1.
Carrier-based aircraft
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Carrier-based aircraft, sometimes known as carrier-capable aircraft or carrier-borne aircraft, are naval aircraft designed specifically for operations from aircraft carriers. The term is applied only to fixed-wing aircraft, as naval helicopters are able to operate from a wider variety of ships, including helicopter carriers. Carrier-based aircraft must be able to launch in a short distance, in addition, carrier aircraft commonly have mechanisms to fold the wings to allow more such aircraft to be carried on board. Seaplanes and seaplane tender support ships, such as HMS Engadine and this evolution was well underway by the early 1920s, resulting in ships such as HMS Argus, Hōshō, USS Langley, and the Béarn. With these developments, the need for specialized aircraft adapted for takeoffs, following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance. Modern carrier-based aircraft are built in three different versions to suit the needs of its various users. The following terms are those used currently by the U. S. Navy, CATOBAR is a system used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier. Under this technique, aircraft are launched using a catapult-assisted take-off, although this system is more costly than alternative methods, it provides greater flexibility in carrier operations, since it allows the aircraft to operate with higher payloads. Ships with CATOBAR currently include, the U. S. Nimitz class, with the F-18 series, Frances Charles De Gaulle with Rafales, the use of catapults allows an aircraft carrier to launch large fixed-wing aircraft. For example, the U. S. Navy launches its E-2 Hawkeye AEW aircraft, STOVL takeoffs are accomplished with ski-jumps, instead of a catapult. STOVL use usually allows aircraft to carry a larger payload as compared to during VTOL use, the best known example is the Hawker Siddeley Harrier Jump Jet, despite being capable of VTOL takeoffs, is usually operated as a STOVL aircraft to increase its fuel and weapons load. STOBAR is a used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier. Aircraft launch under their own using a ski-jump to assist take-off. These are conventional aircraft however and require arresting wires to land on the ship, the Russian Navy aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov operated the Su-33, in this manner. Others include the Indian Vikramaditya and the future Vikrant class aircraft carrier, prior to World War II, the weight of most aircraft allowed them to be launched from aircraft carriers under their own power, but required assistance in stopping. Catapults were installed but were used only when the ship was stationary or adequate wind over the deck could not be arranged by sailing into the wind, even aircraft as large as the North American B-25 Mitchell were launched in this manner. This was possible because the speed with even the lightest prevailing winds. Conventional aircraft, such as the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, Supermarine Spitfire and they would be loaded onto an aircraft carrier in port by cranes, flown off the carrier at sea near their destination under their own power, and land on a friendly airfield ashore
2.
Maritime patrol aircraft
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France, Italy and Austria-Hungary used large numbers of smaller patrol aircraft for the Mediterranean, Adriatic and other coastal areas while the Germans and British fought over the North Sea. A number of specialized patrol balloons were built, particularly by the British, the success of long range patrol aircraft led to the development of fighters specifically designed to intercept them, such as the Hansa-Brandenburg W.29. Blimps were widely used by the U. S. Navy, especially in the warmer and calmer latitudes of the Caribbean Sea, the Bahamas, Bermuda, the Gulf of Mexico, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and later the Azores. In the Pacific, the Catalina was gradually superseded by the longer-ranged Martin PBM Mariner flying boat, in the decades following World War II, the patrol duties were partially taken over by aircraft derived from civilian airliners. These had range and performance factors better than most of the wartime bombers, the latest jet-powered bombers of the 1950s did not have the endurance needed for long, overwater patrolling, and they did not have the low loitering speeds necessary for antisubmarine operations. The RAF also flew a derivative of the Avro Lancaster bomber – the Avro Shackleton –, and then replaced it with the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod. The Canadian version is called the CP-140 Aurora, in addition to their ASW and SAR capabilities, most P-3Cs have been modified to carry Harpoon missiles and Maverick s for attacking surface ships if the need ever arose. American P-3s were formerly armed with the Lulu nuclear depth charge for ASW, the Soviet Union developed the Ilyushin Il-38 from a civilian airliner, and the Royal Canadian Air Force did likewise, deriving the Canadair CP-107 Argus from a British airliner. Then, as mentioned above, those were replaced by the CP-140 Aurora, the French Navy developed the Breguet Atlantic following a Request for Proposal from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Some of these were produced for some other NATO members that were not flying the P-3 or the CP-140. Japan developed an aircraft as well, the Shin Meiwa PS-1 flying boat. The main threat to NATO maritime supremacy throughout the 1960s, 1970s, and these were countered by the NATO fleets, the NATO patrol planes mentioned above, and by sophisticated underwater listening systems. S. Navy and Canadian ones from Greenland, Iceland, and Newfoundland, British ones from Scotland and Northern Ireland, and Norwegian, Dutch, and German ones from their home countries. Since the end of the Cold War the threat of a submarine attack is a remote one. The earliest patrol aircraft carried bombs and machine guns, between the wars the British experimented with equipping their patrol aircraft with the COW37 mm gun. During World War II, depth charges that could be set to detonate at specific depths, equipping submarines with radar-warning devices and the snorkel made them harder to find. Then the small escort carriers of WW II became available to cover the oceans. Maritime patrol aircraft are fitted with a wide range of sensors
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Lockheed Corporation
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The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace company. Lockheed was founded in 1912 and later merged with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin in 1995, the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company was established in San Francisco in 1912 by the brothers Allan and Malcolm Loughead. Following the Model F-1, the company invested heavily in the design, however, the asking price of $2500 could not compete in a market that was saturated with post World War 1 $350 Curtiss JN-4s and De Haviland trainers. The Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company closed its doors in 1921, in 1926, Allan Loughead, Jack Northrop, and Kenneth Jay secured funding to form the Lockheed Aircraft Company in Hollywood. This new company utilized some of the technology originally developed for the Model S-1 to design the Vega Model. In March 1928, the relocated to Burbank, California. From 1926-28 the company produced over 80 aircraft and employed more than 300 workers who by April 1929 were building five aircraft per week, in July 1929, majority shareholder Fred Keeler sold 87% of the Lockheed Aircraft Company to Detroit Aircraft Corporation. In August 1929, Allan Lockheed resigned, the Great Depression ruined the aircraft market, and Detroit Aircraft went bankrupt. A group of headed by brothers Robert and Courtland Gross. The syndicate bought the company for a mere $40,000, ironically, Allan Lockheed himself had planned to bid for his own company, but had raised only $50,000, which he felt was too small a sum for a serious bid. In 1934, Robert E. Gross was named chairman of the new company, the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and his brother Courtlandt S. Gross was a co-founder and executive, succeeding Robert as Chairman following his death in 1961. The company was named the Lockheed Corporation in 1977, in the 1930s, Lockheed spent $139,400 to develop the Model 10 Electra, a small twin-engined transport. The company sold 40 in the first year of production, amelia Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, flew it in their failed attempt to circumnavigate the world in 1937. Subsequent designs, the Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior and the Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra expanded their market. The Lockheed Model 14 formed the basis for the Hudson bomber and its primary role was submarine hunting. The Model 14 Super Electra were sold abroad, and more than 100 were license-built in Japan for use by the Imperial Japanese Army, the P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day. It filled ground-attack, air-to-air, and even strategic bombing roles in all theaters of the war in which the United States operated, the Lockheed Vega factory was located next to Burbanks Union Airport which it had purchased in 1940. During the war, the area was camouflaged to fool enemy aerial reconnaissance
5.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
6.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
7.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
8.
Twinjet
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A twinjet or twin-engine jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. As of today, there are three most common configurations of twinjet aircraft, the first has a podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing, usually for standard narrow-body and wide-body airliners. The second has one engine mounted on each side of the fuselage, close to its empennage. The first twinjet ever to fly was the April 1941-debuted German fighter prototype Heinkel He 280, the twinjet configuration was originally suitable for the short-range narrow-body such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737. The MD-11s long range advantage was brief as it was nullified by the Airbus A330s four-engine derivative, the Airbus A340. The Boeing 737 twinjet stands out as the most produced jet airliner, the Boeing 777 is the worlds largest twinjet, and the 777-200LR variant is the worlds longest range airliner. Other Boeing twinjets include the 767,757 and 787, competitor Airbus produces the A320 family, the A330, and the A350. Some modern commercial airplanes still use four engines like the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8, four engines are still used on the largest cargo aircraft capable of transporting outsize cargo, including strategic airlifters. There are plans to revive production of 6 engine giants like the Antonov An-225 Mriya, twin jets tend to be more fuel-efficient than trijet and quad-jet aircraft. As fuel efficiency in airliners is a priority, many airlines are increasingly retiring trijet and quad-jet designs in favor of twinjets since the 2000s. The trijet designs were phased out first, in due to the more complicated design. One of the reasons for the jets is cost of the engines itself which make up a significant proportion of the planes final cost. Each engine also require service, paperwork, and certificates, so fewer engines means less to repair or replace and this is also the reason why private aviation generally consists of aircraft with only 1-2 engines. The stability and fewer errors of modern engines leads naturally to as few engines as possible, when flying far from diversionary airports, the aircraft must be able to reach an alternate on the remaining engine within a specified time in case of one engine failure. When aircraft are certified according to ETOPS standards, thrust is not an issue, mostly, ETOPS certification involves maintenance and design requirements ensuring that a failure of one engine cannot make the other one fail also. The engines and related systems need to be independent and independently maintained, ETOPS/LROPS is often incorrectly thought to apply only to long overwater flights, but it applies to any flight more than a specified distances from an available diversion airport. Overwater flights near diversion airports need not be ETOPS/LROPS-compliant, in other words, a fully laden twinjet must be able to climb on one engine. Since the 1990s, airlines have increasingly turned from four-engine or three-engine airliners to twin-engine airliners to operate Transatlantic flight, on a nonstop flight from America to Asia the long-range aircraft usually follows the great circle route
9.
Turbofan
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The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine, a turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, afterburners are not used on high-bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine, Jet noise is reduced with chevrons, sawtooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles, on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines used on the Boeing 787. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h, turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6. Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit, early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939-1941 Soviet designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the worlds first turbofan engine, although several prototypes were built and ready for testing, Lyulka was in 1941 forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German Daimler-Benz DB670 with a first run date of 27 May 1943, turbomachinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved, the British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to create the first British turbofan. The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, had a ratio of 0.3. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, the first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio and this was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust. The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, there were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a fan, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus
10.
Jet aircraft
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A jet aircraft is an aircraft propelled by jet engines. Jet aircraft generally cruise at faster than about M0.8 at altitudes around 10, Frank Whittle, an English inventor and RAF officer, developed the concept of the jet engine in 1928, and Hans von Ohain in Germany developed the concept independently in the early 1930s. He wrote in February 1936 to Ernst Heinkel, who led the construction of the worlds first turbojet aircraft, however, it can be argued that the English engineer A. A. Griffith, who published a paper in July 1926 on compressors and turbines, also deserves credit. After the first instance of powered flight, large number of jet powerplants were suggested, rené Lorin, Morize, Harris proposed systems for creating a jet efflux. Rocket-powered jet aircraft were pioneered in Germany, the first aircraft to fly under rocket power was the Lippisch Ente, in 1928. The Ente had previously flown as a glider. The next year, in 1929, the Opel RAK.1 became the first purpose-built rocket plane to fly, the turbojet, was invented in the 1930s, independently by Frank Whittle and later Hans von Ohain. The first turbojet aircraft to fly was the Heinkel He 178 V1 first prototype of the German Air Force, the first flight of a jet engined aircraft to come to popular attention was the Italian Caproni Campini N.1 motorjet prototype that flew on August 27,1940. It was the first jet aircraft recognised by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, Campini had proposed the motorjet in 1932. The British experimental Gloster E. 28/39 first took to the air on May 15,1941, the United States produced the Bell XP-59A using two examples of a version of the Whittle engine built by General Electric, which flew on October 1,1942. The Meteor was the first production jet as it entered production a few months before the Me 262, which itself had been in development since before the start of the war as Projekt 1065. The first operational jet fighter was the Messerschmitt Me 262, made by Germany during World War II and it was the fastest conventional aircraft of World War II – although there were faster aircraft propelled by unconventional means, such as the rocket-powered Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet. USSR tested its own Bereznyak-Isayev BI-1 in 1942, but the project was scrapped by Joseph Stalin in 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy also developed jet aircraft in 1945, including the Nakajima J9Y Kikka, a modified, and slightly smaller version of the Me 262 that had folding wings. By the end of 1945, the US had introduced their next jet fighter, the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star into service and the UK its second fighter design, the US introduced the North American B-45 Tornado, their first jet bomber, into service in 1948. Although capable of carrying nuclear weapons it was used for reconnaissance over Korea, the UK put the English Electric Canberra into service in 1951 as a light bomber. It was designed to fly higher and faster than any interceptor, BOAC operated the first commercial jet service, from London to Johannesburg, in 1952 with the de Havilland Comet jetliner. This highly innovative aircraft travelled far faster and higher than the aircraft, was much quieter, smoother
11.
Anti-submarine warfare
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Anti-submarine warfare is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface warships, aircraft, or other submarines to find, track and deter, damage or destroy enemy submarines. Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of sensor and weapon technology, training, sophisticated sonar equipment for first detecting, then classifying, locating and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW. To destroy submarines both the torpedo and mine are used, launched from air, surface and underwater platforms, other means of destruction have been used in the past but are now obsolete. ASW also involves protecting friendly ships, the first self-propelled torpedo was invented in 1863 and launched from surface craft. The first submarine with a torpedo was Nordenfelt I built in 1884-1885, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, the submarine was a significant threat. By the start of the First World War nearly 300 submarines were in service, some warships were fitted with an armoured belt as protection against torpedoes. There were, however, no means to detect submerged U-boats, the Royal Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps, these sank four or five U-boats in the First World War. A similar approach featured a string of 70 lb charges on a cable, fired electrically. Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb hand-thrown guncotton bombs, the Lance Bomb was developed, also, this featured a 35–40 lb cone-shaped steel drum on a 5 ft shaft, intended to be thrown at a submarine. Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench mortars, was tried, use of nets to ensnare U-boats was also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starfish, fitted with a spar torpedo. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. The best concept arose in a 1913 RN Torpedo School report, describing a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the mine was a potential hazard to the dropping ship. During the First World War, submarines were a major menace and they operated in the Baltic, North Sea, Black Sea and Mediterranean as well as the North Atlantic. Previously they had limited to relatively calm and protected waters. The vessels used to them were a range of small, fast surface ships using guns. They mainly relied on the fact a submarine of the day was often on the surface for a range of reasons, the first approach to protect warships was chainlink nets strung from the sides of battleships, as defense against torpedoes. Nets were also deployed across the mouth of a harbour or naval base to stop submarines entering or to stop torpedoes of the Whitehead type fired against ships, British warships were fitted with a ram with which to sink submarines, and U-15 was thus sunk in August 1914
12.
Aerial refueling
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The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time on station. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue, alternatively, a shorter take-off roll can be achieved because take-off can be at a lighter weight before refueling once airborne. Aerial refueling has also considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than 3,000 nautical miles. Potential fuel savings in the range of 35-40% have been estimated for long haul flights, usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the probe-and-drogue system is to be used. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity, for instance, in the Gulf War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the Iraq War, all coalition air sorties were air-refueled except for a few short-range ground attack sorties in the Kuwait area. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, as the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and this craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobhams specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the planes flight duration. Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U. S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with the Question Mark over Los Angeles. Aerial refueling remained a dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle. They exceeded the Hunters record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane, the US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for Popular Mechanics concerning the challenges. In his article he even mentioned the use of Aerial refueling after take off as a possible solution, by 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost. Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. In 1934, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service, atcherlys system was bought up by Cobhams company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late 30s, it became the first practical refueling system. Sir Alan Cobhams Grappled-line looped-hose air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was drawn back into the tanker where the receivers cable was connected to the refueling hose
13.
Electronic warfare
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Electronic warfare is any action involving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy to control the spectrum, attack of an enemy, or impede enemy assaults via the spectrum. The purpose of warfare is to deny the opponent the advantage of, and ensure friendly unimpeded access to. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems, Military operations are executed in an information environment increasingly complicated by the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum portion of the environment is referred to as the electromagnetic environment. Within the information operations construct, EW is an element of warfare, more specifically. NATO has a different and arguably more encompassing and comprehensive approach to EW, a Military Committee conceptual document from 2007 recognised the EME as an operational manoeuvre space and warfighting environment/domain. In NATO, EW is considered to be warfare in the EME, NATO has adopted simplified language which parallel those used in the other warfighting environments like maritime, land and air/space. For example, Electronic Attack is offensive use of EM energy, ED is electronic defence and ES electronic surveillance. The use of the traditional NATO EW measures has been retained as they contribute to and support EA, ED, besides EW, other EM operations include ISTAR and SIGINT. Subsequently NATO has issued EW Policy and Doctrine and is addressing the other NATO defence lines of development, Electronic warfare is any military action involving the use of the EM spectrum to include directed energy to control the EM spectrum or to attack an enemy. This is not limited to radio or radar frequencies but includes IR, visible, ultraviolet and this includes self-protection, standoff, and escort jamming, and antiradiation attacks. EW is a tool that enhances many air and space functions at multiple levels of conflict. The purpose of EW is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EM spectrum, EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems. EW is employed to support operations involving various levels of detection, denial, deception, disruption, degradation, protection. Expanding reliance on the EM spectrum increases both the potential and the challenges of EW in information operations, all of the core, supporting, and related information operations capabilities either directly use EW or indirectly benefit from EW. The principal EW activities have developed over time to exploit the opportunities and vulnerabilities that are inherent in the physics of EM energy. Electronic warfare includes three major subdivisions, electronic attack, electronic protection, and electronic warfare support, in the case of EM energy, this action is referred to as jamming and can be performed on communications systems or radar systems. Jamming is not part of EP, it is an EA measure, the use of flare rejection logic on an Infrared homing missile to counter an adversary’s use of flares is EP
14.
Carrier battle group
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A carrier battle group consists of an aircraft carrier and its large number of escorts, together defining the group. The first naval task forces built around carriers appeared just prior to, the Imperial Japanese Navy, IJN, was the first to assemble a large number of carriers into a single task force, known as Kido Butai. This task force was used with devastating effect in the Imperial Japanese Navys Attack on Pearl Harbor, Kido Butai operated as the IJNs main carrier battle group until four of its carriers were sunk at the Battle of Midway. In contrast, the United States Navy deployed its large carriers in separate formations and these single-carrier formations would often be paired or grouped together for certain assignments, most notably the Battle of the Coral Sea and Midway. By 1943, however, large numbers of fleet and light became available. These groups eventually formed the Fast Carrier Task Force, which became the primary unit of the U. S. With the construction of the large carriers of the Cold War era. Because the Soviet Union had no large carriers of its own, however, a primary mission of the Soviet Navys attack submarines was to track every allied battle group and, on the outbreak of hostilities, sink the carriers. Understanding this threat, the CVBG expended enormous resources in its own anti-submarine warfare mission, British and French carrier battle groups were involved in the 1956 Suez Crisis. During the Cold War, an important battle scenario was an attack against a CVBG using a number of antiship missiles. The first attempted use of missiles against a carrier battle group was part of Argentinas efforts against British Armed Forces during the Falklands War. This was the last conflict so far in which two belligerents employed aircraft carriers, although Argentina made little use of its carrier, originally built in the United Kingdom. During the Indo-Pakistan war of 1971 India used its carrier strike group centered on INS Vikrant to impose a naval blockade upon East Pakistan, air strikes were carried out initially on shipping in the Chittagong and Coxs Bazar harbours, sinking or incapacitating most ships there. Further strikes were carried out on Coxs Bazar from 60 nautical miles offshore, on the evening of 4 December, the air group struck Chittagong Harbour. Later strikes targeted Khulna and the Port of Mongla, air strikes continued until 10 December 1971. The United States Sixth Fleet assembled a force of three battle groups and a battleship during the Lebanese Civil War in 1983. Daily reconnaissance flights were flown over the Bekaa Valley and a strike was flown against targets in the resulting in loss of an A-6 Intruder. During the 1986 clashes, three battle groups deployed to the Gulf of Sidra and ultimately two of them conducted strikes against Libya in Operation El Dorado Canyon
15.
In-flight refueling
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The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time on station. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue, alternatively, a shorter take-off roll can be achieved because take-off can be at a lighter weight before refueling once airborne. Aerial refueling has also considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than 3,000 nautical miles. Potential fuel savings in the range of 35-40% have been estimated for long haul flights, usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the probe-and-drogue system is to be used. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity, for instance, in the Gulf War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the Iraq War, all coalition air sorties were air-refueled except for a few short-range ground attack sorties in the Kuwait area. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, as the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and this craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobhams specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the planes flight duration. Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U. S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with the Question Mark over Los Angeles. Aerial refueling remained a dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle. They exceeded the Hunters record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane, the US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for Popular Mechanics concerning the challenges. In his article he even mentioned the use of Aerial refueling after take off as a possible solution, by 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost. Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. In 1934, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service, atcherlys system was bought up by Cobhams company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late 30s, it became the first practical refueling system. Sir Alan Cobhams Grappled-line looped-hose air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was drawn back into the tanker where the receivers cable was connected to the refueling hose
16.
Vacuum cleaner
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The dirt is collected by either a dustbag or a cyclone for later disposal. Specialized shop vacuums can be used to suck up both dust and liquids, although vacuum cleaner and the short form vacuum are neutral names, in some countries hoover is used instead as a genericized trademark, and as a verb. The name comes from the Hoover Company, one of the first, the device is also sometimes called a sweeper although the same term also refers to a carpet sweeper, a similar invention. The vacuum cleaner evolved from the carpet sweeper via manual vacuum cleaners, the first manual models, using bellows, were developed in the 1860s, and the first motorized designs appeared at the turn of the 20th century, with the first decade being the boom decade. In 1860 a carpet sweeper was invented by Daniel Hess of West Union, Iowa that gathered dust with a rotating brush, another early model was the Whirlwind, invented in Chicago in 1868 by Ives W. McGaffey. The bulky device worked with a belt driven fan cranked by hand that made it awkward to operate, a similar model was constructed by Melville R. Bissell of Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1876. The company later added portable vacuum cleaners to its line of cleaning tools, the end of the 19th century saw the introduction of powered cleaners, although early types used some variation of blowing air to clean instead of suction. One appeared in 1898 when John S. Thurman of St. Louis, thurmans system, powered by an internal combustion engine, traveled to the customers residence on a horse-drawn wagon as part of a door to door cleaning service. Corrine Dufour of Savannah, Georgia received two patents in 1899 and 1900 for another blown air system that seems to have featured the first use of an electric motor. In 1901 powered vacuum cleaners using suction were invented independently by British engineer Hubert Cecil Booth, Booth also may have coined the word vacuum cleaner. Kenneys was a stationary 4,000 lb. steam engine powered system with pipes and hoses reaching into all parts of the building. The first vacuum-cleaning device to be portable and marketed at the market was built in 1905 by Walter Griffiths. In 1906 James B. Kirby developed his first of many vacuums called the Domestic Cyclone It used water for dirt separation. In 1907 department store janitor James Murray Spangler of Canton, Ohio invented the first portable vacuum cleaner. Crucially, in addition to suction from a fan that blew the dirt and dust into a soap box and one of his wifes pillow cases. Their first vacuum was the 1908 Model O, which sold for $60, subsequent innovations included the beater bar in 1919, disposal filter bags in the 1920s, and an upright vacuum cleaner in 1926. In Continental Europe, the Fisker and Nielsen company in Denmark was the first to sell vacuum cleaners in 1910, the design weighed just 17.5 kg and could be operated by a single person. The Swedish company Electrolux launched the innovative Model V in 1921 that was designed to lie on the floor on two thin metal runners and this innovation, conceived by Electrolux founder Axel Wenner-Gren, became a standard feature on generations of future vacuum cleaners
17.
Lockheed P-3 Orion
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The Lockheed P-3 Orion is a four-engine turboprop anti-submarine and maritime surveillance aircraft developed for the United States Navy and introduced in the 1960s. Lockheed based it on the L-188 Electra commercial airliner, the aircraft is easily distinguished from the Electra by its distinctive tail stinger or MAD Boom, used for the magnetic detection of submarines. Over the years, the aircraft has seen numerous design advancements, the P-3 Orion is still in use by numerous navies and air forces around the world, primarily for maritime patrol, reconnaissance, anti-surface warfare and anti-submarine warfare. The U. S. Navys remaining P-3C aircraft will eventually be replaced by the P-8A Poseidon, modifying an existing aircraft was expected to save on cost and allow rapid introduction into the fleet. Lockheed suggested a military version of their L-188 Electra, which was still in development and had yet to fly, in April 1958, Lockheed won the competition and was awarded an initial research and development contract in May. The prototype YP3V-1/YP-3A, Bureau Number 148276 was modified from the third Electra airframe c/n 1003, the first flight of the aircrafts aerodynamic prototype, originally designated YP3V-1, was on 19 August 1958. While based on the design philosophy as the Lockheed L-188 Electra. Similar patrol aircraft include the Soviet Ilyushin Il-38, the French Breguet Atlantique, the first production version, designated P3V-1, was launched on 15 April 1961. Initial squadron deliveries to Patrol Squadron Eight and Patrol Squadron Forty Four at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, on 18 September 1962, the U. S. military transitioned to a unified designation system for all services, with the aircraft being renamed the P-3 Orion. Paint schemes have changed from early 1960s gloss blue and white, to mid-1960s gloss white and gray, in the early 2000s, the scheme changed to a gloss gray finish with the original full-size color markings. Large size Bureau Numbers on the stabilizer and squadron designations on the fuselage remained omitted. In 1963, the U. S. Project A-NEW was the system which, after several early trials, produced the engineering prototype. The CP-823/U was delivered to the Naval Air Development Center at Johnsville, Pennsylvania in 1965, Three civilian Electras were lost in fatal accidents between February 1959 and March 1960. Following the third crash the FAA restricted the speed of Electras until the cause could be determined. After an extensive investigation, two of the crashes were found to be caused by insufficiently strong engine mounts, unable to damp a whirling motion that could affect the outboard engines. When the oscillation was transmitted to the wings, a severe vertical vibration escalated until the wings were torn from the aircraft, all the surviving Electras of the 145 built at that time were modified at Lockheeds expense at the factory, the modifications taking 20 days for each aircraft. The changes were incorporated in subsequent aircraft as they were built, sales of airliners were limited as the technical fix did not completely erase the jinxed reputation, turboprop-powered aircraft were soon replaced by faster jets. In a military role where fuel efficiency was more valued than speed, although surpassed in production longevity by the Lockheed C-130 Hercules,734 P-3s were produced through 1990
18.
Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk
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The Sikorsky SH-60/MH-60 Seahawk is a twin turboshaft engine, multi-mission United States Navy helicopter based on the United States Army UH-60 Black Hawk and a member of the Sikorsky S-70 family. The most significant airframe modification is a tail to reduce its footprint aboard ships. The U. S. Navy uses the H-60 airframe under the model designations SH-60B, SH-60F, HH-60H, MH-60R, all Navy H-60s carry a rescue hoist for SAR/CSAR missions. During the 1970s, the U. S. Navy began looking for a new helicopter to replace the Kaman SH-2 Seasprite. The SH-2 Seasprite was used by the Navy as its platform for the Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System Mark I avionics suite for maritime warfare and a secondary search and rescue capability. Advances in sensor and avionic technology lead to the LAMPS Mk II suite, in the mid-1970s, the Army evaluated the Sikorsky YUH-60 and Boeing-Vertol YUH-61 for its Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System competition. The Navy based its requirements on the Armys UTTAS specification to decrease costs from commonality, Sikorsky and Boeing-Vertol submitted proposals for Navy versions of their Army UTTAS helicopters in April 1977 for review. The Navy also looked at helicopters being produced by Bell, Kaman, Westland and MBB, in early 1978 the Navy selected Sikorskys S-70B design, which was designated SH-60B Seahawk. The SH-60B maintained 83% commonality with the UH-60A, other changes included larger fuel cells, an electric blade folding system, folding horizontal stabilators for storage, and adding a 25-tube pneumatic sonobuoy launcher on left side. Five YSH-60B Seahawk LAMPS III prototypes were ordered, the first YSH-60B flight occurred on 12 December 1979. The first production SH-60B made its first flight on 11 February 1983, the SH-60B entered operational service in 1984 with first operational deployment in 1985. The SH-60B is deployed primarily aboard frigates, destroyers, and cruisers, the primary missions of the SH-60B are surface warfare and anti-submarine warfare. It carries a complex system of including a towed Magnetic Anomaly Detector. Other sensors include the APS-124 search radar, ALQ-142 ESM system, munitions carried include the Mk 46, Mk 50, or Mk 54 torpedo, AGM-114 Hellfire missile, and a single cabin-door-mounted M60D/M2407.62 mm machine gun or GAU-16.50 in machine gun. A standard crew for a SH-60B is one pilot, one ATO/Co-Pilot, operating squadrons are designated Helicopter Anti-Submarine Squadron, Light. The SH-60J is a version of the SH-60B for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, the SH-60K is a modified version of the SH-60J. The SH-60J and SH-60K are built under license by Mitsubishi in Japan, after the SH-60B entered service, the Navy began development of the SH-60F to replace the SH-3 Sea King. Development of this variant began with the award of a contract to Sikorsky in March 1985, an early-model SH-60B was modified to serve as a SH-60F prototype
19.
Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
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The Boeing F/A-18E and F/A-18F Super Hornet are twin-engine carrier-capable multirole fighter aircraft variants based on the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The F/A-18E single-seat and F/A-18F tandem-seat variants are larger and more advanced derivatives of the F/A-18C, the Super Hornet has an internal 20 mm M61 rotary cannon and can carry air-to-air missiles and air-to-surface weapons. Additional fuel can be carried in up to five fuel tanks. Designed and initially produced by McDonnell Douglas, the Super Hornet first flew in 1995, full-rate production began in September 1997, after the merger of McDonnell Douglas and Boeing the previous month. The Super Hornet entered service with the United States Navy in 1999, replacing the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which was retired in 2006, the Super Hornet serves alongside the original Hornet. The Royal Australian Air Force, which has operated the F/A-18A as its main fighter since 1984, RAAF Super Hornets entered service in December 2010. The Super Hornet is a redesign of the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The Super Hornets unique wing and tail configuration can be traced back to an internal Northrop project P-530,1965, this had started as a substantial rework of the lightweight F-5E with a larger wing, twin tail fins and a distinctive leading edge root extension. The Hornet proved to be effective but limited in combat radius, the concept of an enlarged Hornet was first proposed in the 1980s, which was marketed by McDonnell Douglas as Hornet 2000. The Hornet 2000 concept was an advanced F/A-18 with a larger wing, the end of the Cold War led to a period of military budget cuts and considerable restructuring. At the same time, U. S. Naval Aviation faced a number of problems, the McDonnell Douglas A-12 Avenger II was canceled in 1991 after the program ran into serious problems, it was intended to replace the obsolete Grumman A-6 Intruder and LTV A-7 Corsair II. The Navy considered updating an existing design as an attractive approach to a clean-sheet program. The next-generation Hornet design proved more attractive than Grummans Quick Strike upgrade to the F-14 Tomcat, at the time, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat was the Navys primary air superiority fighter and fleet defense interceptor. In 1992, the Navy canceled the Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter, the Super Hornet was first ordered by the U. S. Navy in 1992. The Navy retained the F/A-18 designation to help sell the program to Congress as a low-risk derivative, the Hornet and Super Hornet share many characteristics, including avionics, ejection seats, radar, armament, mission computer software, and maintenance/operating procedures. The initial F/A-18E/F retained most of the systems from the F/A-18C/Ds configuration at the time. The design would be expanded in the Super Hornet with an empty weight slightly greater than the F-15C, the Super Hornet first flew on 29 November 1995. Initial production on the F/A-18E/F began in 1995, flight testing started in 1996 with the F/A-18E/Fs first carrier landing in 1997
20.
VX-30
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Air Test and Evaluation Squadron 30, nicknamed The Bloodhounds) is a United States Navy air test and evaluation squadron based at Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California. Established as the Naval Weapons Test Squadron Point Mugu on 8 May 1995, today, VX-30 is the principal naval flight and ground test unit for all Point Mugu Naval Air Systems Command aircraft and aircraft functions, including logistics and training support. The design was based on Mr. Abels dog, a rottweiler, VX-30 is one of the most diverse squadrons in the Navy today, as its flight line encompasses three different Naval Aviation platforms. To this date, the flies the oldest C-130s in active military history. The squadrons most used aircraft is the P-3 Orion and these aircraft are used in conjunction with the testing on the Sea Test Range for surveillance and clearance, as well as providing telemetry data during missile testing. VX-30 also flies two of the fleets only Billboard NP-3D, a P-3A that has been upgraded with a large billboard-esqe radar, the NP-3D aircraft were also used to support five NASA Space Shuttle missions using the Cast Glance optical system to monitor re-entry. First appearing in late 2009, the S-3 Vikings were used for their capabilities on the Sea Test Range. Because of their agility and speed, they were able to more quickly identify. In November 2010, VX-30 helped to celebrate the Centennial of Naval Aviation by sporting an S-3 with a paint scheme that dates back to aircraft that were flying during the Battle of Midway. In January 2016, the Navy retired the S-3 Viking from service completely, and thus, Air Warfare Center Weapons Division Facebook page VX-30 official website In Relentless Pursuit of Excellence, VX-30 Bloodhounds - Naval Aviation News -
21.
Naval Base Ventura County
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Naval Base Ventura County is a United States Navy base located near Oxnard, California. The base was formed in 2000 through the merger of Naval Air Station Point Mugu, NBVC supports more than 100 tenant commands with a base population of more than 19,000 personnel, making it the largest employer in Ventura County. At Point Mugu, NBVC operates two runways and a 36, 000-square-mile sea test range, anchored by San Nicolas Island, the range allows the military to test and track weapons systems in restricted air- and sea-space without encroaching on civilian air traffic or shipping lanes. The range can be expanded through interagency coordination between the U. S. Navy and the Federal Aviation Administration, telemetry data can be tracked and recorded using technology housed at San Nicolas Island, Point Mugu and Laguna Peak, a Tier 1 facility also controlled by NBVC. At Port Hueneme, NBVC operates the only port between Los Angeles and San Francisco. The port also boasts 16 miles of rail with dedicated access for on-, the port is the west coast homeport of the U. S. Navy Seabees and supports the training and mobilization requirements for more than 2,600 active-duty personnel. The port facility is located on the vast agricultural Oxnard Plain, about 60 miles northwest of Los Angeles, on the Southern California coast. At San Nicolas Island, NBVC operates Naval Outlying Field San Nicolas Island, other facilities on the island include radar tracking instrumentation, electro optical devices, telemetry, communications equipment, missile and target launch areas, as well as personnel support. SNI serves as a platform for short and medium missile testing. NBVC is also home to units, including the Pacific Seabees. The facility also shares runways with the California Air National Guards 146th Airlift Wing at the Channel Islands Air National Guard Station, the Naval Satellite Operations Center, responsible for controlling and maintaining the Navys fleet of communications satellites, is located at NBVC. NBVC is also responsible for maintaining an area used by the 31st Seabee Readiness Group at Fort Hunter Liggett. The base was established and began operating May 18,1942 as the Advance Base Depot. In 1945 the Advance Base Depot was renamed the Naval Construction Battalion Center, during the Korean War, almost all Navy construction equipment and supplies for the war were routed through CBC Port Hueneme. In 1941, as the United States entered World War II, the Seabees put down a section of Marston mat runway that would become Point Mugu’s first airstrip. NAS Point Mugu served as a training center during the war and was developed in the late 1940s into the Navys major missile development. NAS Point Mugu has dominated the area since the 1940s, and is one of the few places in the area that is not agricultural. The base has been home to many ordnance testing programs, in 1963 the U. S. Navy Marine Mammal Program was established on a sand spit between Mugu Lagoon and the ocean
22.
NAS Point Mugu
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Naval Air Station Point Mugu is a former United States Navy air station that operated from 1942 to 2000 in California. In 2000, it merged with nearby Naval Construction Battalion Center Port Hueneme to form Naval Base Ventura County, at Point Mugu, NBVC operates two runways and encompasses a 36,000 square mile sea test range, anchored by San Nicolas Island. The range allows the military to test and track weapons systems in restricted air-, the range can be expanded through interagency coordination between the U. S. Navy and the Federal Aviation Administration. Telemetry data can be tracked and recorded using technology housed at San Nicolas Island, Point Mugu and Laguna Peak, pt. Mugu has dominated the area since the 1940s, and is one of the few places in the area that is not agricultural. The base has been home to many ordnance testing programs, in 1963 the U. S. Navy Marine Mammal Program was established on a sand spit between Mugu Lagoon and the ocean. The facility was relocated in 1967 to Point Loma in San Diego, Point Mugu was the airfield used by former President Ronald Reagan during his presidency on visits to his Santa Barbara ranch. The airfield was used during the funeral in 2004, as the place where the former Presidents body was flown to Washington. The body was flown to Point Mugu aboard presidential aircraft SAM28000 two days later, until the late 1990s, the base hosted Antarctic Development Squadron SIX, the squadron of LC-130s equipped to land on ice in Antarctica, to supply the science stations there. Now, the New York Air National Guards 109th Airlift Wing has assumed that responsibility, on 16 August 1956, a F6F-5K drone was launched from NAS Point Mugu and quickly went out of control heading toward Los Angeles. US Air Force interceptors failed to shoot it down leading to The Battle of Palmdale incident, on 4 August 1972, Douglas DC-3 N31538 of Mercer Airlines suffered an in-flight engine fire shortly after take-off on a cargo flight to Hollywood-Burbank Airport. The aircraft departed the runway in the landing and was destroyed by the subsequent fire. All three people on board survived, on 20 April 2002, McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II BuNo 155749 of US Navy crashed at the Point Mugu airshow. The cause of the accident was cited as pilot error, on 18 May 2011, a Boeing 707 belonging to Omega Aerial Refueling Services and chartered to the U. S. Navy skidded off the runway and burst into flames shortly after landing. A reported amount of approximately 150,000 pounds of jet fuel was on board when the plane crashed, all three personnel aboard the aircraft survived with non life-threatening injuries. On 7th Nov 2015, a rocket launched from Point Mugu caused a momentary Frenzy of confusion amongst south Californian locals, another other source says the Trident II test missile was launched from a submarine NAS Point Mugu was the setting for the 1950 film, The Flying Missile. The film tells the story of the first firing of a missile from the deck of a submarine. Naval Base Ventura County, official site Point Mugu Air Station, GlobalSecurity. org FAA Airport Master Record for NTD Resources for this U. S
23.
Glenn Research Center
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Its director is Janet L. Kavandi. Glenn Research Center is one of ten major NASA field centers, whose mission is to develop science and technology for use in aeronautics. As of May 2012, it employed about 1,650 civil servants and 1,850 support contractors located on or near its site, in 2010, the formerly on-site NASA Visitors Center moved to the Great Lakes Science Center. It was initially named the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory after funding approval was given in June 1940 and it was renamed the Flight Propulsion Research Laboratory in 1947, the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in 1948 (after George W. Lewis and the NASA Lewis Research Center in 1958. On March 1,1999, the Lewis Research Center was officially renamed the NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field after John Glenn, within NASA, the Glenn Research Center is often referred to by the initialism GRC. As early as 1951, researchers at the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory were studying the processes in liquid rocket engines. The 6, 400-acre Plum Brook field station near Sandusky, Ohio is also part of Glenn and it is located about 50 mi. from the main campus. It specializes in very large-scale tests which would be hazardous within the confines of the main campus.5 million, the Space Power Facility houses the worlds largest space environment vacuum chamber. An icing tunnel is capable of simulating atmospheric icing condition to test the effect of ice accretion on aircraft wings, the Zero Gravity Research Facility is a vertical vacuum chamber used for microgravity experiments. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985, the facility uses vertical drop tests in a vacuum chamber to investigate the behavior of components, systems, liquids, gases, and combustion in such circumstances. The facility consists of a shaft,28 feet in diameter. An aluminum vacuum chamber,20 feet in diameter and 470 feet high, is contained within the concrete shaft, the pressure in this vacuum chamber is reduced to 13.3 newtons per square meter before use. After the closing of the Japan Microgravity Centre, the NASA Zero-G facility is the largest microgravity facility in the world, another, smaller drop tower remains in use. That tower has a free time of 2.2 seconds. Aeronautics science and technology NASA Glenn does significant research and technology development on jet engines, producing designs that reduce energy consumption, pollution, the chevrons it invented for noise reduction appear on many commercial jet engines today, including the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. A Glenn-derived ion engine was used on the successful NASA probe Deep Space 1 and it provides internships for high school students, college students, and high school teachers. The high school program is an 8-week internship for sophomores and juniors with interests in science, technology, engineering, math, the college level consists of a 10-week internship and is open to college students at all levels, from graduating high school seniors to PhD candidates. Only residents of the Cleveland area are eligible for high school LERCIP, interns work closely with their NASA mentors and are involved in the day-to-day activities of the Center
24.
Grumman S-2 Tracker
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The Grumman S-2 Tracker was the first purpose-built, single airframe anti-submarine warfare aircraft to enter service with the U. S. Navy. Designed and initially built by Grumman, the Tracker was of conventional design with twin reciprocating propeller engines, the type was exported to a number of navies around the world. Argentina and Brazil are the last countries to use the Tracker. The Tracker combined both functions in one aircraft, grummans design was for a large high-wing monoplane with twin Wright Cyclone R-1820 nine cylinder radial engines, a yoke type arrestor hook and a crew of four. Both the two prototypes XS2F-1 and 15 production aircraft, S2F-1 were ordered at the time, on 30 June 1950. The first flight was conducted on 4 December 1952, and production aircraft entered service with VS-26, follow-on versions included the WF Tracer and TF Trader, which became the Grumman E-1 Tracer and Grumman C-1 Trader in the tri-service designation standardization of 1962. The S-2 carried the nickname Stoof throughout its career. At least 99 and possibly 100 aircraft carrying the CS2F designation were manufactured in Canada under license by de Havilland Canada, U. S. -built versions of the Tracker were sold to various nations, including Australia, Japan, Turkey and Taiwan. The Tracker carried an internal torpedo bay capable of carrying two torpedoes or one nuclear depth charge. There were six underwing hard points for rocket pods and conventional depth charges or up to four additional torpedoes, a ventrally mounted retractable radome for AN/APS-38 radar and a Magnetic Anomaly Detector AN/ASQ-8 mounted on an extendable rear mounted boom were also fitted. Early model Trackers had an Electronic Surveillance Measures pod mounted dorsally just aft of the front seat overhead hatches and were fitted with a smoke particle detector or sniffer. Later S-2s had the sniffer removed and had the ESM antennae moved to four rounded extensions on the wingtips, a 70 million candlepower searchlight was mounted on the starboard wing. The engine nacelles carried JEZEBEL sonobouys in the rear, smoke dispensers were mounted on the port ventral surface of the nacelles in groups of three each. The Tracker was eventually superseded in U. S. military service by the Lockheed S-3 Viking, the last Navy S-2 was withdrawn from service on 29 August 1976. For many years the TS-2A version of the Tracker was used by U. S, a number of Trackers live on as firefighting aircraft while the design also continued to provide excellent service with the naval forces of other countries for years after the U. S. retired them. For example, the Royal Australian Navy continued to use Trackers as front line ASW assets until the mid-1980s, the Argentine Naval Aviation received seven S-2A in 1962, six S-2E in 1978 and three S-2G in the 1990s. They were used both aircraft carriers, ARA Independencia and ARA Veinticinco de Mayo and used in the COD, Maritime Patrol. In the 1990s, six remaining airframes where refurbished by Israel Aerospace Industries with turboprop engines as S-2T Turbo Trackers, between 1967 and 1984 the Royal Australian Navy operated two Squadrons of S-2E and S-2G variants, based at NAS Nowra
25.
Convair
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Convair was an American aircraft manufacturing company which later expanded into rockets and spacecraft. It also manufactured the first Atlas rockets, including the rockets that were used for the manned flights of Project Mercury. The companys subsequent Atlas-Centaur design continued this success and derivatives of the remain in use as of 2010. In 1994 most of the divisions were sold by then-owners General Dynamics to McDonnell Douglas and Lockheed. Navy, the Royal Canadian Air Force, the British flying forces, the Catalina remained in production through May 1945, and more than 4,000 were built. What was soon to be called Convair, was created in 1943 by the merger of the Consolidated Aircraft Company and the Vultee Aircraft Company. Convair always had most of its research, design, and manufacturing operations in San Diego County of Southern California, the Convair B-36 was the largest landbased piston engined bomber in the world. The Atlas missile, the F-102 Delta Dagger and F-106 Delta Dart delta-winged interceptors, and the delta-winged B-58 Hustler supersonic intercontinental nuclear bomber were all Convair products. For a period of time in the 1960s, Convair manufactured its own line of jet airliners, the Convair 880 and Convair 990. The Convair Division produced its own designs, such as several airliners, until 1965. In the 1950s Convair shifted money and effort into its missile and rocket projects, convairs Atlas rocket was originally developed in 1957 as an ICBM for the U. S. Air Force. It was replaced in 1962 by the room-temperature liquid-fueled Titan II missile, the Atlas rocket transitioned into a civilian launch vehicle and was used for the first orbital manned U. S. space flights during Project Mercury in 1962 and 1963. The S-IVB had earlier also used as the second stage of the smaller Saturn IB rocket. In 1994, the General Dynamics Corporation split and sold the original Convair Division, the airframe/aerostructures manufacturing company and the space boosters company were sold to the McDonnell Douglas Corporation. S. In 1996, General Dynamics deactivated all of the legal entities of the Convair Division. 1923 Consolidated Aircraft Corporation formed by Major Reuben H. S, Air Force and U. S. Navy aircraft designations that begin with X are merely experimental models of aircraft made only in small numbers. Military aircraft designations that begin with Y are developmental models made in small batches, in the former designation system that the Navy and the Marine Corps used, a final letter of Y identified a Convair or a Consolidated product, such as the PBY-5 flying boat. Centaur BGM-109 Tomahawk long-range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile, aGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missile – stealthy, nuclear, air-launched cruise missile Convair Drive at the Toronto Pearson International Airport is believed to be named for the Convair company
26.
Grumman
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The Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, later Grumman Aerospace Corporation, was a leading 20th century U. S. producer of military and civilian aircraft. Founded on December 6,1929, by Leroy Grumman and partners, factory in Baldwin on Long Island, New York. All of the early Grumman employees were former Loening employees, the company was named for Grumman because he was its largest investor. The company filed as a business on December 5,1929, keeping busy by welding aluminum tubing for truck frames, the company eagerly pursued contracts with the US Navy. Grumman designed the first practical floats with a landing gear for the Navy. The first Grumman aircraft was also for the Navy, the Grumman FF-1 and this was followed by a number of other successful designs. Grumman ranked 22nd among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts, Grummans first jet aircraft was the F9F Panther, it was followed by the upgraded F9F/F-9 Cougar, and the less well known F-11 Tiger in the 1950s. The companys big postwar successes came in the 1960s with the A-6 Intruder and E-2 Hawkeye and in the 1970s with the Grumman EA-6B Prowler, Grumman products were prominent in the film Top Gun and numerous World War II naval and Marine Corps aviation films. The U. S. Navy still employs the Hawkeye as part of Carrier Air Wings on board aircraft carriers, Grumman was the chief contractor on the Apollo Lunar Module that landed men on the moon. The firm received the contract on November 7,1962, as the Apollo program neared its end, Grumman was one of the main competitors for the contract to design and build the Space Shuttle, but lost to Rockwell International. The company ended up involved in the program nonetheless, as a subcontractor to Rockwell, providing the wings. In 1969 the company changed its name to Grumman Aerospace Corporation, the company built the Grumman Long Life Vehicle, a light transport mail truck designed for and used by the United States Postal Service. The LLV entered service in 1986, Gulfstream business jets continue to be currently manufactured by Gulfstream Aerospace which is a wholly owned subsidiary of General Dynamics. For much of the Cold War period Grumman was the largest corporate employer on Long Island, Grummans products were considered so reliable and ruggedly built that the company was often referred to as the Grumman Iron Works. At its peak in 1986 it employed 23,000 people on Long Island, a portion of the airport property has been used for the Grumman Memorial Park. Northrop Grummans remaining business at the Bethpage campus is the Battle Management and Engagement Systems Division, under the Grumman Olson brand it made the P-600 and P-6800 step vans for UPS. Grumman manufactured fire engines under the name Firecat and aerial tower trucks under the Aerialcat name, the company entered the fire apparatus business in 1976 with its purchase of Howe Fire Apparatus and ended operations in 1992. Grumman canoes were developed in 1944 as World War II was winding down, Company executive William Hoffman used the companys aircraft aluminum to replace the traditional wood design
27.
Vought
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Vought is the name of several related aerospace firms. These have included, in the past, Lewis and Vought Corporation, Chance Vought, Vought-Sikorsky, LTV Aerospace, Vought Aircraft Companies, the first incarnation of Vought was established by Chance M. Vought and Birdseye Lewis in 1917. In 1928, it was acquired by United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, which a few years later became United Aircraft Corporation, during the 1920s and 1930s, Vought Aircraft and Chance Vought specialized in carrier-based aircraft for the United States Navy, by far its biggest customer. Chance Vought produced thousands of planes during World War II, including the F4U Corsair, Vought became independent again in 1954, and was purchased by Ling-Temco-Vought in 1961. The company designed and produced a variety of planes and missiles throughout the Cold War, Vought was sold from LTV and owned in various degrees by the Carlyle Group and Northrop Grumman in the early 1990s. It was then bought by Carlyle, renamed Vought Aircraft Industries. The Lewis and Vought Corporation was founded in 1917 and was succeeded by the Chance Vought Corporation in 1922 when Birdseye Lewis retired. A former chief engineer of the Wright Company, Chance M. Vought founded the company to take advantage of the field of military. Operations began in Astoria, New York and in 1919 were moved to Long Island City, Vought made history in 1922 when their Vought VE-7 trainer made the first takeoff from the deck of the USS Langley, the first American aircraft carrier. Following this success came the VE-11 naval fighter and the Vought O2U Corsair, in 1928, the company was acquired by United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, but stayed its own separate division among the likes of Pratt & Whitney and Boeing. Despite the Great Depression, Vought continued to design and manufacture aircraft at a growing pace, soon after Chance Voughts death in 1930, the company moved its operations to East Hartford, Connecticut. In 1939 United Aircraft moved Vought to Stratford, Connecticut where their Sikorsky division was located and renamed the merged divisions Vought-Sikorsky Aircraft, chief Engineer Rex Beisel began in 1938 to develop the XF4U, recognized by its distinctive inverted gull wings. After its first flight in 1940, thousands of F4U Corsairs were produced for the Navy, by the end of its production in 1952, Vought, Goodyear, and Brewster had all produced the Corsair fighters. Vought was reestablished as a division in United Aircraft in 1942. In postwar 1949, Vought moved operations to Dallas, Texas where the former North American Aviation B plant was located, in 1954, the company fully separated from United Aircraft and became the independent Chance Vought Aircraft Inc. Vought began manufacture of its F-8 Crusader for the US Navy in 1957, one of the first Navy fighters capable of supersonic flight and the Navys last all-gun fighter. The A-7A, A-7B, A-7C and A-7E served with the US Navy while the A-7D was purchased by the US Air Force, two-seat models known as the TA-7C/E served with the US Navy while the US Air Force purchased the TA-7K. The A-7 served in limited numbers with three foreign air forces, including Greece, Portugal and Thailand, Vought was bought by James Ling in 1962, forming the new conglomerate Ling-Temco-Vought
28.
LTV A-7 Corsair II
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The LTV A-7 Corsair II was an American carrier-capable subsonic light attack aircraft designed by Ling-Temco-Vought to replace the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk. Its airframe design was a smaller version of the supersonic Vought F-8 Crusader. The Corsair II initially entered service with the United States Navy during the Vietnam War and it was later adopted by the United States Air Force, including the Air National Guard, to replace the Douglas A-1 Skyraider, and North American F-100 Super Sabre. The aircraft was exported to Greece in the 1970s. In 1962, the United States Navy began preliminary work on the VAX, particular emphasis was placed on accurate delivery of weapons to reduce the cost per target. The requirements were finalized in 1963, announcing the VAL competition, to minimize costs, all proposals had to be based on existing designs. Vought, Douglas Aircraft, Grumman and North American Aviation responded, the Vought proposal was based on the successful Vought F-8 Crusader fighter, having a similar configuration, but shorter and more stubby, with a rounded nose. It was selected as the winner on 11 February 1964, and on 19 March the company received a contract for the batch of aircraft. In 1965, the received the popular name Corsair II. Compared to the F-8 fighter, the A-7 had a shorter, broader fuselage, the wing had a longer span, and the unique, variable incidence feature of the F-8 wing was omitted. The aircraft was fitted with an AN/APQ-116 radar, later followed by the AN/APQ-126 and it was the first U. S. aircraft to have a modern head-up display, now a standard instrument which displayed information such as dive angle, airspeed, altitude, drift and aiming reticle. The integrated navigation system allowed for another innovation – the projected map display system which accurately showed aircraft position on two different map scales, the A-7 had a fast and smooth development. The YA-7A made its first flight on 27 September 1965, the first Navy A-7 squadrons reached operational status on 1 February 1967, and began combat operations over Vietnam in December of that year. The A-7 offered a plethora of cutting-edge avionics compared to contemporary aircraft and this included data link capabilities that, among other features, provided fully hands-off carrier landing capability when used in conjunction with its approach power compensator or auto throttle. Other notable and highly advanced equipment was a map display located just below the radar scope. The map display was slaved to the navigation system and provided a high-resolution map image of the aircrafts position superimposed over TPC/JNC charts. Moreover, when slaved to the auto pilot, the inertial navigation system could fly the aircraft hands off to up to nine individual waypoints. Typical inertial drift was minimal for newly manufactured models and the measurement system accepted fly over, radar
29.
Vought F-8 Crusader
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The first F-8 prototype was ready for flight in February 1955. The F-8 served principally in the Vietnam War, the Crusader was the last American fighter with guns as the primary weapon, earning it the title The Last of the Gunfighters. The RF-8 Crusader was a development and operated longer in U. S. service than any of the fighter versions. RF-8s played a role in the Cuban Missile Crisis, providing essential low-level photographs impossible to acquire by other means. U. S. Naval Reserve units continued to operate the RF-8 until 1987, in September 1952, the United States Navy announced a requirement for a new fighter. It was to have a top speed of Mach 1.2 at 30,000 ft with a rate of 25,000 ft/min. Korean War experience had demonstrated that 0.50 inch machine guns were no longer sufficient, in response, the Vought team led by John Russell Clark, created the V-383. Unusual for a fighter, the aircraft had a wing which necessitated the use of a fuselage-mounted short. The Crusader was powered by a Pratt and Whitney J57 turbojet engine, the engine was equipped with an afterburner that, unlike on later engines, was either fully lit, or off. The engine produced 18,000 lb of thrust at full power, the Crusader was the first jet fighter in US service to reach 1,000 mph, U. S. Navy pilot R. W. Windsor reached 1,015 mph on a flight in 1956. The most innovative aspect of the design was the wing which pivoted by 7° out of the fuselage on takeoff. This allowed a greater angle of attack, increasing lift without compromising forward visibility and this innovation helped the F-8s development team win the Collier Trophy in 1956. Simultaneously, the lift was augmented by leading-edge slats drooping by 25°, the armament, as specified by the Navy, consisted primarily of four 20 mm autocannon, the Crusader happened to be the last U. S. fighter designed with guns as its primary weapon. They were supplemented with a tray with 32 unguided Mk 4/Mk 40 Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket. Vought also presented a tactical reconnaissance version of the called the V-392. In May 1953, the Vought design was declared a winner and in June, the first prototype flew on 25 March 1955 with John Konrad at the controls. The aircraft exceeded the speed of sound during its maiden flight, the development was so trouble-free that the second prototype, along with the first production F8U-1, flew on the same day,30 September 1955. On 4 April 1956, the F8U-1 performed its first catapult launch from Forrestal, in parallel with the F8U-1s and -2s, the Crusader design team was also working on a larger aircraft with ever greater performance, internally designated as the V-401
30.
UNIVAC
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UNIVAC is the name of a line of electronic digital stored-program computers starting with the products of the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation. Later the name was applied to a division of the Remington Rand company, UNIVAC is an acronym for UNIVersal Automatic Computer. The BINAC, built by the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, was the first general-purpose computer for commercial use, the descendants of the later UNIVAC1107 continue today as products of the Unisys company. J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly built the ENIAC at the University of Pennsylvanias Moore School of Electrical Engineering between 1943 and 1946 and that company first built a computer called BINAC for Northrop Aviation. Afterwards began the development of UNIVAC, UNIVAC was first intended for the Bureau of the Census, which paid for much of the development, and then was put in production. With the death of EMCCs chairman and chief financial backer Harry L. Straus in a crash on October 25,1949. Eckert and Mauchly now reported to Leslie Groves, the army general who had managed the Manhattan Project. The most famous UNIVAC product was the UNIVAC I mainframe computer of 1951 and this incident is particularly noteworthy because the computer predicted an Eisenhower landslide when traditional pollsters all called it for Adlai Stevenson. The numbers were so skewed that CBSs news boss in New York, Mickelson, decided the computer was in error, instead they showed some staged theatrics that suggested the computer was not responsive, and announced it was predicting 8-7 odds for an Eisenhower win. Remington Rand had its own calculating machine lab in Norwalk, Connecticut and this severely annoyed those who had been with ERA and with the Norwalk laboratory. In 1955 Remington Rand merged with Sperry Corporation to become Sperry Rand, the UNIVAC division of Remington Rand was renamed the Univac division of Sperry Rand. General Douglas MacArthur was chosen to head the company, in the 1970s, after GE sold its computer business to Honeywell and RCA sold its to Univac, the analogy to the seven dwarfs became less apt and the remaining small firms became known as the BUNCH. To assist corporate identity the name was changed to Sperry Univac, along with Sperry Remington, Sperry New Holland, in 1978 Sperry Rand, an old fashioned conglomerate of disharmonious divisions, decided to concentrate on its computing interests and unrelated divisions were sold. The company dropped the Rand from its title and reverted to Sperry Corporation, in 1986, Sperry Corporation merged with Burroughs Corporation to become Unisys. Unisys continues to design and manufacture enterprise class computers with the ClearPath, in the course of its history, UNIVAC produced a number of separate model ranges. Early UNIVAC1100 series models were vacuum tube computers, the original model range was the UNIVAC I, the second commercial computer made in the United States. The main memory consisted of tanks of liquid mercury implementing delay line memory, the first machine was delivered on 31 March 1951. The UNIVAC II was an improvement to the UNIVAC I that UNIVAC first delivered in 1958 and it was fully compatible with existing UNIVAC I programs for both code and data
31.
Sonobuoy
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A sonobuoy is a relatively small buoy expendable sonar system that is dropped/ejected from aircraft or ships conducting anti-submarine warfare or underwater acoustic research. The buoys are ejected from aircraft in canisters and deploy upon water impact, the buoy relays acoustic information from its hydrophone via UHF/VHF radio to operators on board the aircraft. With the technological improvement of the submarine in warfare, the need for an effective tracking system was born. Sound Navigation And Ranging was originally developed by the British—who called it ASDIC—in the waning days of World War I, at the time the only way to detect submarines was by listening for them, or visually by chance when they were on the surface recharging their battery banks. Air patrols could spot surfaced submarines and occasionally, when conditions were right, if contact was made, they would follow the submarine while summoning surface ships by radio to attack it. Sonar saw extremely limited use and was tested in the Atlantic Ocean with few naval officers seeing any merit in the system. With the end of World War I came the end to development of sonar in the United States. However, considerable development of ASDIC took place in the United Kingdom, including integration with a plotting table, in 1931, the Coast and Geodetic Survey proposed the replacement of manned station ships with radio-sonobuoys, and placed the new buoys in service beginning in July 1936. These radio-sonobuoys were the ancestors of the sonobuoys that began to appear in the 1940s, the damage inflicted upon the Allies by German U-boats during World War II made the need for sonar a priority. With millions of tons of shipping being sunk in the Atlantic, sonar was installed on a number of ships along with tadar and high-frequency direction finding to detect surfaced submarines. While sonar was a system, it was constantly improved. Modern anti-submarine warfare methods evolved from the techniques devised for the movement of convoys and it was imperative that submarines be detected and neutralized long before the task group came within range of an attack. Aircraft-based submarine detection was the obvious solution, early sonobuoys had limited range, limited battery life and were overwhelmed by the noise of the ocean. They were also limited by the use of human ears to discriminate man-made noises from the oceanic background, however, they demonstrated that the technology was viable. With the development of better hydrophones, the transistor and miniaturization, the sonobuoy went from being an imposing six feet tall, two feet diameter sensor to the compact suite of electronics it is today. The advancement in sonobuoy technology aided the development of such as the P-2 Neptune, S-2 Tracker, S-3B Viking. Sonobuoys are classified into three categories, active, passive and special purpose, active sonobuoys emit sound energy into the water and listen for the returning echo before transmitting information—usually range and bearing—via UHF/VHF radio to a receiving ship or aircraft. The original active sonobuoys pinged continuously after deployment for a period of time
32.
Signals intelligence
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Signals intelligence is intelligence-gathering by interception of signals, whether communications between people or from electronic signals not directly used in communication. Signals intelligence is a subset of intelligence collection management, as sensitive information is often encrypted, signals intelligence in turn involves the use of cryptanalysis to decipher the messages. Traffic analysis—the study of who is signaling whom and in what quantity—is also used to derive information, electronic interception appeared as early as 1900, during the Boer War of 1899-1902. The British Royal Navy had installed wireless sets produced by Marconi on board their ships in the late 1890s, the Boers captured some wireless sets and used them to make vital transmissions. Since the British were the only people transmitting at the time, the birth of signals intelligence in a modern sense dates from the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Over the course of the First World War, the new method of signals intelligence reached maturity, in 1918, French intercept personnel captured a message written in the new ADFGVX cipher, which was cryptanalyzed by Georges Painvin. This gave the Allies advance warning of the German 1918 Spring offensive, the British in particular built up great expertise in the newly emerging field of signals intelligence and codebreaking. On the declaration of war, Britain cut all German undersea cables and this forced the Germans to use either a telegraph line that connected through the British network and could be tapped, or through radio which the British could then intercept. Rear-Admiral Henry Oliver appointed Sir Alfred Ewing to establish an interception and decryption service at the Admiralty, an interception service known as Y service, together with the post office and Marconi stations grew rapidly to the point where the British could intercept almost all official German messages. The German fleet was in the each day of wirelessing the exact position of each ship. Whenever a change to the pattern was seen, it immediately signalled that some operation was about to take place. Detailed information about submarine movements was also available, the use of radio receiving equipment to pinpoint the location of the transmitter was also developed during the war. Captain H. J. Round working for Marconi, began carrying out experiments with direction finding equipment for the army in France in 1915. By May 1915, the Admiralty was able to track German submarines crossing the North Sea, some of these stations also acted as Y stations to collect German messages, but a new section was created within Room 40 to plot the positions of ships from the directional reports. Room 40 played an important role in naval engagements during the war. The battle of Dogger Bank was won in no small part due to the intercepts that allowed the Navy to position its ships in the right place. It played a role in subsequent naval clashes, including at the Battle of Jutland as the British fleet was sent out to intercept them. The direction-finding capability allowed for the tracking and location of German ships, submarines, however its most astonishing success was in decrypting the Zimmermann Telegram, a telegram from the German Foreign Office sent via Washington to its ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt in Mexico
33.
Monoplane
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A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with a single main wing plane, in contrast to a biplane or other multiplane, each of which has multiple planes. A monoplane has inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build, however, during the early years of flight, these advantages were offset by its greater weight and lower manoeuvrability, making it relatively rare until the 1930s. Since then, the monoplane has been the most common form for a fixed-wing aircraft, although the first successful aircraft were biplanes, the first attempts at heavier-than-air flying machines were monoplanes, and many pioneers continued to develop monoplane designs. For example, the first aeroplane to be put into production was the 1907 Santos-Dumont Demoiselle, while the Blériot XI flew across the English Channel in 1909, throughout 1909–1910, Hubert Latham set multiple altitude records in his Antoinette IV monoplane, eventually reaching 1,384 m. The equivalent German language term is Eindecker, as in the mid-wing Fokker Eindecker fighter of 1915 which for a time dominated the skies in what known as the Fokker scourge. The German military Idflieg aircraft designation system prior to 1918 prefixed monoplane type designations with an E, however, the success of the Fokker was short-lived, and World War I was dominated by biplanes. Towards the end of the war, the parasol monoplane became popular, nonetheless, relatively few monoplane types were built between 1914 and the late 1920s, compared with the number of biplanes. The reasons for this were primarily practical, towards the end of the First World War, the inherent high drag of the biplane was beginning to restrict performance. Engines were not yet enough to make the heavy cantilever-wing monoplane viable. It remained popular throughout the 1920s, on flying boats with a shallow hull, a parasol wing allows the engines to be mounted above the spray from the water when taking off and landing. It was popular on flying boats during the 1930s, an example being the Consolidated PBY Catalina. It died out when taller hulls became the norm during World War II, most military aircraft of WW II were monoplanes, as have been virtually all aircraft since. Jet and rocket engines have more power, and all modern high-speed aircraft. The inherent efficiency of the monoplane can best be realised in the cantilever wing which carries all structural forces internally. By contrast, a wing has additional drag from the exposed bracing struts and/or wires. On the other hand, the wing has greater structural efficiency. This in turn means that for a wing of a size, bracing allows it to fly slower with a lower-powered engine, while a heavy cantilever wing needs a more powerful engine. A cantilever wing can be lighter by making it thicker
34.
Cantilever
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A cantilever is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at only one end to a support from which it is protruding. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs, when subjected to a structural load, the cantilever carries the load to the support where it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies, in cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a truss bridge. A cantilever in a timber framed building is called a jetty or forebay. In the southern United States a historic barn type is the barn of log construction. Temporary cantilevers are used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built. So some truss arch bridges are built each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages, many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support and these structures are highly based on torque and rotational equilibrium. In an architectural application, Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater used cantilevers to project large balconies, the East Stand at Elland Road Stadium in Leeds was, when completed, the largest cantilever stand in the world holding 17,000 spectators. The roof built over the stands at Old Trafford Football Ground uses a cantilever so that no supports will block views of the field, the old, now demolished Miami Stadium had a similar roof over the spectator area. The largest cantilever in Europe is located at St James Park in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, less obvious examples of cantilevers are free-standing radio towers without guy-wires, and chimneys, which resist being blown over by the wind through cantilever action at their base. Another use of the cantilever is in fixed-wing aircraft design, pioneered by Hugo Junkers in 1915, early aircraft wings typically bore their loads by using two wings in a biplane configuration braced with wires and struts. They were similar to bridges, having been developed by Octave Chanute. The wings were braced with crossed wires so they would stay parallel, the cables and struts generated considerable drag, and there was constant experimentation for ways to eliminate them
35.
General Electric TF34
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The General Electric TF34 is a military turbofan engine used on the A-10 Thunderbolt II and S-3 Viking. The TF34-GE-400A is rated at 9,275 lbf static thrust, the civilian variant, the CF34, is used on a number of business and regional jets
36.
Nacelle
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The nacelle is a housing, separate from the fuselage, that holds engines, fuel, or equipment on an aircraft. The covering is typically aerodynamically shaped and this styling device was much copied within the British industry thereafter, although Czech motorcycle manufacturer Česká Zbrojovka Strakonice was using it beforehand. Indeed, the Royal Enfield Bullet still retains its version, the casquette, the last Triumphs to sport nacelles were the 1966 models of the 6T Triumph Thunderbird 650, 5TA Triumph Speed Twin 500, and 3TA Triumph Twenty One 350. Name for the generator and gearbox shell - with rotator shaft - on a horizontal axis wind turbine, like many aviation terms, the word comes from French, in this case from a word for a small boat
37.
Flap (aeronautics)
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Flaps are a type of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an aircraft wing at a given airspeed. Flaps are usually mounted on the trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft. Flaps are used to lower the speed at which the aircraft can be safely flown. Flaps also cause an increase in drag, so they are retracted when not needed, extending the wing flaps increases the camber or curvature of the wing, raising the maximum lift coefficient or the upper limit to the lift a wing can generate. The increase in camber also increases the drag, which can be beneficial during approach and landing. In other configurations, however, depending on the type of flap, plain flaps, slotted flaps, and Fowler flaps are the most common. Krueger flaps are positioned on the edge of the wings and are used on many jet airliners. The Fowler, Fairey-Youngman and Gouge types of flap increase the area in addition to changing the camber. The larger lifting surface reduces wing loading, hence reducing the stalling speed. Leading-edge flaps form the leading edge and when deployed they rotate down to increase the wing camber. The de Havilland DH.88 Comet racer had flaps running across beneath the fuselage, many of the Waco Custom Cabin series biplanes have the flaps at mid-chord on the underside of the top wing. Here, it can be seen that increasing the area and lift coefficient allow an amount of lift to be generated at a lower airspeed. Extending the flaps also increases the coefficient of the aircraft. Therefore, for any given weight and airspeed, flaps increase the drag force, flaps increase the drag coefficient of an aircraft due to higher induced drag caused by the distorted spanwise lift distribution on the wing with flaps extended. Some flaps increase the area and, for any given speed. Depending on the type, flaps may be partially extended for takeoff. When used during takeoff, flaps trade runway distance for climb rate—using flaps reduces ground roll, the amount of flap used on takeoff is specific to each type of aircraft, and the manufacturer will suggest limits and may indicate the reduction in climb rate to be expected. The Cessna 172S Pilot Operating Handbook generally recommends 10° of flaps on takeoff, flaps may be fully extended for landing to give the aircraft a lower stall speed so the approach to landing can be flown more slowly, which also allows the aircraft to land in a shorter distance
38.
Spoiler (aeronautics)
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In aeronautics, a spoiler is a device intended to intentionally reduce the lift component of an airfoil in a controlled way. Most often, spoilers are plates on the top surface of a wing that can be extended upward into the airflow to spoil it. By so doing, the spoiler creates a controlled stall over the portion of the wing behind it, spoilers differ from airbrakes in that airbrakes are designed to increase drag without affecting lift, while spoilers reduce lift as well as increasing drag. In modern fly-by-wire aircraft, the set of control surfaces serve both functions. Spoilers are used by nearly every glider to control their rate of descent, an increased rate of descent can also be achieved by lowering the nose of an aircraft, but this would result in increased speed. Spoilers enable the approach to be made at a speed for landing. Airliners are almost always fitted with spoilers, spoilers are used to increase descent rate without increasing speed. Their use is limited, however, as the turbulent airflow that develops behind them causes noise and vibration. Spoilers may also be operated for roll control instead of ailerons. On landing, however, the spoilers are nearly always fully deployed to slow the aircraft. The increase in form drag created by the spoilers directly assists the braking effect, in air-cooled piston engine aircraft, spoilers may be needed to avoid shock cooling the engines. In a descent without spoilers, air speed is increased and the engine will be at low power, the engine may cool too rapidly, resulting in stuck valves, cracked cylinders or other problems. Spoilers alleviate the situation by allowing the aircraft to descend at a desired rate while letting the engine run at a setting that keeps it from cooling too quickly. Spoiler controls can be used for control or descent control. Some aircraft use spoilers in combination with or in lieu of ailerons for roll control, for such spoilers the term spoileron has been coined. In the case of a spoileron, in order for it to be used as a surface, it is raised on one wing only, thus decreasing lift and increasing drag, causing roll. Spoilerons also avoid the problem of control reversal that affects ailerons, almost all modern jet airliners are fitted with inboard lift spoilers which are used together during descent to increase the rate of descent and control speed. Some aircraft use lift spoilers on landing approach to control descent without changing the aircrafts attitude, one jet airliner not fitted with lift spoilers was the Douglas DC-8 which used reverse thrust in flight on the two inboard engines to control descent speed
39.
Auxiliary power unit
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An auxiliary power unit is a device on a vehicle that provides energy for functions other than propulsion. They are commonly found on aircraft and naval ships as well as some large land vehicles. Aircraft APUs generally produce 115 V alternating current at 400 Hz, to run the electrical systems of the aircraft, APUs can provide power through single- or three-phase systems. The primary purpose of an aircraft APU is to power to start the main engines. Turbine engines must be accelerated to a rotational speed to provide sufficient air compression for self-sustaining operation. Smaller jet engines are started by an electric motor, while larger engines are usually started by an air turbine motor. Before the engines are to be turned, the APU is started, once the APU is running, it provides power to start the aircrafts main engines. To start, a jet engine requires rotation of the turbine, AC-electrical fuel pumps. As the turbine is already rotating, the front inlet fans are also rotating, after the ignition, both fans and turbine speed up their rotation. As combustion stabilizes, the engine only needs the fuel to run at idle. The started engine can now replace the APU when starting up further engines, during flight the APU and its generator are not needed. APUs are also used to run accessories while the engines are shut down and this allows the cabin to be comfortable while the passengers are boarding before the aircrafts engines are started. Electrical power is used to run systems for preflight checks, some APUs are also connected to a hydraulic pump, allowing crews to operate hydraulic equipment prior to engine start. This function can also be used, on aircraft, as a backup in flight in case of engine or hydraulic failure. Aircraft with APUs can also accept electrical and pneumatic power from ground equipment when an APU has failed or is not to be used, some airports reduce the use of APUs due to noise and pollution, and ground power is used when possible. While some APUs may not be startable in flight, ETOPS-compliant APUs must be flight-startable at altitudes up to the service ceiling. Recent applications have specified starting up to 43,000 ft from a complete cold-soak condition such as the Hamilton Sundstrand APS5000 for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. If the APU or its electrical generator is not available, the aircraft cannot be released for ETOPS flight and is forced to take a longer non-ETOPS route
40.
Zero-zero ejection seat
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In aircraft, an ejection seat or ejector seat is a system designed to rescue the pilot or other crew of an aircraft in an emergency. In most designs, the seat is propelled out of the aircraft by a charge or rocket motor. The concept of an escape crew capsule has also been tried. Once clear of the aircraft, the ejection seat deploys a parachute, Ejection seats are common on certain types of military aircraft. A bungee-assisted escape from an aircraft took place in 1910, in 1916 Everard Calthrop, an early inventor of parachutes, patented an ejector seat using compressed air. The modern layout for a seat was first proposed by Romanian inventor Anastase Dragomir in the late 1920s. The design, featuring a parachuted cell, was tested on 25 August 1929 at the Paris-Orly Airport near Paris and in October 1929 at Băneasa. Dragomir patented his catapult-able cockpit at the French Patent Office, the design was perfected during World War II. The first ejection seats were developed independently during World War II by Heinkel, early models were powered by compressed air and the first aircraft to be fitted with such a system was the Heinkel He 280 prototype jet-engined fighter in 1940. At 2,400 m, Schenk found he had no control, jettisoned his towline, the He 280 was never put into production status and the first operational type built anywhere, to provide ejection seats for the crew was the Heinkel He 219 Uhu night fighter in 1942. In Sweden, a version using compressed air was tested in 1941, a gunpowder ejection seat was developed by Bofors and tested in 1943 for the Saab 21. The first test in the air was on a Saab 17 on 27 February 1944, and the first real use occurred by Lt. Bengt Johansson on 29 July 1946 after a mid-air collision between a J21 and a J22. As the first operational military jet in late 1944 to ever feature one, the lightweight Heinkel He 162A Spatz featured a new type of ejection seat, in this system, the seat rode on wheels set between two pipes running up the back of the cockpit. When lowered into position, caps at the top of the seat fitted over the pipes to close them, cartridges, basically identical to shotgun shells, were placed in the bottom of the pipes, facing upward. When fired, the gases would fill the pipes, popping the caps off the end, after World War II, the need for such systems became pressing, as aircraft speeds were getting ever higher, and it was not long before the sound barrier was broken. Manual escape at such speeds would be impossible, the United States Army Air Forces experimented with downward-ejecting systems operated by a spring, but it was the work of Sir James Martin and his company Martin-Baker that was to prove crucial. The first live flight test of the Martin-Baker system took place on 24 July 1946, shortly afterward, on 17 August 1946, 1st Sgt. Larry Lambert was the first live U. S. ejectee, Lynch demonstrated the ejection seat at the Daily Express Air Pageant in 1948, ejecting from a Meteor. W.52 experimental flying wing
41.
Aerial torpedo
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First used in World War I, air-dropped torpedoes were used extensively in World War II, and remain in limited use. Aerial torpedoes are generally smaller and lighter than submarine- and surface-launched torpedoes, historically, the term aerial torpedo meant flying bombs and pilotless drone aircraft used as weapons, the precursor to modern cruise missiles. Today, the term refers primarily to water-borne torpedoes launched from the air, the idea of dropping lightweight torpedoes from aircraft was conceived in the early 1910s by Bradley A. Fiske, an officer in the United States Navy. A patent for this was awarded in 1912, the aircraft would release the torpedo at a distance of 1,500 to 2,000 yards from the target. Fiske reported in 1915 that, using this method, enemy fleets could be attacked within their own harbors if there was room for the torpedo track. However, the United States Congress appropriated no funds for aerial torpedo research until 1917 when the U. S. entered into action in World War I. The U. S. would not have special-purpose torpedo planes until 1921, meanwhile, the Royal Naval Air Service began actively experimenting with this possibility. The first successful aerial torpedo drop was performed by Gordon Bell in 1914—dropping a Whitehead torpedo from a Short S.64 seaplane, the success of these experiments led to the construction of the first purpose-built operational torpedo aircraft, the Short Type 184, built from 1915. An order for ten aircraft was placed, and 936 aircraft were built by ten different British aircraft companies during the First World War. The two prototype aircraft were embarked upon HMS Ben-my Chree, which sailed for the Aegean on 21 March 1915 to take part in the Gallipoli campaign, in November 1914, Germans were reportedly experimenting at Lake Constance with the tactic of dropping torpedoes from a Zeppelin. On 12 August 1915 a Short Type 184, piloted by Flight Commander Charles Edmonds, was the first aircraft in the world to attack a ship with an air-launched torpedo. Operating from HMS Ben-my-Chree in the Aegean Sea, Edmonds took off with a 14-inch-diameter, 810-pound torpedo to fly over land, five days later, a Turkish steamship was sunk by a torpedo aimed again by Edmonds. His formation mate, Flight Lieutenant G. B, dacre, sank a Turkish tugboat after being forced to land on the water with engine trouble. Dacre taxied toward the tugboat, released his torpedo and was able to take off. On May 1,1917, a German seaplane loosed a torpedo and sank the 2, a second German seaplane was downed by gunfire from the sinking Gena. German torpedo bomber squadrons were assembled at Ostend and Zeebrugge for further action in the North Sea. Later in 1917, the U. S. Navy began to perform using a 400-pound dummy torpedo that, in the first test, porpoised from the water back into the air. Several British torpedo bombers were built, including the Sopwith Cuckoo, the Short Shirl and the Blackburn Blackburd, the United States bought its first 10 torpedo bombers in 1921, variants of the Martin MB-1
42.
Chaff (countermeasure)
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Modern armed forces use chaff to distract radar-guided missiles from their targets. Most military aircraft and warships have chaff dispensing systems for self-defense, an intercontinental ballistic missile may release in its midcourse phase several independent warheads as well as penetration aids such as decoy balloons and chaff. The idea of using chaff developed independently in the United Kingdom, Germany, an early idea was to use sheets the size of a notebook page, these would be printed so they would also serve as propaganda leaflets. However, it was found the most effective version used strips of black paper backed with foil, exactly 27 by 2 centimetres. The Head of the TRE, A. P. Rowe, meanwhile, in Germany, similar research had led to the development of Düppel. The German code name was that of the estate on which the first German tests with chaff had been made, circa 1942. Once the idea had been passed to the US via the Tizard Mission, Fred Whipple developed a system for dispensing strips for the USAAF, the systems were all essentially identical in concept, small aluminium strips cut to one-half of the target radars wavelength. When hit by the radar, such lengths of metal resonate and re-radiate the signal, opposing defences would find it almost impossible to distinguish the aircraft from the echoes caused by the chaff. Other radar-confusing techniques included Mandrel, Piperack, and Jostle and this caused concern in RAF Fighter Command and Anti-Aircraft Command, who managed to suppress the use of Window until July 1943. At this time, it was felt the new generation of centimetric radars available to Fighter Command would deal with any Luftwaffe response to RAF Bomber Command use. Bomber Harris, Commander-in-Chief of RAF Bomber Command, finally got approval to use Window as part of Operation Gomorrah, the first aircrew trained to use Window were 76 squadron. Twenty-four crews were briefed on how to drop the bundles of aluminised-paper strips, one every minute through the flare chute, the radar guided master searchlights wandered aimlessly across the sky. The anti-aircraft guns fired randomly or not at all and the fighters, their radar displays swamped with false echoes. Over a week of attacks a vast area of Hamburg was devastated, resulting in more than 40,000 civilian deaths, squadrons quickly had special chutes fitted to their bombers to make the deployment even easier. Seeing this as a development that made it safer to go on operations, a lesser known fact is that the Luftwaffe used this technology just six weeks after the above-mentioned Hamburg raid. The German strips were cut into 80 centimetre by 1.9 centimetre lengths, in a series of raids in 1943, and the mini-blitz of Operation Steinbock between February and May 1944, Düppel allowed German bombers to once again attempt to operate over London. Although theoretically effective, the number of bombers, notably in relation to the RAFs now-large night fighter force. The British fighters were able to go aloft in large numbers, the Germans obtained better results during the air raid on Bari, on 2 December 1943, when Allied radars were effectively deceived by the use of Düppel strips
43.
Flare
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A flare, also sometimes called a fusee, is a type of pyrotechnic that produces a brilliant light or intense heat without an explosion. Flares are used for signalling, illumination, or defensive countermeasures in civilian, flares may be ground pyrotechnics, projectile pyrotechnics, or parachute-suspended to provide maximum illumination time over a large area. Projectile pyrotechnics may be dropped from aircraft, fired from rocket or artillery, the earliest recorded use of gunpowder for signalling purposes was the signal bomb used by the Song Dynasty Chinese as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty besieged Yangzhou in 1276. These soft-shelled bombs, timed to explode in mid-air, were used to send messages to a detachment of troops far in the distance, another mention of the signal bomb appears in a text dating from 1293 requesting their collection from those still stored in Zhejiang. A signal gun appears in Korea by 1600, the Wu I Thu Phu Thung Chih or Illustrated Military Encyclopedia written in 1791 depicts a signal gun in an illustration. Flares produce their light through the combustion of a pyrotechnic composition, flares may be colored by the inclusion of pyrotechnic colorants. Calcium flares are used underwater to illuminate submerged objects, many in-service colored signal flares and spectrally balanced decoy flares contain perchlorate oxidizers. Perchlorate, a type of salt in its form, dissolves and moves rapidly in groundwater. Even in low concentrations in drinking water supplies, perchlorate is known to inhibit the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland, for example, the US Environmental Protection Agency have studied the impacts of perchlorate on the environment as well as drinking water. California has also issued guidance regarding perchlorate use, US courts have taken action regarding the use of perchlorate in manufacturing pyrotechnic devices such as flares. In the civilian world, flares are used as signals. Flares are commonly found in survival kits. Red flares, either sent as a rocket or held in the hand, are recognized as a maritime distress signal. RMS Titanic however used rocket-launched distress shells to attract assistance, emitting white stars to a great height, another type of flare is the fusee, which burns for 10–60 minutes with a bright red light. Fusees are commonly used to indicate obstacles or advise caution on roadways at night, in this usage they are called highway flares, road flares. They are commonly found in emergency kits. Fusees are also known as flares and are commonly used to perform hand signals in rail transport applications. Since they can be used once, fusees nowadays are usually intended for emergency use
44.
Magnetic anomaly detector
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A magnetic anomaly detector is an instrument used to detect minute variations in the Earths magnetic field. Geoexploration by measuring and studying variations in the Earths magnetic field has been conducted by scientists since 1843, the first uses of magnetometers were for the location of ore deposits. Thalens The Examination of Iron Ore Deposits by Magnetic Measurements, published in 1879, was the first scientific treatise describing this practical use. MAD gear was used by both Japanese and U. S. anti-submarine forces, either towed by ship or mounted in aircraft to detect shallow submerged enemy submarines, the Japanese called the technology jikitanchiki. After the war, the U. S. Navy continued to develop MAD gear as a development with sonar detection technologies. Satellite, near-surface and oceanic data from detectors was used to create the World Digital Magnetic Anomaly Map published by the Commission for the Geological Map of the World in July 2007. To reduce interference from electrical equipment or metal in the fuselage of the aircraft, even so, the submarine must be very near the aircrafts position and close to the sea surface for detection of the anomaly, according to the Inverse Square Law. The size of the submarine, its composition and orientation determine the detection range. MAD devices are mounted on aircraft. There is some misunderstanding of the mechanism of detection of submarines using the MAD system, for example, the Soviet-Russian Alfa class submarine, whose hull is titanium to give dramatic submerged performance and protection from detection by MAD sensors, is still detectable. For aeromagnetic survey applications the magnetic sensor can be mounted on an aircraft or in a towed device, a chart is produced that geologists and geophysicists can study to determine the distribution and concentration of magnetic minerals which are related to geology and mineral deposits. When the electric current flowing through such a coil changes, it produces a magnetic flux, when the trucks were running, the current flowing through the ignition coils produced a large and easily detectable flux. Antisubmarine warfare Autolycus, a precursor of MAD
45.
VS-41
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VS-41, Sea Control Squadron 41 was a training squadron of the United States Navy for crews of anti-submarine aircraft and was established on 30 June 1960 as an anti-submarine squadron. The squadron was nicknamed Shamrocks and based at the Naval Air Station North Island, VS-41 was originally activated in 1960 to train the crews of Grumman S-2 Tracker anti-submarine aircraft for the United States Navy. Two squadrons equipped with the Tracker were based each on the carriers of the Essex-class to counter the threat of the large Soviet submarine fleet. In the mid-1970 both the CVS-carriers and the S-2 Tracker were phased out, on 20 February 1974 VS-41 received the successor of the Tracker, the Lockheed S-3A Viking. The Viking-squadrons were integrated into the former Attack Carrier Air Wings, during the latter half of the 1980s VS-41 was equipped with the upgraded S-3B. With the diminishing submarine threat after the end of the Cold War VS-41 was redesignated as a Sea Control Squadron on 1 October 1993, in 1994 the squadron became responsible for the training of all U. S. Navy S-3 squadrons. Identified targets should then be destroyed with bombs, cluster bombs, rocktes, AGM-84 Harpoon or AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missiles, Mark 46 torpedoes. The Viking could also drop mines, additionally, all S-3B aircraft were equipped to carrying an inflight refueling buddy store. VS-41 flew in excess of 10,000 hours per year, from 1960 to 2008, the training squadron logged more than 347,000 flight hours, made more than 48,000 carrier landings, and trained more than 35,000 personnel. On September 30,2006, the squadron was disestablished at Naval Air Station North Island. The squadron history or lineages should not be confused with the VS-41 Tophatters that flew the SBD-3 Dauntless torpedo bombers during World War II from the deck of USS Ranger
46.
Naval Air Station North Island
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Naval Air Station North Island or NAS North Island is located at the north end of the Coronado peninsula on San Diego Bay and is the home port of several aircraft carriers of the United States Navy. It is part of the largest aerospace-industrial complex in the United States Navy, Naval Base Coronado in San Diego County, the Commanding Officer of NAS North Island is also the Commanding Officer, Naval Base Coronado. NASNI, with only its commands in the metropolitan San Diego Area, NAS North Island itself is host to 23 aviation squadrons and 80 additional tenant commands and activities, one of which, the Naval Aviation Depot, is the largest aerospace employer in San Diego. NAS North Island also operates two other airfields in the Southern California region, one is Naval Auxiliary Landing Facility San Clemente Island, located approximately 70 miles northwest of San Diego in the Channel Islands. The other is Outlying Field Imperial Beach, formerly an independent naval air station, OLF Imperial Beach is located in the city of Imperial Beach, on the U. S. -Mexico border,10 miles south of NAS North Island. The air station was known as Ream Field in 1950s and 1960s. NAS North Island resembles a city in its facility content. It has its own police and fire departments, as well as advanced military security stations and it has large factory-type buildings which comprise the Naval Aviation Depot, employing 3,300 civilians, and its own commissary, Navy Exchange, and housing units. Recreation facilities include officer, chief petty officer and enlisted clubs, movie theater, golf course, tennis courts, bowling alley, parks and beaches. Its airfield has over 230 stationed aircraft, and its wall is homeport to two aircraft carriers, USS Carl Vinson and USS Theodore Roosevelt. Additionally, the base is home to the Navys only Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicles, Mystic, the DSRV motor vessel support ships are also homeported here. S. Pacific Fleet, responsible for maintenance and training of all aircraft and aircraft carriers in the Pacific Fleet. DOD Contractors perform transportation flights from the air station to NALF San Clemente Island and these DOD Contractors also provide tactical training warfare for the United States Defense Department in joint efforts with the U. S. Navy and U. S. Marine Corps. Some of these aircraft include C-26 Metroliner, Learjet, and Gulfstream aircraft, North Island was commissioned a Naval Air Station in 1917, called Naval Air Station San Diego until 1955. On August 15,1963, the station was granted recognition as the Birthplace of Naval Aviation by resolution of the House Armed Services Committee. The Navys first aviator, Lieutenant Theodore Ellyson, and many of his colleagues were trained at North Island starting as early as 1911 and this was just eight years after Orville and Wilbur Wright flew the first manned aircraft at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. At that time, North Island was a sand flat. It had been used in the late 19th century for horseback riding and hunting by guests of J. D. Spreckelss resort hotel, North Island derived its name from the original geography
47.
Sea Control Squadron 21
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It was the only squadron to receive the designations VA-1E, VC-21, or VS-21. Commander Air Force Pacific Fleet had designated the squadron upon formation as having antisubmarine warfare as its primary mission. The Group, which consisted of VA-1E and its sister fighter squadron VF-1E, was assigned on 4 December 1946 to the escort carrier USS Badoeng Strait, in 1947-48 VA-1E conducted regular ASW exercises aboard the Badoeng Strait between the U. S. West Coast and the Western Pacific, the squadron saw extensive service in ASW trials and tactics development aboard the Badoeng Strait. The squadron was redesignated Anti-Submarine Squadron 21 and obtained the nickname Redtails on 23 April 1950, after putting the S-3B Viking into service in 1991, on 1 October 1993 the squadron was redesignated Sea Control Squadron 21. VS-21 was finally disestablished on 28 February 2005, Lt. Joseph P. Keigher,26 March 1945 Lt. Charles A. Collins,29 April 1945 LCdr. Kent M. Cushman,14 September 1946 LCdr, wings for the Navy,100 Years of Naval Aviation
48.
USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
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USS John F. Kennedy is the only ship of her class and the last conventionally powered carrier built for the United States Navy. The ship is named after the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy, Kennedy was originally designated a CVA, however, the designation was changed to CV to denote that the ship was capable of anti-submarine warfare, making her an all-purpose carrier. After nearly 40 years of service in the United States Navy and she is berthed at the NAVSEA Inactive Ships On-site Maintenance facility in Philadelphia and is available for donation as a museum and memorial to a qualified organization. The name has been adopted by the future Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier John F. Kennedy, contracted as Ship Characteristic Board SCB-127C, the ships keel was laid on 22 October 1964 by Newport News Shipbuilding. The ship was officially christened 27 May 1967 by Jacqueline Kennedy and her 9-year-old daughter, Caroline, the ship entered service 7 September 1968. John F. Kennedy is a version of the earlier Kitty Hawk-class aircraft carriers. Originally scheduled to be the fourth Kitty Hawk-class carrier, the ship received so many modifications during construction she formed her own class, the ship was originally ordered as a nuclear carrier, using the A3W reactor, but converted to conventional propulsion after construction had begun. The island is somewhat different from that of the Kitty Hawk class, with angled funnels to direct smoke, Kennedy is also 17 feet shorter than the Kitty Hawk class. After an ORI conducted by Commander, Carrier Division Two, Kennedy left for the Mediterranean in April 1969, the ship reached Rota, Spain on the morning of 22 April 1969 and relieved USS Forrestal. Rear Admiral Pierre N. Charbonnet, Commander, Carrier Striking Forces, Sixth Fleet, the turnover complete by nightfall, the carrier, escorted by destroyers, transited the Strait of Gibraltar at the start of the mid watch on 22 April. The next day, John F. Kennedy refueled from USS Marias and it was during the 1970s that Kennedy was upgraded to handle the F-14 Tomcat and the S-3 Viking. Kennedy was involved in the Navy response to the Yom Kippur War in the Middle East in October 1973, with her actions, in 1974, she won the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for the Atlantic Fleet. On 20 June 1975 Kennedy was the target of arson, suffering eight fires, with no injuries, while at port in Norfolk, Virginia. On 22 November 1975 Kennedy collided with the cruiser Belknap, severely damaging the ship and earning itself the nicknames Can Opener. As a result of the collision with John F. Kennedys overhanging deck, JP-5 fuel lines were ruptured spraying fuel over an adjacent catwalk, belknaps superstructure was gutted almost to the main deck, and seven of her crew killed. Aboard Kennedy, smoke inhalation claimed the life of Petty Officer 2nd Class Yeoman David A. Chivalette of CVW-1, both crew members ejected and landed on the deck, injured but alive. A naval race followed between the Soviet Navy and US Navy to get not only the plane, but also its missiles. In late 1978 Kennedy underwent her first, yearlong overhaul, which was completed in 1979, on 9 April 1979 she experienced five fires set by arson while undergoing overhaul at Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Virginia
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