occurs when differently-charged objects are brought close together or when the dielectric between them breaks down, often creating a visible spark. ESD can create electric sparks, but also less dramatic forms which may be neither seen nor heard. Electric sparks require a field strength above approximately 40 kV/cm in air, other forms of ESD include corona discharge from sharp electrodes and brush discharge from blunt electrodes. These can suffer permanent damage when subjected to high voltages, ESD simulators may be used to test electronic devices, for example with a human body model or a charged device model. One of the causes of ESD events is static electricity, static electricity is often generated through tribocharging, the separation of electric charges that occurs when two materials are brought into contact and then separated. In all these cases, the breaking of contact between two materials results in tribocharging, thus creating a difference of potential that can lead to an ESD event. Another cause of ESD damage is through electrostatic induction and this occurs when an electrically charged object is placed near a conductive object isolated from the ground. The presence of the object creates an electrostatic field that causes electrical charges on the surface of the other object to redistribute. Even though the net charge of the object has not changed. An ESD event may occur when the object comes into contact with a conductive path, ESD can also be caused by energetic charged particles impinging on an object. This causes increasing surface and deep charging and this is a known hazard for most spacecraft. The most spectacular form of ESD is the spark, which occurs when an electric field creates an ionized conductive channel in air. This can cause discomfort to people, severe damage to electronic equipment. However, many ESD events occur without a visible or audible spark, a person carrying a relatively small electric charge may not feel a discharge that is sufficient to damage sensitive electronic components. Some devices may be damaged by discharges as small as 30V and these invisible forms of ESD can cause outright device failures, or less obvious forms of degradation that may affect the long term reliability and performance of electronic devices. The degradation in some devices may not become evident until well into their service life, a spark is triggered when the electric field strength exceeds approximately 4–30 kV/cm — the dielectric field strength of air. Perhaps the best known example of a spark is lightning
43.
Lop Nur
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Administratively, the lake is in Lop Nur township of Ruoqiang County, which in its turn is part of the Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture. The lake system into which the Tarim River and Shule River empty is the last remnant of the historical post-glacial Tarim Lake, Lop Nur is hydrologically endorheic— it is landbound and there is no outlet. The lake measured 3,100 km2 in 1928, but has dried up due to construction of dams blocked the flow of water feeding into the lake system. The dried-up Lop Nur Basin is covered with a salt crust ranging from 30 cm to 1 m in thickness. Lop Nur has been used as a testing site. From around 1800 BC, until the 9th century the lake supported a thriving Tocharian culture, archaeologists have discovered the buried remains of settlements, as well as several of the Tarim mummies, along its ancient shoreline. Former water resources of the Tarim River and Lop Nur nurtured the kingdom of Loulan since the second century BC, an ancient civilization along the Silk Road, Loulan became a client-state of the Chinese empire in 55 BC, renamed Shanshan. Marco Polo in his travels passed through the Lop Desert, and it is also likely that Swedish soldier Johan Gustaf Renat had visited the area when he was helping the Zunghars to produce maps over the area in the eighteenth century. The lake was given names in ancient Chinese texts. In Shiji it was called Yan Ze, indicating its saline nature, in Hanshu it was called Puchang Hai and was given a dimension of 300 to 400 li in length and breadth, indicating it was once a lake of great size. These early texts also mentioned the belief, mistaken as it turns out and this shift of the terminal lake caused some confusion amongst the early explorers as to the exact location of Lop Nur. The change in the course of the river, which resulted in Lop Nur drying up, was suggested by Hedin as the reason why ancient settlements such as Loulan had perished. In 1921, due to intervention, the terminal lake shifted its position back to Lop Nur. The lake measured 2400 km2 in area in 1930-31, in 1934 Sven Hedin went down the new Kuruk Darya in a canoe. He found the delta to be a maze of channels and the new lake so shallow that it was difficult to even in a canoe. In 1900 he had walked the dry Kuruk Darya in a caravan, in 1952 the terminal lake then shifted to Taitema Lake when the Tarim River and Konque River were separated through human intervention, and Lop Nur dried out again by 1964. In 2000, in an effort to prevent further deterioration of the ecosystem, the Taitema Lake however had shifted 30 to 40 kilometres westwards during the past 40 years due in part to the spread of the desert. Another cause of the destabilization of the desert has been the cutting of poplars and willows for firewood, in response, the Kara-Koshun dried basin may be considered part of the greater Lop Nur
44.
Beale Air Force Base
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Beale Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located approximately 8 miles east of Marysville, California. The host unit at Beale is the 9th Reconnaissance Wing assigned to the Air Combat Command, the 9 RW collects intelligence essential for Presidential and Congressional decisions critical to the national defense. The wing also maintains a state of readiness in its combat support. The 940th Air Refueling Wing is a tenant Air Force Reserve Command wing at Beale AFB flying the KC-135 Stratotanker, Camp Beale became a United States Air Force installation on 1 April 1951 and was renamed Beale Air Force Base. Beale AFB is the home of the 9th Reconnaissance Wing, which serves as the host wing for the base. The installation is located outside of Linda, about 10 miles east of the towns of Marysville and Yuba City, Beale is a large base in terms of land and has five gates providing access on all sides of the base. Visitors enter the base through a gate that local merchants, individuals. The base is home for approximately 4,000 military personnel, Beale Air Force Base covers nearly 23,000 acres of rolling hills in northern California. The bases natural resources are as rich as its significant cultural and historical heritage, Native Americans lived on this land, the mortar bowls they carved into the bedrock lie embedded in a shallow stream. To preserve these and other areas, the base proudly maintains 38 Native American sites,45 homestead sites. The 9th Reconnaissance Wing is composed of four groups at Beale AFB, 9th Operations Group Consists of multiple squadrons and detachments. 9th Maintenance Group Consists of the 9th Maintenance Operations Squadron, the 9th Maintenance Squadron, the 9th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron, the group is responsible for a $5.8 million annual budget. The group is also the Air Forces single focal point for providing mass ammunition production training, 9th Mission Support Group Provides trained combat support forces to theater commanders- in-chief worldwide. 9th Medical Group Consists of three squadrons, 9th Medical Operations, 9th Medical Support and 9th Physiological Support Squadrons and they provide for the medical needs of Beale AFB beneficiaries and support Beales high-altitude flyers in the U-2 aircraft. The Beale Clinic is located at 15301 Warren Shingle Road on a hillside near base housing. The clinics primary mission is to support the operational readiness. They provide comprehensive care, physiological and environmental support and promote health education. This outpatient clinic consists of both the 9th Medical Operations and 9th Medical Support Squadrons that provide primary care services with aerospace medicine, no inpatient or emergency services are available and minimal specialty services exist
45.
Andersen Air Force Base
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Andersen Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located approximately 4 miles northeast of Yigo near Agafo Gumas in the United States territory of Guam. Along with Naval Base Guam, Andersen AFB was placed under the command of Joint Region Marianas on 1 October 2009, the two bases are about 30 miles away at opposite ends of the island. Administration offices for Joint Region Marianas are about half-way in between, at Nimitz Hill, the host unit at Andersen AFB is the 36th Wing, assigned to the Pacific Air Forces Thirteenth Air Force. A non-flying wing, the 36 WGs mission is to support to deployed air and space forces of USAF and foreign air forces to Andersen. Andersen AFB was established in 1944 as North Field and is named for Brigadier General James Roy Andersen, the 36th Wing Commander is Brig. Gen. Douglas A. Cox. The Vice Wing Commander is Colonel Scott Hurrelbrink and the Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Orlando Ureña, Andersen is one of four bomber forward operating locations in the US Air Force. These locations provide forward support to bomber crews deploying overseas in Europe, Southwest Asia, the Air Force is establishing forward-deployed bomber beddown support at key locations throughout the world and Andersen is one of two critical bases in the Asia-Pacific region. The other location is Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean, Guams almost unrestricted airspace and the close proximity of the Farallon de Medinilla Island, a naval bombing range 184 miles north, makes this an ideal training environment. General Andersen graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1926, served at various army installations, during 1943–1944 he served on the War Department General Staff. In January 1945, General Andersen was assigned to HQ AAF and he died on 26 February 1945 in the crash of a B-24 Liberator aircraft between Kwajalein and Johnston Island while en route to Hawaii. Andersen Air Force Bases origins begin on 7 December 1941 when Guam was attacked by the forces of Imperial Japan in the Battle of Guam three hours after the Attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States Navy surrendered Guam to the Japanese on 10 December, at the height of the war, approximately 19,000 Japanese soldiers and sailors were deployed to the island. Guam was liberated by the United States Marine Corps 3rd Amphibious Corps on 21 July 1944, in the Battle of Guam, the Japanese managed to contain the marines on two beachheads, but their counter-attack failed. The marines renewed their assault, and reached the tip of the island on 10 August 1944. Japanese guerrilla activities continued until the end of the war, Guam was considered as being ideal to establish air bases to launch B-29 Superfortress operations against the Japanese Home Islands. The Marianas Islands are about 1,500 miles from Tokyo, most important of all, it could be put on a direct supply line from the United States by ship. North Field, as Andersen AFB was first named, was the first air base built on Guam after its liberation, the first host unit at North Field was the 314th Bombardment Wing, XXI Bomber Command, Twentieth Air Force. The 314th arrived on Guam on 16 January 1945 from Peterson Field, the 314th controlled four operational B-29 bomb groups, the 19th, 29th, 39th, and 330th
46.
Guam
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Guam is an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, Guam is one of five American territories with a civilian government. The capital city is Hagåtña and the most populous city is Dededo, in 2015,161,785 people resided on Guam. Guamanians are American citizens by birth, Guam has an area of 210 sq mi and a population density of 770/sq mi. It is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands and the largest island in Micronesia, among its municipalities, Mongmong-Toto-Maite has the highest density at 3, 691/sq mi, whereas Inarajan and Umatac have the lowest density at 119/sq mi. The highest point is Mount Lamlam at 406 meters above sea level, the Chamorros, Guams indigenous people, settled the island approximately 4,000 years ago. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan was the first European to visit the island on March 6,1521, Guam was colonized in 1668 with settlers, like Diego Luis de San Vitores, a Catholic missionary. Between the 16th century and the 18th century, Guam was an important stopover for the Spanish Manila Galleons, during the Spanish–American War, the United States captured Guam on June 21,1898. Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded Guam to the United States on December 10,1898, Guam is among the seventeen Non-Self-Governing Territories of the United Nations. Before World War II, Guam and three other territories – American Samoa, Hawaii, and the Philippines – were the only American jurisdictions in the Pacific Ocean. On December 7,1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Guam was captured by the Japanese, during the occupation, Guamanians were subjected to beheadings, forced labor, rape, and torture. Guam endured hostilities when American forces recaptured the island on July 21,1944, since the 1960s, the economy is supported by two industries, tourism and the United States Armed Forces. The original inhabitants of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands are believed to be descendants of Austronesian people originating from Southeast Asia as early as 2000 BC and they evolved into the Chamorro people. The ancient-Chamorro society had four classes, chamorri, matua, achaot, the matua were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds, whereas the manachang were located in the interior of the island. Matua and manachang rarely communicated with other, and matua often used achaot as intermediaries. There were also makåhna, skilled in healing and medicine, belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called Taotao mona still persists as a remnant of pre-European culture. Their society was organized along matrilineal clans, Latte stones are stone pillars that are found only in the Mariana Islands, and, they are a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society. The latte-stone was used as a foundation on which thatched huts were built, Latte stones consist of a base shaped from limestone called the haligi and with a capstone, or tåsa, made either from a large brain coral or limestone, placed on top
47.
Mid-air retrieval
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Mid-air retrieval is a technique used in atmospheric reentry when the reentering vehicle is incapable of a satisfactory unassisted landing. The vehicle is slowed by means of parachutes, and then a specially-equipped aircraft matches the vehicles trajectory and this is a risky technique, and so is only used when other forms of landing are infeasible. These risks can be mitigated somewhat, for example, multiple recovery aircraft can be used, the need for human aviators to perform a manoeuvre which would normally be classed as a stunt may in the future be avoided by advances in unmanned aerial vehicles. The first successful use of mid-air recovery was on 19 August 1960. This was the first successful recovery of film from an orbiting satellite, notable uses of the technique, The early-1960s era Corona reconnaissance satellite returned delicate film capsules to Earth that required mid-air retrieval by a JC-130 Hercules & HC-130 airlifter. These aircraft were manned by a crew of 10 personnel, the crew consisted of two pilots, one flight engineer, two telemetry operators, one winch operator, and four riggers. The telemetry operators would acquire the location of the satellite and relay the info to the pilots, once visually acquired the pilots would head on course to the satellite descending towards the Pacific Ocean. One could visually acquire the satellite and its parachute at an altitude of approximately 50,000 ft, the winch operator and the riggers would deploy the retrieving apparatus called the Loop, which consisted of high quality nylon rope with a series of brass hooks spliced into the apparatus. The whole snatching operation by the pilots was done visually, the winch operator and the four riggers would deploy the loop. Once contact was made between the parachute and the loop the line would pay out and stop. The winch then was put into gear and the process commenced. The crews acquired these skills by practicing almost daily on practice missions, the weights were 200 lb. in the early 70s and later to the conical parachute system which weighed in at 1,100 lb. Its parachutes failed to deploy, leading to a high speed impact with the desert floor which shattered the delicate wafers holding the solar wind samples. An early design for SpaceShipOne called for a shape that would have made it incapable of landing independently. This was deemed too risky, and the design made the spacecraft capable of independent horizontal landing while cleverly retaining the desired aerodynamic qualities for the early part of reentry. During the Cold War, Lockheed HC-130 Hercules airlifters were used to recover instrument packages from unmanned spy balloons and reconnaissance drones. The United Launch Alliances proposed Vulcan rocket is intended to have the engines on its first stage recovered in midair by helicopter so that it can be reused for further launches. In DARPAs proposed Gremlin unmanned aerial vehicle program, the UAVs are to be launched from a carrier aircraft and recovered in midair after their mission by a modified C-130 transport
48.
Destroyer
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Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels with little endurance for unattended ocean operations, typically a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender operated together. After the war, the advent of the missile allowed destroyers to take on the surface combatant roles previously filled by battleships. This resulted in larger and more powerful guided missile destroyers more capable of independent operation, the emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy an enemy battle fleet using steam launches to launch torpedoes. Fast boats armed with torpedoes were built and called torpedo boats, the first seagoing vessel designed to fire the self-propelled Whitehead torpedo was the 33-ton HMS Lightning in 1876. She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons, these were replaced in 1879 by a torpedo tube in the bow. By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, in response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called catchers were built which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. The anti-torpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Czech, Greek, Dutch and, up until the Second World War, Polish. At that time, and even into World War I, the function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future, an important development came with the construction of HMS Swift in 1884, later redesignated TB81. This was a torpedo boat with four 47 mm quick-firing guns. At 23.75 knots, while still not fast enough to engage torpedo boats reliably. Another forerunner of the torpedo boat destroyer was the Japanese torpedo boat Kotaka, designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the London Yarrow shipyards in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. The 165-foot long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots, in her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying larger warships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the Kotaka, the first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was the torpedo gunboat. Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes, by the end of the 1890s torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the torpedo boat destroyers, which were much faster. The first example of this was HMS Rattlesnake, designed by Nathaniel Barnaby in 1885, the gunboat was armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats. Exactly 200 feet long and 23 feet in beam, she displaced 550 tons, built of steel, Rattlesnake was un-armoured with the exception of a 3⁄4-inch protective deck
49.
Yunnan
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Yunnan is a province of the Peoples Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country. It spans approximately 394,000 square kilometres and has a population of 45.7 million in 2009, the capital of the province is Kunming, formerly also known as Yunnan. The province borders Vietnam, Laos, and Burma, Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with high elevations in the northwest and low elevations in the southeast. Most of the lives in the eastern part of the province. In the west, the altitude can vary from the peaks to river valleys as much as 3,000 metres. Yunnan is rich in resources and has the largest diversity of plant life in China. Of the approximately 30,000 species of plants in China. Yunnans reserves of aluminium, lead, zinc and tin are the largest in China, the Han Empire first recorded diplomatic relations with the province at the end of the 2nd century BC. It became the seat of a Sino-Tibetan-speaking kingdom of Nanzhao in the 8th centuryAD, Nanzhao was multi-ethnic, but the elite most-likely spoke a northern dialect of Yi. The Mongols conquered the region in the 13th century, with local control exercised by warlords until the 1930s, as with other parts of Chinas southwest, Japanese occupation in the north during World War II forced another migration of majority Han people into the region. These two wave of migration contributed to Yunnan being one of the most ethnically diverse provinces of China, major ethnic groups include Yi, Bai, Hani, Zhuang, Dai and Miao. The Yuanmou Man, a Homo erectus fossil unearthed by railway engineers in the 1960s, has determined to be the oldest-known hominid fossil in China. By the Neolithic period, there were settlements in the area of Lake Dian. These people used tools and constructed simple wooden structures. Around the 3rd century BC, the area of Yunnan around present day Kunming was known as Dian. The Chu general Zhuang Qiao entered the region from the upper Yangtze River and he and his followers brought into Yunnan an influx of Chinese influence, the start of a long history of migration and cultural expansion. In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang unified China and extended his authority south, commanderies and counties were established in Yunnan. An existing road in Sichuan – the Five Foot Way – was extended south to present day Qujing
