1.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
2.
Modern dance
–
Modern dance is a broad genre of western concert or theatrical dance, primarily arising out of Germany and the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Modern dance is considered to have emerged as a rejection of. Socioeconomic and cultural factors contributed to its development. In the late 19th century, dance artists such as Isadora Duncan, Maud Allan, moving into the 1960s, new ideas about dance began to emerge, as a response to earlier dance forms and to social changes. Eventually, postmodern dance artists would reject the formalism of modern dance, and include such as performance art, contact improvisation, release technique. American modern dance can be divided into three periods or eras, Modern dance has evolved with each subsequent generation of participating artists. Artistic content has morphed and shifted from one choreographer to another, artists such as Graham and Horton developed techniques in the Central Modern Period that are still taught worldwide, and numerous other types of modern dance exist today. In America, increasing industrialization, the rise of a class, and the decline of Victorian social strictures led to, among other changes. It was in this atmosphere that a new dance was emerging as much from a rejection of social structures as from a dissatisfaction with ballet, womens colleges began offering aesthetic dance courses by the end of the 1880s. Emil Rath, who wrote at length about this emerging artform at the stated, Music and rhythmic bodily movement are twin sisters of art. 1877, Isadora Duncan was a predecessor of modern dance with her stress on the center or torso, bare feet, loose hair, free-flowing costumes, and incorporation of humor into emotional expression. She was inspired by classical Greek arts, folk dances, social dances, nature, natural forces, and new American athleticism such as skipping, running, jumping, leaping and she thought that ballet was ugly and meaningless gymnastics. Although she returned to the United States at various points in her life and she returned to Europe and died in Nice in 1927. 1891, Loie Fuller began experimenting with the effect that gas lighting had on her silk costumes, Fuller developed a form of natural movement and improvisation techniques that were used in conjunction with her revolutionary lighting equipment and translucent silk costumes. She patented her apparatus and methods of lighting that included the use of coloured gels and burning chemicals for luminescence. 1905, Ruth St. Denis, influenced by the actress Sarah Bernhardt and Japanese dancer Sada Yacco, developed her translations of Indian culture and her performances quickly became popular and she toured extensively while researching Oriental culture and arts. Other pioneers included Kurt Jooss and Harald Kreutzberg, an accomplished choreographer, she was a founding artist of the first American Dance Festival in Bennington. Holm choreographed extensively in the fields of dance and musical theater
Modern dance
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Martha Graham in 1948
Modern dance
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Isadora Duncan in 1903
Modern dance
–
Dancer at the
Laban school, Berlin 1929
Modern dance
–
Martha Graham and Bertram Ross in 1961; photo by
Carl van Vechten
3.
Stage lighting
–
Stage lighting is the craft of lighting as it applies to the production of theatre, dance, opera and other performance arts. Several different types of lighting instruments are used in this discipline. In addition to lighting, modern stage lighting can also include special effects, such as lasers. People who work on stage lighting are commonly referred to as lighting technicians, the personnel needed to install, operate, and control the equipment also cross over into these different areas of stage lighting applications. The earliest known form of lighting was during the early Grecian theatres. They would build their theatres facing east to west so that in the afternoon they could perform plays and have the natural sunlight hit the actors, natural light continued to be utilized when playhouses were built with a large circular opening at the top of the theatre. Early Modern English theatres were roofless, allowing light to be utilized for lighting the stage. As theatres moved indoors, artificial lighting became a necessity and it was developed as theatres, at an unknown date, candlelight was introduced which brought more developments to theatrical lighting across Europe. While Oliver Cromwell was ruling Britain, all production was suspended in 1642. During this theatrical famine, great developments were being made in theatres on the European mainland, Charles II, who would later become King Charles II witnessed Italian theatrical methods and brought them back to England when he came to power. New playhouses were built in England and their large sizes called for more elaborate lighting, English theatres during this time used dipped candles to light chandeliers and sconces. Dipped candles were made by dipping a wick into hot wax repeatedly to create a cylindrical candle, candles needed frequent trimming and relighting regardless of what was happening on-stage because they dripped hot grease on both the audience and actors. Chandeliers also blocked the view of some patrons, there were two different types of Restoration theatres in England, Restoration commercial theatres and Restoration court theatres. Commercial theatres tended to be conservative in their lighting, for economic reasons. Court theatres could afford to use most of the Continental innovations in their productions, two main court theatres, built between 1660 and 1665, were the Cockpit Theatre and the Hall Theatre. Chandeliers and sconces seemed to be the primary lighting sources here but other developments were being made, by the 1670s, the Hall Theatre started using footlights, and between 1670 and 1689 they used candles or lamps. It can be noted that by the end of the 17th century, French, there is not much written on theatrical lighting in England at the end of the 17th century and from the little information historians do have, not much changed by the middle of the 18th century. Gas lighting hit the English stage in the early 1800s beginning with the Drury Lane, in the 1820s, a new type of artificial illumination was developed
Stage lighting
–
Classical Spectacular used ordinary stage lighting plus special laser effects
Stage lighting
–
Dazzling light effects during a
Kanye West show in 2011.
Stage lighting
–
An example of a rig including moving head, generic and LED fixtures at 'The Tuesday Club'
Stage lighting
–
A gobo of this shape in a fixture with a red gel would produce a pattern like the one shown to the right.
4.
Chicago
–
Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
Chicago
–
Clockwise from top:
Downtown Chicago, the
Chicago Theatre, the
'L',
Navy Pier,
Millennium Park, the
Field Museum, and the
Willis Tower.
Chicago
–
Traditional
Potawatomi costume on display at the
Field Museum
Chicago
–
A 1903 painting of Chicago in 1833
Chicago
–
An artist's rendering of the
Great Chicago Fire of 1871
5.
Hinsdale, Illinois
–
Hinsdale is a village in Cook and DuPage counties in the U. S. state of Illinois. Hinsdale is a suburb of Chicago. The population was 16,816 at the 2010 census, most of whom lived in DuPage County, the towns ZIP code is 60521. It is listed in the top 1% of wealthiest towns in Illinois, the town has a rolling, wooded topography, with a quaint downtown, and is a 22-minute express train ride to downtown Chicago on the Burlington Northern line. It can be reached by highway from Interstate 294 or Interstate 55, the eastern boundary of Hinsdale is I-294, and the western boundary is Route 83. According to the 2010 census, Hinsdale has an area of 4.633 square miles. As of the census of 2010,16,816 people lived in Hinsdale. The racial makeup of the village was 90. 0% White,1. 3% African American,0. 0% Native American,6. 4% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 5% some other race, and 1. 7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 5% of the population,16. 5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8. 5% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.03, and the family size was 3.43. The median age was 41.4 years, for every 100 females there were 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.0 males, the median income for a household in the city was $165,598, and the median income for a family was $170,433. Males had an income of $161,579 versus $77,292 for females. The per capita income for the city was $78,902, about 2. 2% of the population was below the poverty line, including 3. 8% of those under age 18 and 0. 4% of those age 65 or over. Hinsdales downtown area is a National Register Historic District, the downtown area is located in the center of town and is remarkably little changed considering the many teardowns that have occurred in town. The village has restaurants, different types of shops, and various services, the Robbins Park district just east of downtown between Garfield Street and County Line Road, as well as between Hinsdale Avenue and 9th Street, is a National Register Historic District as well. The district includes two of Hinsdales seven buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places, as well as seven of seventeen Hinsdale Historic Landmarks. Third St. and the William Whitney House at 142 E, the village was incorporated on April 1,1873
Hinsdale, Illinois
–
The Hinsdale Memorial Building, the
Village Hall and
public library in the
Downtown Hinsdale Historic District
Hinsdale, Illinois
–
Location in
DuPage County and the state of
Illinois.
Hinsdale, Illinois
–
The
Hinsdale train station on the
BNSF Railway Line
Hinsdale, Illinois
–
Major city
6.
Vaudeville
–
Vaudeville is a theatrical genre of variety entertainment. It was especially popular in the United States and Canada from the early 1880s until the early 1930s, a typical vaudeville performance is made up of a series of separate, unrelated acts grouped together on a common bill. A vaudeville performer is often referred to as a vaudevillian, Vaudeville developed from many sources, including the concert saloon, minstrelsy, freak shows, dime museums, and literary American burlesque. Called the heart of American show business, vaudeville was one of the most popular types of entertainment in North America for several decades, the origin of this term is obscure, but is often explained as being derived from the French expression voix de ville. A second speculation is that it comes from the songs on satire by poet Olivier Basselin. Some, however, preferred the term variety to what manager Tony Pastor called its sissy. Thus, vaudeville was marketed as variety well into the 20th century, with its first subtle appearances within the early 1860s, vaudeville was not initially a common form of entertainment. The form gradually evolved from the saloon and variety hall into its mature form throughout the 1870s and 1880s. This more gentle form was known as Polite Vaudeville, in the years before the American Civil War, entertainment existed on a different scale. Certainly, variety theatre existed before 1860 in Europe and elsewhere, in the US, as early as the first decades of the 19th century, theatregoers could enjoy a performance consisting of Shakespeare plays, acrobatics, singing, dancing, and comedy. As the years progressed, people seeking diversified amusement found a number of ways to be entertained. Vaudeville was characterized by traveling companies touring through cities and towns, a significant influence also came from Dutch minstrels and comedians. Vaudeville incorporated these various itinerant amusements into a stable, institutionalized form centered in Americas growing urban hubs, pastors experiment proved successful, and other managers soon followed suit. B. F. Keith took the step, starting in Boston. Later, E. F. Albee, adoptive grandfather of the Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Edward Albee, circuits such as those managed by Keith-Albee provided vaudevilles greatest economic innovation and the principal source of its industrial strength. They enabled a chain of allied vaudeville houses that remedied the chaos of the booking system by contracting acts for regional and national tours. These could easily be lengthened from a few weeks to two years, Albee also gave national prominence to vaudevilles trumpeting polite entertainment, a commitment to entertainment equally inoffensive to men, women and children. Acts that violated this ethos were admonished and threatened with expulsion from the remaining performances or were canceled altogether
Vaudeville
–
A promotional poster for the Sandow Trocadero Vaudevilles (1894), showing dancers, clowns, trapeze artists and costumed dogs
Vaudeville
–
Typical provincial venue on the circuit: "The Opera" in
Kirksville, Missouri
Vaudeville
–
This 1913 how-to booklet for would-be vaudevillians was recently republished.
Vaudeville
–
As the genre declined, most performers left the theatre; here the kid
hoofer Ray Wollbrinck (cousin of
Louis Wollbrinck), once called "the cleverest buckdancer on the vaudeville stage"; he later became a bandleader and ended his days as a
bank teller.
7.
Circus (performing art)
–
The term circus also describes the performance which has followed various formats through its 250-year modern history. Philip Astley is credited with being the father of the circus when he opened the first circus in 1768 in England. Early circuses were almost exclusively demonstrations of equestrian skills with a few types of acts to link the horsemanship performances. Performances developed significantly through the next fifty years, with large scale theatrical battle reenactments becoming a significant feature, as styles of performance have changed since the time of Astley, so too have the types of venues where these circuses have performed. The earliest modern circuses were performed in open air structures with limited covered seating, from the late 18th to late 19th century custom-made circus buildings were built with various types of seating, a centre ring, and sometimes a stage. The traditional large tents, commonly known as Big Tops were introduced in the mid 19th century as touring circuses superseded static venues and these tents eventually became the most common venue and remain so to the present day. Contemporary circuses perform in a variety of venues including tents, theatres, many circus performances are still held in a ring usually 13 m in diameter. This dimension was adopted by Philip Astley in the late 18th century as the minimum diameter that enabled a horse rider to stand upright on a cantering horse to perform their tricks. In the book De Spectaculis early Christian writer Tertullian claimed that the first circus games were staged by the goddess Circe in honour of her father Helios, the modern and commonly held idea of a circus is of a Big Top with various acts providing entertainment therein. For many, circus history begins with Englishman Philip Astley, while for others its origins go back much further—to Roman times. In Ancient Rome, the circus was a building for the exhibition of horse and chariot races, equestrian shows, staged battles, gladiatorial combat, the Roman circus buildings were, however, not circular but rectangular with semi circular ends. The lower seats were reserved for persons of rank, There were also various state boxes for the giver of the games, the circus was the only public spectacle at which men and women were not separated. It was constructed during the monarchy and, at first, built completely from wood, after being rebuilt several times, the final version of the Circus Maximus could seat 250,000 people, it was built of stone and measured 400m in length and 90m in width. Next in importance were the Circus Flaminius and the Circus Neronis, a fourth circus was constructed by Maxentius, its ruins have helped archaeologists reconstruct the Roman circus. For some time after the fall of Rome, large buildings fell out of use as centres of mass entertainment. Instead, itinerant performers, animal trainers and showmen travelled between towns throughout Europe, performing at local fairs, Astley performed stunts in a 42 ft diameter ring, which is the standard size used by circuses ever since. Astley referred to the arena as a Circle and the building as an amphitheatre. Joseph Grimaldi, the first mainstream clown, had his first major role as Little Clown in the pantomime The Triumph of Mirth, or, the Royal Circus opened in London on 4 November 1782 by Charles Dibdin and his partner Charles Hughes
Circus (performing art)
–
Advertisement for the
Barnum & Bailey Circus, 1900.
Circus (performing art)
–
Sells Brothers Circus with Great Danes
Circus (performing art)
–
Astley's Amphitheatre in London c.1808
Circus (performing art)
–
Trapeze artists, in lithograph by Calvert Litho. Co., 1890
8.
Free dance
–
Free dance is a 20th-century dance form that preceded modern dance. Free dance was prolific in Central and Eastern Europe, where schools were created, such as the School of Musical Movement, in Russia. Josh Owings added much to the style of Free Dance in North America and his style revolved around swift body movements combined with passionate facial expressions. Another pioneer of the sport was Andrew Saah and he created the flying chinamen move that introduced a distinct sect of Asian males to free dance liberation movement. Compared to other styles, free dance is regarded by artists, including Isadora Duncan. History of Musical Movement Early Days of Modern Dance in Hungary
Free dance
–
Isadora Duncan performing free dance. Photo by
Arnold Genthe during her 1915–18 American tour.
9.
Improvisation
–
Improvisation is the term for the action of improvising. In a technical context, this can mean adapting a device for use other than that which it was designed for, or building a device from unusual components in an ad-hoc fashion. Improvisation, within the context of performing arts, is a spontaneous performance without specific or scripted preparation. The skills of improvisation can apply to different faculties, across all artistic, scientific, physical, cognitive, academic. Musical improvisation is usually defined as the composition of music, without prior preparation, improvisational comedy is a theatre art performed throughout the world and has had on-again, off-again status throughout history. Dance improvisation is frequently used as a choreographic tool, choreography is also frequently used as a tool for improvisation. Improvisation also exists outside the arts, Improvisation in engineering is to solve a problem with the tools and materials immediately at hand. Improvised weapons are used by guerrillas, insurgents and criminals. Improvisation in engineering is to solve a problem with the tools and materials immediately at hand, engineering improvisations may be needed because of emergencies, embargo, obsolescence of a product and the loss of manufacturer support, or just a lack of funding appropriate for a better solution. Users of motor vehicles in parts of Africa develop improvised solutions where it is not feasible to obtain manufacturer-approved spare parts. The popular television program MacGyver used as its gimmick a hero who could solve almost any problem with jury rigged devices from everyday materials, a Swiss Army knife and some duct tape. Improvisation can be thought of as an on the spot or off the cuff spontaneous moment of sudden inventiveness that can just come to mind, body, no preparation or training is needed. However, improvisation in any life or art form, can more often if it is practiced as a way of encouraging creative behavior. That practice includes learning to use ones intuition, as well as learning a technical understanding of the necessary skills and this can result in the invention of new thought patterns, new practices, new structures or symbols, and/or new ways to act. Improvisation was originally used on dramatic television. Techniques of improvisation are used in training for performing arts or entertainment, for example, music, theatre. To extemporize or ad lib is basically the same as improvising, colloquial terms such as lets play it by the ear, take it as it comes, and make it up as we go along are all used to describe improvisation. Where the improvisation is intended to solve a problem on a temporary basis and this applies to the field of engineering
Improvisation
–
ComedySportz Austin performing a shortform game based on direction from the audience with the help of Red Dirt Improv; in this case spoofing a hard rock band performing a song made up on the stage
Improvisation
–
The Ligue d'improvisation montréalaise (fr) (LIM) is a league of improvisational theatre based in
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Improvisation
–
Improvised
tire puncturing device (slang term "Ninja") – iron nail inserted into a rubber disc (from used tire)
10.
Silk
–
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, Silk production also occurs in Hymenoptera, silverfish, mayflies, thrips, leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such as spiders, the word silk comes from Old English sioloc, from Greek σηρικός serikos, silken, ultimately from an Asian source. Several kinds of silk, which are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and used in China, South Asia. However, the scale of production was far smaller than for cultivated silks. Thus, the way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated was by tedious. Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. Wild silks also tend to be difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. Genetic modification of domesticated silkworms is used to facilitate the production of more types of silk. Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, the earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and it was used as wrapping for the body of a child from a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun at Xingyang, Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu, because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in demand, and became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han
Silk
–
Four of the most important domesticated silk moths. Top to bottom:
Bombyx mori,
Hyalophora cecropia,
Antheraea pernyi,
Samia cynthia. From
Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–1892)
Silk
–
Woven silk textile from tomb no 1. at
Mawangdui in
Changsha,
Hunan province,
China, from the
Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BC
Silk
–
A painting depicting women inspecting silk, early 12th century, ink and color on silk, by
Emperor Huizong of Song.
Silk
–
Portrait of a silk merchant in Guangzhou,
Qing dynasty, from
Peabody Essex Museum
11.
Serpentine dance
–
The serpentine dance is a form of dance that was popular throughout the United States and Europe in the 1890s, becoming a staple of stage shows and early film. The Serpentine is an evolution of the dance, a form of burlesque dance that had recently arrived in the United States from England. Skirt dancing was itself a reaction against academic forms of ballet, incorporating tamed-down versions of folk, during the dance she held her long skirt in her hands, and waved it around, revealing her form inside. The Serpentine Dance was a frequent subject of early pictures, as it highlighted the new mediums ability to portray movement. Two particularly well-known versions were Annabelle Serpentine Dance, a performance by Broadway dancer Annabelle Whitford from Edison Studios, many other filmmakers produced their own versions, distributing prints that had been hand-tinted to evoke the appearance of colored light projection. Serpentinen Tanz Annabelle Serpentine Dance, No.2 on YouTube Serpentine Dance
Serpentine dance
12.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
13.
Art Nouveau
–
Art Nouveau is an international style of art, architecture and applied art, especially the decorative arts, that was most popular between 1890 and 1910. A reaction to the art of the 19th century, it was inspired by natural forms and structures, particularly the curved lines of plants. English uses the French name Art Nouveau, according to the philosophy of the style, art should be a way of life. For many well-off Europeans, it was possible to live in an art nouveau-inspired house with art nouveau furniture, silverware, fabrics, ceramics including tableware, jewellery, cigarette cases, artists desired to combine the fine arts and applied arts, even for utilitarian objects. By 1910, Art Nouveau was already out of style and it was replaced as the dominant European architectural and decorative style first by Art Deco and then by Modernism. Art Nouveau took its name from the Maison de lArt Nouveau, in France, Art Nouveau was also sometimes called by the British term Modern Style due to its roots in the Arts and Crafts Movement, Style moderne, or Style 1900. It was also sometimes called Style Jules Verne, Le Style Métro, Art Belle Époque, in Belgium, where the architectural movement began, it was sometimes termed Style nouille or Style coup de fouet. In Britain, it was known as the Modern Style, or, because of the arts and crafts movement led by Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, as the Glasgow style. In Italy, because of the popularity in Italy of designs from Londons Liberty & Co department store, in the United States, due to its association with Louis Comfort Tiffany, it was often called the Tiffany style. In Germany and Scandinavia, a style emerged at about the same time, it was called Jugendstil. In Catalonia the related style was known as Modernisme, in Spain as Modernismo, Arte joven, in Russia, it was called Modern, and Jugendstil, and Nieuwe Kunst in the Netherlands. Some names refer specifically to the forms that were popular with the Art Nouveau artists, Stile Floreal in France, Paling Stijl in the Netherlands. The new art movement had its roots in Britain, in the designs of William Morris. Early prototypes of the include the Red House of Morris. In France, the style combined several different tendencies, in architecture, it was influenced by the architectural theorist and historian Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, a declared enemy of the historical Beaux-Arts architectural style. For each function its material, for each material its form and this book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, and Antoni Gaudí. The French painters Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard and Édouard Vuillard played an important part in integrating fine arts painting with decoration, I believe that before everything a painting must decorate, Denis wrote in 1891. The choice of subjects or scenes is nothing and it is by the value of tones, the colored surface and the harmony of lines that I can reach the spirit and wake up the emotions
Art Nouveau
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Table Lamp by
François-Raoul Larche in
gilt bronze, with the dancer
Loïe Fuller as model
Art Nouveau
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Louis Majorelle, wall cabinet
Art Nouveau
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Art Nouveau interior at the 1900 Paris Universal Exhibition by Bruno Möhring, German pavilion.
Art Nouveau
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Art Nouveau sculpture, detail of facade in
Metz, France
14.
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
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Toulouse-Lautrec is among the best-known painters of the Post-Impressionist period, with Cézanne, Van Gogh and Gauguin. In a 2005 auction at Christies auction house, La Blanchisseuse, his painting of a young laundress, sold for US$22.4 million. The last part of his name means he was a member of an aristocratic family and his younger brother was born in 1867, but died the following year. After the death of his brother, Henris parents separated and a nanny ended up taking care of him, at the age of eight, Henri went to live with his mother in Paris where he drew sketches and caricatures in his exercise workbooks. The family quickly realised that Henris talents lay in drawing and painting, a friend of his father, René Princeteau, visited sometimes to give informal lessons. Some of Henris early paintings are of horses, a speciality of Princeteau, in 1875, Toulouse-Lautrec returned to Albi because his mother had concerns about his health. He took thermal baths at Amélie-les-Bains and his mother consulted doctors in the hope of finding a way to improve her sons growth, Toulouse-Lautrecs parents, the Comte and Comtesse, were first cousins, and he suffered from congenital health conditions sometimes attributed to a family history of inbreeding. At age 13, Toulouse-Lautrec fractured his right femur, at age 14, he fractured his left. The breaks did not heal properly, modern physicians attribute this to an unknown genetic disorder, possibly pycnodysostosis, or a variant disorder along the lines of osteopetrosis, achondroplasia, or osteogenesis imperfecta. Rickets aggravated by praecox virilism has also been suggested, afterwards, his legs ceased to grow, so that as an adult he was extremely short. He developed an adult-sized torso, while retaining his child-sized legs, additionally, he is reported to have had hypertrophied genitals. Physically unable to participate in many activities enjoyed by males his age and he became an important Post-Impressionist painter, art nouveau illustrator, and lithographer, and, through his works, recorded many details of the late-19th-century bohemian lifestyle in Paris. Toulouse-Lautrec contributed a number of illustrations to the magazine Le Rire during the mid-1890s, after initially failing college entrance exams, he passed his second attempt and completed his studies. Toulouse-Lautrecs mother had high ambitions and, with the aim of her son becoming a fashionable and respected painter and he was drawn to Montmartre, the area of Paris famous for its bohemian lifestyle and the haunt of artists, writers, and philosophers. Studying with Bonnat placed Toulouse-Lautrec in the heart of Montmartre, an area he rarely left over the next 20 years. After Bonnat took a new job, Toulouse-Lautrec moved to the studio of Fernand Cormon in 1882 and studied for a five years. At this time he met Émile Bernard and Vincent van Gogh, Cormon, whose instruction was more relaxed than Bonnats, allowed his pupils to roam Paris, looking for subjects to paint. During this period, Toulouse-Lautrec had his first encounter with a prostitute, which led him to paint his first painting of a prostitute in Montmartre, a woman rumoured to be Marie-Charlet
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
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Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
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La Toilette (fr), oil on board, 1896
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
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Woman at the Tub from the Portfolio Elles (Femme au Tub) (1896)
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
–
Toulouse-Lautrec's grave in
Verdelais
15.
Auguste Rodin
–
François Auguste René Rodin, known as Auguste Rodin, was a French sculptor. Although Rodin is generally considered the progenitor of modern sculpture, he did not set out to rebel against the past and he was schooled traditionally, took a craftsman-like approach to his work, and desired academic recognition, although he was never accepted into Pariss foremost school of art. Sculpturally, Rodin possessed an ability to model a complex, turbulent. Many of his most notable sculptures were roundly criticized during his lifetime and they clashed with predominant figurative sculpture traditions, in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodins most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory, modeled the human body with realism, Rodin was sensitive to the controversy surrounding his work, but refused to change his style. Successive works brought increasing favor from the government and the artistic community, by 1900, he was a world-renowned artist. Wealthy private clients sought Rodins work after his Worlds Fair exhibit and he married his lifelong companion, Rose Beuret, in the last year of both their lives. His sculptures suffered a decline in popularity after his death in 1917, Rodin remains one of the few sculptors widely known outside the visual arts community. Rodin was born in 1840 into a family in Paris, the second child of Marie Cheffer and Jean-Baptiste Rodin. He was largely self-educated, and began to draw at age ten, between ages 14 and 17, Rodin attended the Petite École, a school specializing in art and mathematics, where he studied drawing and painting. His drawing teacher, Horace Lecoq de Boisbaudran, believed in first developing the personality of his students so that they observed with their own eyes, Rodin still expressed appreciation for his teacher much later in life. It was at Petite École that he first met Jules Dalou, in 1857, Rodin submitted a clay model of a companion to the École des Beaux-Arts in an attempt to win entrance, he did not succeed, and two further applications were also denied. Given that entrance requirements at the Grande École were not particularly high, Rodins inability to gain entrance may have been due to the judges Neoclassical tastes, while Rodin had been schooled in light, 18th-century sculpture. Leaving the Petite École in 1857, Rodin earned a living as a craftsman, Rodins sister Maria, two years his senior, died of peritonitis in a convent in 1862. Rodin was anguished and felt guilty because he had introduced Maria to an unfaithful suitor, turning away from art, he briefly joined a Catholic order, the Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament. Saint Peter Julian Eymard, founder and head of the congregation, recognized Rodins talent and, sensing his lack of suitability for the order and he returned to work as a decorator, while taking classes with animal sculptor Antoine-Louis Barye. The teachers attention to detail – his finely rendered musculature of animals in motion – significantly influenced Rodin, in 1864, Rodin began to live with a young seamstress named Rose Beuret, with whom he would stay – with ranging commitment – for the rest of his life. The couple had a son, Auguste-Eugène Beuret and that year, Rodin offered his first sculpture for exhibition, and entered the studio of Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, a successful mass producer of objets dart
Auguste Rodin
–
Rodin circa 1862.
Auguste Rodin
–
Photo of Rodin wearing a beret.
Auguste Rodin
–
Camille Claudel (1864–1943)
Auguste Rodin
–
Rodin in his studio.
16.
Franz von Stuck
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Franz Stuck was a German painter, sculptor, engraver, and architect. In 1906, Stuck was awarded the Order of Merit of the Bavarian Crown and was known as Franz Ritter von Stuck. Born at Tettenweis near Passau, Stuck displayed an affinity for drawing, to begin his artistic education he relocated in 1878 to Munich, where he would settle for life. From 1881 to 1885 Stuck attended the Munich Academy and he first became well known by cartoons for Fliegende Blätter, and vignette designs for programmes and book decoration. In 1889 he exhibited his first paintings at the Munich Glass Palace, in 1892 Stuck co-founded the Munich Secession, and also executed his first sculpture, Athlete. The next year he won acclaim with the critical and public success of what is now his most famous work. Also during 1893, Stuck was awarded a medal for painting at the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago. In 1895 he began teaching painting at the Munich Academy, in 1897 Stuck married an American widow, Mary Lindpainter, and began work designing his own residence and studio, the Villa Stuck. His designs for the villa included everything from layout to interior decorations, having attained much fame by this time, Stuck was ennobled on December 9,1905 and would receive further public honours from around Europe during the remainder of his life. He continued to be respected among young artists as professor at the Munich Academy. Notable students of his over the years include Paul Klee, Hans Purrmann, Wassily Kandinsky, Alf Bayrle and he was a member of the International Society of Sculptors, Painters and Gravers. Franz von Stuck died on August 30,1928 in Munich and he is buried in the Munich Waldfriedhof next to his wife Mary. Stucks subject matter was primarily from mythology, inspired by the work of Arnold Böcklin, large forms dominate most of his paintings and indicate his proclivities for sculpture. His seductive female nudes are an example of popular Symbolist content. Ritter von Stucks Kämpfende Amazone, created in 1897, graced Hermann Görings Carinhall, the number of Stucks pupils who achieved great success served to enhance the teachers own fame. Yet by the time of his death, Stucks importance as an artist in his own right had almost been forgotten, his art seemed old-fashioned, Stucks reputation languished until the late 1960s when a renewed interest in Art Nouveau brought him to attention once more. In 1968 the Villa Stuck was opened to the public, it is now a museum, in Robert Waites book The Psychopathic God, Adolph Hitler and numerous other sources it is noted that Franz Stuck was Hitlers favorite painter from childhood on. Stucks paintings were mentioned by Carl Jung, who wrote, Art nouveau Symbolism Adam, collection of Works by Franz von Stuck Museum Villa Stuck The Gallery of Franz von Stuck Franz von Stuck, Living Images Grave of Mary and Franz von Stuck
Franz von Stuck
–
Franz von Stuck, self-portrait.
Franz von Stuck
–
The Sin (Die Sünde), 1893.
Franz von Stuck
–
External video
Franz von Stuck
–
Sisyphus, 1920
17.
Maurice Denis
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Maurice Denis was a French painter and writer, and a member of the Symbolist and Les Nabis movements. His theories contributed to the foundations of cubism, fauvism, Maurice Denis was born 25 November 1870, in Granville, Manche, a coastal town in the Normandy region of France. Waters and coastlines would remain favorite subject throughout his career. The Denis family was affluent, and young Maurice attended both the École des Beaux-Arts and the Académie Julian, where he studied with the French figure painter and theorist Jules Joseph Lefebvre. At the Académie, he met painters and future Nabi members including Paul Sérusier, Pierre Bonnard, through Bonnard he also met the future Nabis Édouard Vuillard, Ker-Xavier Roussel, in 1890, they formed The Nabis. They chose Nabi—Hebrew for Prophet—because they understood they would be creating new forms of expression, the group would split apart by the end of the decade, and would influence the later work of both Bonnard and Vuillard, as well as non-Nabi painters like Henri Matisse. After Les Nabis, Denis went on to focus on religious subjects, in 1922, he published his collected historical and theoretical work as Nouvelles théories sur l’art moderne, sur l’art sacré—that is, New Theories of Modern and Sacred Art. The subjects of his works include landscapes and figure studies, particularly of mother. Denis was among the first artists to insist on the flatness of the picture plane—one of the starting points for modernism. In 1898, he produced a theory of creation that found the source for art in the character of the painter, That which creates a work of art is the power and the will of the artist. The Ateliers dArt Sacré were founded on 5 November 1919 after World War I by Denis, the Ateliers created art for churches, particularly those devastated by the recent war. Denis said that he was against academic art because it sacrificed emotion to convention and artifice, above all he wanted beauty, which was an attribute of divinity. Denis, a Catholic tertiary, married his first wife, Marthe Meurier and they had seven children, and she would pose for numerous Denis works. Following her death in 1919, Denis painted a chapel dedicated to her memory, two years later, he married again, to Elisabeth Graterolle, and fathered two more children. Politically, he was close to the monarchist Action Française movement, Denis died in Paris of injuries resulting from an automobile accident in November 1943. In 1980, the Maurice Denis Museum was opened in the home in the Parisian suburb of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. A major retrospective was mounted at the Musée Des Beaux Arts de Montréal in 2007, a similar exhibition took place in 1995 at the UKs Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool. Leçons de l’Italie, d’après son journal | Lessons from Italy, based on his Journal
Maurice Denis
–
Portrait of Maurice Denis by
Odilon Redon
Maurice Denis
–
Wave, 1916 painting by Maurice Denis. 100 × 124 cm.
Ohara Museum of Art
Maurice Denis
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Homage to Cézanne, 1900.
Maurice Denis
–
Paul Jamot and Maurice Denis.
18.
Thomas Theodor Heine
–
Thomas Theodor Heine was a German painter and illustrator. Born in Leipzig, Heine established himself as a gifted caricaturist at an early age, the illustrated critiques of social orders, and the monarchy in particular, that he made for the magazine led to a six-month prison sentence in 1898. He also began work as an illustrator in the 1890s. He fled Germany in 1933, first to Prague, from 1938 until 1942 he lived in Oslo, and from 1942 until his death in 1948 he lived in Stockholm. He published an autobiography in 1942 Ich warte auf Wunder. Works by Thomas Theodor Heine at Faded Page
Thomas Theodor Heine
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Cover illustration by Thomas Theodor Heine for the magazine Simplicissimus in 1910
19.
Koloman Moser
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Born in Vienna, he studied at the Wiener Akademie and the Kunstgewerbeschule, where he also taught from 1899. His designs in architecture, furniture, jewellery, graphics, Moser drew upon the clean lines and repetitive motifs of classical Greek and Roman art and architecture in reaction to the Baroque decadence of his turn-of-the-century Viennese surroundings. In 1901/1902, he published a portfolio titled Die Quelle of elegant graphic designs for such things as tapestries, fabrics, in 1904, he created the Apse mosaic and glass windows for the Kirche am Steinhof in Vienna. In 1905, together with the Klimt group, he separated from the Vienna Secession, the same year, he married Editha Mautner von Markhof, the daughter to one of Austrias great industry fortunes. In 1907 Moser, due to conflicts and as his plans for reorganising the Werkstätte werent realised. Koloman was one of the designers for Austrias leading art journal Ver Sacrum and this art journal paid great attention to design and was designed mainly by Moser, Gustav Klimt and Josef Hoffmann. His design for the cover of one edition of the art journal was later plagiarized by well known street artist and designer, on the reverse of the coin, the Koloman Moser stained glass window over the main entrance can be seen. In the centre of the window is God the Father seated on a throne, the window is flanked with a pair of bronze angels in Jugendstil style, originally designed by Othmar Schimkowitz. Each plate was double sided, with a design on one side. It sold for a record price of $12,600. Koloman Moser, Master of Viennese Modernism, catalog of the Kolo Moser exhibition in the Leopold Museum. Paris, Editions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, media related to Koloman Moser at Wikimedia Commons Wiener Werkstätte Koloman Moser at WOKA Koloman Moser article in cosmopolis. ch Biography, Literature and Works by Koloman Moser
Koloman Moser
–
Photograph of Koloman Moser (1905)
Koloman Moser
–
A Moser-designed 100
Austro-Hungarian krone note over-stamped and used as provisional
Hungarian kronen in 1920.
Koloman Moser
–
Steinhof Church commemorative coin
Koloman Moser
–
Artwork "Ambilech" for Joh. Backhausen & Söhne
20.
Demetre Chiparus
–
Demétre Haralamb Chiparus was a Romanian Art Deco era sculptor who lived and worked in Paris, France. He was one of the most important sculptors of the Art Deco era, Demétre H. Chiparus, also known as Dumitru Chipăruş, was born in Dorohoi, Romania, the son of Haralamb and Saveta Chiparus. In 1909 he went to Italy, where he attended the classes of Italian sculptor Raffaello Romanelli, in 1912 he traveled to Paris to attend the Ecole des Beaux Arts to pursue his art at the classes of Antonin Mercie and Jean Boucher. Demétre Chiparus died in 1947, suffering a stroke on returning from studying animals at the zoo in Vincennes and he was buried in Bagneux Cemetery, just south of Paris. The first sculptures of Chiparus were created in the style and were exhibited at the Salon of 1914. He employed the combination of bronze and ivory, called chryselephantine, most of his renowned works were made between 1914 and 1933. The first series of sculptures manufactured by Chiparus were the series of the children, the mature style of Chiparus took shape beginning in the 1920s. His sculptures are remarkable for their bright and outstanding decorative effect, dancers of the Russian Ballet, French theatre, and early motion pictures were among his more notable subjects and were typified by a long, slender, stylized appearance. His work was influenced by an interest in Egypt, after Pharaoh Tutankhamens tomb was excavated. Later in life Zoula de Boncza, a descendant of Polish nobility and one of Loie Fuller best students, created a book published in 1961, the book was published with texts from Eugène de Rijac and Illustrations by Alexandre Berlant and Yvonne Breton. He worked primarily with the Edmond Etling and Cie Foundry in Paris administrated by Julien Dreyfus, les Neveux de J. Lehmann was the second foundry who constantly worked with Chiparus and produced the sculptures cast from his models. Chiparus rarely exhibited at the Salon, in 1923 he showed his “Javelin Thrower” and in 1928 exhibited his “Ta-Keo” dancer, which was edited by the manufacture Friedrich Goldscheider. During the period of Nazi persecution and the World War II the foundries discontinued production of work by Chiparus, the economic situation of that time was not favorable to the development of decorative arts and circumstances for many sculptors worsened. For a time in the early 1940s almost no works of Chiparus were sold but he continued sculpting for his own pleasure, at the 1942 Paris Salon, the plaster sculptures “Polar Bear” and “American Bison” were exhibited and in 1943 he showed a marble “Polar Bear” and plaster “Pelican”. Sculptures of Dimitri Chiparus represent the manifestation of Art Deco style in decorative bronze ivory sculpture. Traditionally, four factors of influence over the activity of the artist can be distinguished, Serge Diaghilevs Ballets Russes, ancient Egyptian art. Early motion pictures were among his notable subjects and were typified by figures with a long, slender. Some of his sculptures were directly inspired by Russian dancers, Chiparus could have been influenced by Russian ballets indirectly, through the performances of French music halls and cabarets which bore traces of the strong impact of Russian ballet
Demetre Chiparus
–
Egyptian dancer
Demetre Chiparus
–
Tanara
21.
Maria Sklodowska-Curie
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Marie Skłodowska Curie, born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris and she was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaws clandestine Floating University and began her scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel. She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and her achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity, techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under her direction, the worlds first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms and she founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw, which remain major centres of medical research today. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals, while a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland and she named the first chemical element that she discovered—polonium, which she isolated in 1898—after her native country. Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in the Russian partition of Poland, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, the elder siblings of Maria were Zofia, Józef, Bronisława and Helena. On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Polands independence. This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria, her sisters and her brother. Marias paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been a teacher in Lublin, where he taught the young Bolesław Prus. Her father, Władysław Skłodowski, taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, after Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home, and instructed his children in its use. Marias mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls and she died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Marias oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder, Marias father was an atheist, her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Marias mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic. When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the school of J. Sikorska, next she attended a gymnasium for girls. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw
Maria Sklodowska-Curie
–
Marie Skłodowska Curie, c. 1920
Maria Sklodowska-Curie
–
Birthplace on ulica Freta in Warsaw's "
New Town " – now home to the
Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum
Maria Sklodowska-Curie
–
Władysław Skłodowski with daughters (from left) Maria,
Bronisława, Helena, 1890
Maria Sklodowska-Curie
–
At a Warsaw laboratory, in 1890–91, Maria Skłodowska did her first scientific work
22.
Patent
–
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
Patent
–
U.S patent
Patent
–
James Puckle 's 1718
early autocannon was one of the first inventions required to provide a specification for a patent.
Patent
–
The plate of the Martin
ejector seat of a military aircraft, stating that the design is covered by multiple patents in Britain, South Africa, Canada and "others".
Dübendorf Museum of Military Aviation.
23.
Color gel
–
Modern gels are thin sheets of polycarbonate or polyester, placed in front of a lighting fixture in the path of the beam. Gels have a life, especially in saturated colors and shorter wavelength. The color will fade or even melt, depending upon the absorption of the color. In permanent installations and some uses, colored glass filters or dichroic filters are being used. The main drawbacks are additional expense and a limited selection. In Shakesperean theater, red wine was used in a container as a light filter. In later days, colored water or silk was used to light in the theater. Later, a gelatin base became the material of choice, gelatin gel was available at least until 1979. The name gel has continued to be used to the present day, gelatin based color media had no melting point, and the color was cast in the media as opposed to being coated on the surface, both important properties for color media. It would, however, char at high temperature and became brittle once heated, by 1945 more heat-tolerant self-extinguishing acetate-based through-dyed materials were being manufactured. In the States Roscolene was also developed to deal with higher output light sources. The acetate-based material was replaced by polycarbonates like Roscolar and polyester based filters and these materials have superior heat tolerance when compared to acetate-based gels. Many were transparent film with a surface coating, the first dyed polyester gels were introduced by Berkey-Colortran in 1969 as Gelatran, the original deep dyed polyester. The Gelatran process is used today to produce GAMColor and Roscolux. Other color manufacturers, such as Lee Filters and Apollo Design Technology use a surface applied dye, almost every color manufacturer today uses either polycarbonate or polyester to manufacture their gels. Even todays gels can burn out easily, rendering them useless, to help combat this, a high temperature material, can be used to help prolong the life in high-heat output lighting instruments. In the 1930s Strand Electric of Floral Street, London provided the first numbering system for their swatches and with their agents in New York, remnants of this original filter color system exist in the color swatches of today. In the theater, gels are typically available in single 20x 24 sheets, the size originates from the gelatin days, it is the same as a standard bakers sheet, which was used to cast the sheets
Color gel
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Many color gels organized, some in gel frames
Color gel
–
A motorized color gel
24.
Salt
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Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County
Salt
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Salt deposits beside the
Dead Sea
Salt
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Red rock salt from the
Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan
Salt
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Salt production in
Halle, Saxony-Anhalt (1670)
Salt
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Ponds near
Maras, Peru, fed from a mineral spring and used for salt production since the time of the
Incas.
25.
Luminescent
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Luminescence is emission of light by a substance not resulting from heat, it is thus a form of cold-body radiation. It can be caused by chemical reactions, electrical energy, subatomic motions, or stress on a crystal and this distinguishes luminescence from incandescence, which is light emitted by a substance as a result of heating. Historically, radioactivity was thought of as a form of radio-luminescence, the term luminescence was introduced in 1888 by Eilhard Wiedemann. The dials, hands, scales, and signs of aviation and navigational instruments and this property of these minerals can be used during the process of mineral identification at rock outcrops in the field, or in the laboratory. Fluorophores. org A database of luminescent dyes
Luminescent
–
Luminol and
haemoglobin, an example of chemiluminescence
26.
Isadora Duncan
–
Angela Isadora Duncan was an American dancer who performed to acclaim throughout Europe. Isadora Duncan was born in San Francisco, the youngest of the four children of Joseph Charles Duncan, a banker, mining engineer and connoisseur of the arts and her brothers were Augustin Duncan and Raymond Duncan, her sister, Elizabeth Duncan, was also a dancer. Soon after Isadoras birth, her father was exposed in illegal dealings. Her parents divorced when she was an infant, and her mother moved with her family to Oakland and she worked there as a seamstress and piano teacher. From ages six to ten Duncan attended school but, finding it constricting she dropped out, as her family was very poor, she and her three siblings earned money by teaching dance to local children. In 1896 Duncan became part of Augustin Dalys theater company in New York and her father, along with his third wife and their daughter, died in 1898 when the British passenger steamer SS Mohegan hit some rocks off the coast of Cornwall. Duncan began her career at a very early age by giving lessons in her home to other neighborhood children. Her novel approach to dance was evident in these classes, in which she followed fantasy and improvised. A desire to travel brought her to Chicago where she auditioned for theater companies. This took her to New York City where her unique vision of dance clashed with the popular pantomimes of theater companies, in New York Duncan took some classes with Marie Bonfanti but was quickly disappointed in ballet routine. Feeling unhappy and unappreciated in America, Duncan moved to London in 1898, there she performed in the drawing rooms of the wealthy, drawing inspiration from the Greek vases and bas-reliefs in the British Museum. The earnings from these engagements enabled her to rent a studio where she developed her work, from London, she traveled to Paris, where she drew inspiration from the Louvre and the Exposition Universelle of 1900. In 1902, Loie Fuller invited Duncan to tour with her and this took Duncan all over Europe as she created new works using her innovative technique, which emphasized natural movement over the rigid technique of ballet. She spent most of the rest of her life touring Europe, to achieve her mission, she opened schools to teach young women her dance philosophy. The first was established in 1904 in Berlin-Grunewald, Germany and this institution was the birthplace of the Isadorables – Anna, Maria-Theresa, Irma, Liesel, Gretel, and Erika. – Duncans protégées, who would go on to continue her legacy, Duncan legally adopted all six Isadorables in 1919, and they took the Duncan last name. Later, Duncan established a school in Paris that was closed due to the outbreak of World War I. In 1910, Duncan met the occultist Aleister Crowley at a party where he refers to Duncan under the name Lavinia King, Crowley wrote of Duncan, Isadora Duncan has this gift of gesture in a very high degree
Isadora Duncan
–
Isadora Duncan
Isadora Duncan
–
Isadora Duncan performing barefoot. Photo by
Arnold Genthe during her 1915–18 American tour.
Isadora Duncan
–
Brooklyn Museum - Isadora Duncan 29 - Abraham Walkowitz
Isadora Duncan
–
Isadora Duncan in a Grecian-inspired pose and wearing her signature Grecian tunic
27.
Marie of Edinburgh
–
Princess Marie of Edinburgh, more commonly known as Marie of Romania, was the last Queen consort of Romania as the wife of King Ferdinand I. Born into the British royal family, she was titled Princess Marie of Edinburgh at birth and her parents were Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh and Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia. Maries early years were spent in Kent, Malta and Coburg, after refusing a proposal from her cousin, the future King George V, she was chosen as the future wife of Crown Prince Ferdinand of Romania, the heir apparent of King Carol I, in 1892. Marie was Crown Princess between 1893 and 1914, and became popular with the Romanian people. After the outbreak of World War I, Marie urged Ferdinand to ally himself with the Triple Entente and declare war on Germany, during the early stages of fighting, Bucharest was occupied by the Central Powers and Marie, Ferdinand and their five children took refuge in Moldavia. There, she and her three daughters acted as nurses in hospitals, caring for soldiers who were wounded or afflicted by cholera. On 1 December 1918, the province of Transylvania, following Bessarabia and Bukovina, Marie, now Queen consort of Greater Romania, attended the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, where she campaigned for international recognition of the enlarged Romania. In 1922, she and Ferdinand were crowned in a cathedral in the ancient city of Alba Iulia, in an elaborate ceremony which mirrored their status as queen. As queen, she was popular, both in Romania and abroad. In 1926, Marie and two of her children undertook a tour of the United States. They were received enthusiastically by the people and visited several cities before returning to Romania, there, Marie found that Ferdinand was gravely ill and he died a few months later. Now queen dowager, Marie refused to be part of the council which reigned over the country under the minority of her grandson. In 1930, Maries eldest son Carol, who had waived his rights to succession, deposed his son and usurped the throne and he removed Marie from the political scene and strived to crush her popularity. As a result, Marie moved away from Bucharest and spent the rest of her either in the countryside. In 1937, she became ill with cirrhosis and died the following year, following Romanias transition to a Socialist Republic, the monarchy was excoriated by communist officials. In the years preceding the Romanian Revolution of 1989, Maries popularity recovered, Marie is primarily remembered for her work as a nurse, but is also known for her extensive writing, including her critically acclaimed autobiography. She was born at her parents residence, Eastwell Manor in Kent, on 29 October 1875 and her birth was celebrated by firing the Park and Tower guns. She was named Marie Alexandra Victoria, after her mother and grandmothers, the Duke of Edinburgh wrote that his daughter promises to be as fine a child as her brother and gives every evidence of finely developed lungs and did so before she was fairly in the world
Marie of Edinburgh
–
Marie wearing her
regalia. Photograph by
George Grantham Bain.
Marie of Edinburgh
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Signature
Marie of Edinburgh
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1882 portrait by
John Everett Millais commissioned by Queen Victoria and exhibited at the
Royal Academy.
Marie of Edinburgh
–
Princess Marie, photographed in 1888
28.
Carol II of Romania
–
Carol II reigned as King of Romania from 8 June 1930 until his forced abdication in 6 September 1940. Carol was the eldest son of Ferdinand I and became crown prince upon the death of his great uncle and he was the first of the Hohenzollern kings of Romania to be born in the country. Carol, by contrast, spoke Romanian as his first language and was the first member of the Romanian royal family to be raised in the Orthodox faith, possessing a hedonistic personality that contributed to the controversies which marred his reign, his life was marked by numerous scandals. Among them, marriages to Zizi Lambrino and Princess Helen of Greece and Denmark and his continued affairs with Magda Lupescu, obliged him to renounce his succession rights in 1925 and leave the country. Princess Helen eventually divorced him in 1928, King Ferdinand died in 1927 and Carols five-year-old son ascended the throne as Michael I. Carol returned to Romania in 1930 and replaced the regency that had been in place and his reign was marked by re-alignment with Nazi Germany, adoption of anti-semitic laws and ultimately evolved into a personal dictatorship beginning with 1938. On 6 September 1940, he was forced by his Prime Minister Ion Antonescu to leave the country and he was succeeded by his son Michael. Carol was born in Peleș Castle, for his part, Ferdinand fiercely resented being cuckolded. The childless Carol I treated Prince Carol as his surrogate son, Ferdinand was a rather shy and weak man who was easily overshadowed by the charismatic Marie, who would become a much-loved member of the Romanian royal family. Growing up, Carol felt ashamed of his father, whom both his great-uncle and mother pushed around, Carols childhood was spent caught up in an emotional tug-of-war between Carol I and Marie, who had very different ideas about how to raise him. Aspects of both Maries and Carol Is personalities were present in Carol II, largely as a result of the battle between the king and Marie, Carol ended being both spoiled and deprived of love. Romania in the early 20th century was perhaps the most Francophile nation in the entire world, during his teenage years, Carol acquired the playboy image that was to become his defining persona for the rest of his life. Carol I expressed some concern at the direction that Prince Carols personal development was taking and his only serious interest was stamp collecting, and the young prince spent an inordinate amount of time drinking, partying, and chasing after women. In order to teach the prince the value of the Prussian virtues and his time with the 1st Prussian Guards regiment did not achieve the desired results, and Carol remained the playboy prince. In November 1914, Carol joined the Romanian Senate in accordance with the provisions of the 1866 Constitution of Romania, which guaranteed him a seat in the Senate upon reaching maturity. Known more for his romantic misadventures than for any leadership skills, Carol was first married in the Cathedral Church of Odessa, Ukraine, Lambrino, known as Zizi, was the daughter of a Romanian general, Constantin Lambrino. The fact that Carol had technically deserted to marry Lambrino caused immense controversy at the time, the marriage was annulled on 29 March 1919 by the Ilfov Suburban Court. Carol and Zizi continued to live together after the annulment and their only child, Mircea Gregor Carol Lambrino, was born 8 January 1920
Carol II of Romania
–
Carol II of Romania
Carol II of Romania
–
Crown Prince Carol training during World War I with a
Chauchat machine gun
29.
Romania
–
Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
Romania
–
Neacșu's letter from 1521, the oldest surviving document written in
Romanian.
Romania
–
Flag
Romania
–
Writ issued on 14 October 1465 by
Radu cel Frumos, from his residence in
Bucharest, indicating
Ottoman victory.
Romania
–
A 1917 British map showing territories with majority Romanian populations.
30.
Magda Lupescu
–
Elena Lupescu, better known as Magda Lupescu, was the mistress of King Carol II of Romania and later, after his abdication, his wife. Precise details of Lupescus life are difficult to ascertain. Elena Lupescu was the daughter of Elise and Nicolae Lupescu, an apothecary and her mother, née Falk, was an Austrian-born Jew who converted to the Roman Catholic Church prior to her marriage. Most sources agree that Nicolae Lupescu was born Jewish and adopted his name upon conversion to Orthodox Christianity, the latter version is the most common, but, on balance, the first is the most probable. The nickname “Magda” by which she was known is obscure. According to Elena Lupescu herself, it was originally a mistake of an Italian journalist and she had a younger brother, Constantin Schloim Lupescu. Lupescu was raised from birth as a Catholic and she was educated at the “Diaconesele”, a Bucharest boarding school run by Bavarian nuns of the Institute of Mary from Nymphenburg, and one of the best school for girls in the country. According to Arthur Quinlan, at point during Lupescus childhood, her family moved to Sulina, a port on the Danube. In 1912 they moved back to Iași, and her father started a novelty shop, on 17 February 1919, in Iaşi, Lupescu married Ion Tâmpeanu, an officer of the Romanian Royal Army. There are few details of their life together, according to Quinlan, the marriage ended in divorce, but it is not clear when, Quinlan places it in 1920. According to Easterman, she was married to Tâmpeanu in 1923. After the divorce, Elena resumed her maiden name, Lupescu, some, suggest something mysterious about Lupescu’s origins and early life, that, indeed, she may have been of royal blood, an illegitimate daughter of King Carol I, and thus a cousin of Carol II. There is little merit to any of these arguments, as far as Romanian law of the time went, Nicolae Lupescu ceased being a Jew upon his conversion—there was nothing preventing him from owning an apothecary. As to Lupescu’s education, she was a German-speaking Catholic daughter of a Catholic mother, that is, but even her being Jewish would not have necessarily constituted a major obstacle. For instance, between 1890 and 1916, Jews constituted, on average, 7% of the student body of the Lycée “Gheorghe Lazăr” of Bucharest, a boys’ school described as “the school of the Romanian élite”. Finally, her marriage to an officer would not have been problematic, because neither she nor her parents were legally Jewish. That came later, during the Big Economical Crisis, when the character of Romanian anti-Semitism gradually changed, the circumstances of the first encounter between Lupescu and Crown Prince Carol are obscure. According to Paul-Philippe Hohenzollern, who cites Carol’s diaries, they first met in March 1923, a second meeting may have been arranged by one of Carol’s friends, Tăutu, a Romanian Navy Captain
Magda Lupescu
–
Magda Lupescu and Carol II of Romania
.jpg)
