1.
Lolita
–
Lolita is a 1955 novel written by Russian American novelist Vladimir Nabokov. Lolita is his nickname for Dolores. The novel was written in English and first published in Paris in 1955 by Olympia Press. Later it was translated into Russian by Nabokov himself and published in New York in 1967 by Phaedra Publishers, Lolita quickly attained a classic status. Today it is regarded as one of the achievements in 20th century literature. The novel was adapted into a film by Stanley Kubrick in 1962 and it has also been adapted several times for the stage and has been the subject of two operas, two ballets, and an acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful Broadway musical. Its assimilation into popular culture is such that the name Lolita has been used to imply that a girl is sexually precocious. Lolita is included on TIME magazines list of the 100 best English-language novels published from 1923 to 2005, a European literary scholar writing his memoir under the name Humbert Humbert narrates his life from his Paris childhood to his present incarceration. Growing up in a family, Humbert meets his childhood sweetheart. Annabels family moves away, and she dies shortly after from typhus, as an adult, Humbert develops a hebephilic fixation with girls aged 9–14, whom he refers to as nymphets. After a misadventure when he requests an underage girl from a pimp, Humbert marries a woman, Valeria. His marriage with Valeria dissolves after she admits to having an affair, after another visit to a psychiatric ward after a mental breakdown, he moves to America to write. Upon his arrival in Ramsdale, however, he discovers that their house has burned down, a landlady named Charlotte Haze offers to accommodate him instead, and Humbert visits her residence out of politeness. Initially planning to decline the widowed Charlottes offer, Humbert agrees to rent when he sees her 12-year-old daughter and he quickly becomes infatuated with Dolores, in part because of her resemblance to Annabel, and privately nicknames her Lolita. Humbert starts a diary in which he records his obsessive and sexual thoughts about Dolores, and also hateful comments towards Charlotte, Charlotte and Dolores argue intensely and often, and Humbert finds himself growing closer to Dolores. One day, when alone with her, Humbert has her sit on his lap. To continue living near Dolores, Humbert returns Charlottes adorations and the two are soon married, after Charlotte voices her plan to send Dolores to a boarding school when she returns from camp, Humbert contemplates murdering her to remain close to Dolores, but stops before carrying it out. A few days later, Charlotte finds and reads his diary and furiously confronts him, Charlotte runs out of the house with the letters that she had just written, but is killed by a passing car before she can mail them
2.
Harajuku
–
Harajuku is a district in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. Harajuku is the name given to a geographic area spreading from Harajuku Station to Omotesando. In popular reference Harajuku also encompasses many smaller backstreets such as Takeshita Street, Harajuku is known internationally as a center of Japanese youth culture and fashion. In the pre Edo period, the area came to be known as Harajuku was a small post town on the Kamakura Highway. It was said that in the Gosannen War, Minamoto no Yoshiie mustered his soldiers in this area, in the Edo period, an Iga clan residence was put in Harajuku to defend Edo, due to its strategic location south of the Koshu Road. Other than the mansion of the Hiroshima Domain feudal lord Asano, the livelihood of the farmers consisted mainly of rice cleaning and flour milling with the watermill at the Shibuya River. However, due to the quality of the land, production never succeeded. It is said that local farmers often performed rain-making invocations at local shrines in an attempt to improve their fortunes, there are also the tales Oyama-Afuri Shrine of Tanzawa and Worship on the day trip to Mt Haruna remaining. At the start of the Meiji period in 1868, the land around Harajuku Village was owned by the shogunate, in November of the same year, the towns and villages of Shibuya Ward, including Harajuku Village, were placed under the jurisdiction of the Tokyo Prefecture. In 1906, Harajuku Station was opened as a part of the expansion of the Yamanote Line, in 1919, with the establishment of Meiji Shrine, Omotesando was widened and reordered as a formal approach route. In 1940, the Tōgō Shrine was built and consecrated in honor of Imperial Japanese Navy Marshal-Admiral Marquis Tōgō Heihachirō, in the final period of the Pacific War in 1945, much of the area was burned to the ground during the Great Tokyo Air Raid. During the postwar occupation, military housing in the area named Washington Heights was constructed on land now occupied by Yoyogi Park and the Yoyogi National Gymnasium. Shops that appealed to the US soldiers and their families, such as Kiddyland, Oriental Bazaar, in 1964, swimming, diving and basketball events for the Tokyo Olympics were held in the neighbouring Yoyogi National Gymnasium. In 1965, the name of the area in the Japanese address system was changed from Harajuku to Jingumae. The name Harajuku has persisted due to the naming of the nearby JR East Harajuku Station. The area from Harajuku station to the area surrounding Takeshita Street was called Takeshita-cho, coming into the 1970s, fashion-obsessed youth culture experienced a transition from Shinjuku to Harajuku, then to Shibuya. Palais France, a building that sold clothing and accessories, furniture. In 1978, the fashion building Laforet Harajuku was opened, in the 1980s, Takeshita Street became known for teenage street dancing groups called takenoko-zoku
3.
Subculture
–
As early as 1950, David Riesman distinguished between a majority, which passively accepted commercially provided styles and meanings, and a subculture which actively sought a minority style. And interpreted it in accordance with subversive values, in his 1979 book Subculture, The Meaning of Style, Dick Hebdige argued that a subculture is a subversion to normalcy. He wrote that subcultures can be perceived as due to their nature of criticism to the dominant societal standard. Hebdige argued that subcultures bring together like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards, in 2007, Ken Gelder proposed to distinguish subcultures from countercultures based on the level of immersion in society. As Cohen clarifies, every subculture’s style, consisting of image, demeanour, 2) Subcultures and resistance - In the work of John Clarke, Stuart Hall, Tony Jefferson and Brian Roberts of the Birmingham CCCS, subcultures are interpreted as forms of resistance. Society is seen as being divided into two classes, the working class and the middle class, each with its own class culture. Yet the cultural industry is capable of re-absorbing the components of such a style. 3) Subcultures and distinction - The most recent interpretations see subcultures as forms of distinction, the very idea of a unique, internally homogeneous, dominant culture is explicitly criticized. Thus forms of individual involvement in subcultures are fluid and gradual, differentiated according to each actor’s investment, Dick Hebdige writes that members of a subculture often signal their membership through a distinctive and symbolic use of style, which includes fashions, mannerisms and argot. In some instances, subcultures have been legislated against, and their activities regulated or curtailed, british youth subcultures had been described as a moral problem that ought to be handled by the guardians of the dominant culture within the post-war consensus. It may be difficult to identify certain subcultures because their style may be adopted by mass culture for commercial purposes, businesses often seek to capitalize on the subversive allure of subcultures in search of Cool, which remains valuable in the selling of any product. This process of cultural appropriation may often result in the death or evolution of the subculture, some subcultures reject or modify the importance of style, stressing membership through the adoption of an ideology which may be much more resistant to commercial exploitation. The punk subcultures distinctive style of clothing was adopted by mass-market fashion companies once the subculture became a media interest, objects borrowed from the most sordid of contexts found a place in punks ensembles, lavatory chains were draped in graceful arcs across chests in plastic bin liners. Safety pins were taken out of their domestic utility context and worn as gruesome ornaments through the cheek, fragments of school uniform were symbolically defiled and juxtaposed against leather drains or shocking pink mohair tops. In 1985, French sociologist Michel Maffesoli coined the term urban tribe and it gained widespread use after the publication of his Le temps des tribus, le déclin de lindividualisme dans les sociétés postmodernes. Eight years later, this book was published in the United Kingdom as The Time of the Tribes, according to Maffesoli, urban tribes are microgroups of people who share common interests in urban areas. The members of these small groups tend to have similar worldviews, dress styles. Their social interactions are largely informal and emotionally laden, different from late capitalisms corporate-bourgeoisie cultures, Maffesoli claims that punks are a typical example of an urban tribe
4.
Victorian fashion
–
The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movement in architecture, literature, and the decorative and visual arts as well as a perception of the traditional gender roles also influenced fashion. Under Queen Victorias rule, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. Mass production of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion, clothing could be made quicker and more cheaply. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption. During the Victorian Era, a place was at home. Unlike in the centuries when women could help their husbands and brothers in family businesses, in the nineteenth century. Their dress styles reflected their lifestyle, Victorian fashion was not intended to be utilitarian. Clothes were seen as an expression of women’s place in society and were hence, middle class women exhibited similar dress styles, however, the decorations were not as extravagant. The layering of these make them very heavy. Corsets were also stiff and restricted movement, although the clothes were not comfortable, the type of fabrics and the in-numerous layers were worn as a symbol of wealth. Neck-line Bertha is the low shoulder neck-line worn by women during the Victorian Era, the cut exposed a woman’s shoulders and it sometimes was trimmed over with a three to six inch deep lace flounce, or the bodice has neckline draped with several horizontal bands of fabric pleats. However, the exposure of neck-line was only restricted to the upper and middle class, the décolleté style made shawls to become an essential feature of dresses. Corsets lost their shoulder straps, and fashion was to produce two bodices, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening, boning Corsets were used in women’s gowns for emphasizing the small waist of the female body. They function as an undergarment which can be adjusted to bound tightly around the waist, hold and train a person’s waistline, so to slim and it also helped stop the bodice from horizontal creasing. With the corset, a small tight fitting waist would be shown. Yet, corsets have been blamed for causing lots of diseases because of the tight waist bound, ill condition examples were curvature of the spine, deformities of the ribs and birth defects. As a result, people started to oppose the use of corsets in later times, Sleeves Sleeves were tightly fit during the early Victorian era
5.
Rococo
–
Rococo artists and architects used a more jocular, florid, and graceful approach to the Baroque. Their style was ornate and used light colours, asymmetrical designs, curves, unlike the political Baroque, the Rococo had playful and witty themes. By the end of the 18th century, Rococo was largely replaced by the Neoclassic style. In 1835 the Dictionary of the French Academy stated that the word Rococo usually covers the kind of ornament, style and design associated with Louis XVs reign and it includes therefore, all types of art from around the middle of the 18th century in France. The word is seen as a combination of the French rocaille and coquilles, the term may also be a combination of the Italian word barocco and the French rocaille and may describe the refined and fanciful style that became fashionable in parts of Europe in the 18th century. The Rococo love of shell-like curves and focus on decorative arts led some critics to say that the style was frivolous or merely modish, when the term was first used in English in about 1836, it was a colloquialism meaning old-fashioned. While there is some debate about the historical significance of the style to art in general. Italian architects of the late Baroque/early Rococo were wooed to Catholic Germany, Bohemia and Austria by local princes, an exotic but in some ways more formal type of Rococo appeared in France where Louis XIVs succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. By the end of the long reign, rich Baroque designs were giving way to lighter elements with more curves. These elements are obvious in the designs of Nicolas Pineau. During the Régence, court life moved away from Versailles and this change became well established, first in the royal palace. The delicacy and playfulness of Rococo designs is seen as perfectly in tune with the excesses of Louis XVs reign. The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France, the style had spread beyond architecture and furniture to painting and sculpture, exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and François Boucher. The Rococo style was spread by French artists and engraved publications, william Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty that the lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace. The development of Rococo in Great Britain is considered to have connected with the revival of interest in Gothic architecture early in the 18th century. The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality, Blondel decried the ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants in contemporary interiors. By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order, in Germany, late 18th century Rococo was ridiculed as Zopf und Perücke, and this phase is sometimes referred to as Zopfstil
6.
Kawaii
–
Kawaii is the quality of cuteness in the context of Japanese culture. It has become a prominent aspect of Japanese popular culture, entertainment, clothing, food, toys, personal appearance, behavior, and mannerisms. The word kawaii originally derives from the phrase 顔映し kao hayushi, the second morpheme is cognate with -bayu in mabayui dazzling, glaring, blinding, too bright. Over time, the meaning changed into the meaning of cute. It is most commonly written in hiragana, かわいい, but the ateji, the kanji in the ateji literally translates to able to be loved, can/may love, lovable. The original definition of kawaii came from Lady Murasakis The Tale of Genji where it referred to pitiable qualities, the rise of cuteness in Japanese culture emerged in the 1970s as part of a new style of writing. Many teenage girls began to write laterally using mechanical pencils and these pencils produced very fine lines, as opposed to traditional Japanese writing that varied in thickness and was vertical. The girls would write in big, round characters and they added little pictures to their writing, such as hearts, stars, emoticon faces. These pictures would be inserted randomly and made the difficult to read. As a result, this writing style caused a lot of controversy and was banned in many schools, during the 1980s, however, this new cute writing was adopted by magazines and comics and was put onto packaging and advertising. From 1984 to 1986, Kazuma Yamane studied the development of cute handwriting and his conclusion was based on an observation that cute handwriting predates the availability of technical means for producing rounded writing in comics. Tomoyuki Sugiyama, author of Cool Japan, claims cute fashion in Japan can be traced back to the Edo Period with the popularity of netsuke, because of this growing trend, companies such as Sanrio came out with merchandise like Hello Kitty. Hello Kitty was a success and the obsession with cute continued to progress in other areas as well. The 1980s also saw the rise of cute idols, such as Seiko Matsuda, women began to emulate Seiko Matsuda and her cute fashion style and mannerisms, which emphasized the helplessness and innocence of young girls. The market for cute merchandise in Japan used to be driven by Japanese girls between 15 and 18 years old. No longer limited to teenagers, however, the spread of making things as cute as possible, soichi Masubuchi, in his work Kawaii Syndrome, claims cute and neat have taken precedence over the former Japanese aesthetics of beautiful and refined. As a cultural phenomenon, cuteness is increasingly accepted in Japan as a part of Japanese culture, Japanese women who feign kawaii behaviors that could be viewed as forced or inauthentic are called burikko and this is considered a gender performance. The term burikko is formed with buri, a pun on furi and it was a neologism developed in the 1980s by comedian Kuniko Yamada
7.
Gothic fashion
–
Gothic fashion is a clothing style marked by conspicuously dark, mysterious, antiquated and homogenous features. It is worn by members of the Goth subculture, a dark, sometimes morbid fashion and style of dress, typical gothic fashion includes a pale complexion with colored black hair, black lips and black clothes. Both male and female goths can wear dark eyeliner and dark fingernail polish most especially black, styles are often borrowed from the punk fashion, Victorians and Elizabethans. Goth fashion is sometimes confused with heavy metal fashion and emo fashion, Cintra Wilson declares that The origins of contemporary goth style are found in the Victorian cult of mourning. Valerie Steele is an expert in the history of the style, Goth fashion can be recognized by its stark black clothing. Researcher Maxim W. Furek noted Goth is a revolt against the fashions of the 1970s disco era. Black hair, dark clothing and pale complexions provide the look of the Goth Dresser. Kilpatrick contributor Daoine O denigrates poseur goths as Batbabies whose clothing is bought at Hot Topic with their parents money, one female role model is Theda Bara, the 1910s femme fatale known for her dark eyeshadow. About half the girls at Leeds had used Sioux as a basis for their appearance, robert Smith, Musidora, Bela Lugosi, Bettie Page, Vampira, Morticia Addams, Nico, Rozz Williams, David Bowie, Lux Interior, Dave Vanian, are also style icons. Influential goth models include Wednesday Mourning and Lady Amaranth, in 1977, Karl Lagerfeld hosted the Soirée Moratoire Noir party, specifying tenue tragique noire absolument obligatoire. The event included elements associated with leatherman style, Goth fashion has a reciprocal relationship with the fashion world. This was described as Haute Goth by Cintra Wilson in the New York Times, thierry Mugler, Claude Montana, Jean Paul Gaultier and Christian Lacroix have also been associated with a gothic style. In Spring 2004, Riccardo Tisci, Jean Paul Gaultier, Raf Simons and Stefano Pilati dressed their models as glamorous ghouls dressed in form-fitting suits, swedish designer Helena Horstedt and jewelry artist Hanna Hedman also practice a goth aesthetic. Gothic lolita, sometimes shortened to gosu rori in Japanese, is a combination of Gothic, the fashion originated in the late 1990s in Harajuku. Gothic lolita fashion is characterized by darker make-up and clothing, red lipstick and smokey or neatly defined eyes, created using black eyeliner, are typical styles, although as with all lolita sub-styles the look remains fairly natural. Though Gothic make-up has been associated with a face, this is usually considered poor taste within the lolita fashion scene. Brands which exemplify the Gothic lolita style include Atelier-Pierrot, Atelier Boz, Black Peace Now, H. Naoto Blood, author and TV Host La Carmina is a popular model of Gothic lolita fashion. Aristocrat is a type of Japanese street fashion, championed by the visual kei rock musician Mana with his fashion label Moi-même-Moitié, New Gothic Art Heavy metal fashion Punk fashion Footnotes Bibliography Media related to Gothic fashion at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Steampunk
–
Steampunk is a subgenre of science fiction or science fantasy that incorporates technology and aesthetic designs inspired by 19th-century industrial steam-powered machinery. Therefore, steampunk may be described as neo-Victorian, Steampunk may also incorporate additional elements from the genres of fantasy, horror, historical fiction, alternate history, or other branches of speculative fiction, making it often a hybrid genre. The first known appearance of the term steampunk was in 1987, Steampunk is influenced by and often adopts the style of the 19th-century scientific romances of Jules Verne, H. G. Wells, and Mary Shelley. Several more modern works of art and fiction significant to the development of the genre were produced before the genre had a name, the film Brazil was an important early cinematic influence that helped codify the aesthetics of the genre. The Adventures of Luther Arkwright was a comic version of the Moorcock-style mover between timestreams. In fine art, Remedios Varos paintings combine elements of Victorian dress, fantasy, in television, one of the earliest manifestations of the steampunk ethos in the mainstream media was the CBS television series The Wild Wild West, which inspired the subsequent film. Although many works now considered seminal to the genre were published in the 1960s and 1970s and it was coined by science fiction author K. W. G. Wells The Time Machine. Though of course, I did find her review in the March Locus to be quite flattering, personally, I think Victorian fantasies are going to be the next big thing, as long as we can come up with a fitting collective term for Powers, Blaylock and myself. Something based on the technology of the era, like steam-punks. They were far from the first modern science fiction writers to speculate on the development of steam-based technology or alternative histories, keith Laumers Worlds of the Imperium and Ronald W. Clarks Queen Victorias Bomb apply modern speculation to past-age technology and society. Michael Moorcocks Warlord of the Air is another early example, harry Harrisons novel A Transatlantic Tunnel, Hurrah. Portrays a British Empire of an alternative year 1973, full of atomic locomotives, coal-powered flying boats, ornate submarines, the Adventures of Luther Arkwright was the first steampunk comic. In February 1980, Richard A. Lupoff and Steve Stiles published the first chapter of their 10-part comic strip The Adventures of Professor Thintwhistle and His Incredible Aether Flyer. Indeed, both sensibilities recall the older but still modern eras in which technological change seemed to anticipate a better world, one of steampunk’s most significant contributions is the way in which it mixes digital media with traditional handmade art forms. As scholars Rachel Bowser and Brian Croxall put it, the tinkering and tinker-able technologies within steampunk invite us to roll up our sleeves, in this respect, steampunk bears more in common with DIY craft and making. This theme is carried over to Disneys theme parks, in the designs of The Mysterious Island section of Tokyo DisneySea theme park. Aspects of steampunk design emphasise a balance between form and function, in this it is like the Arts and Crafts Movement. But John Ruskin, William Morris, and the reformers in the late nineteenth century rejected machines
9.
Petticoat
–
A petticoat or underskirt is an article of clothing, specifically an undergarment to be worn under a skirt or a dress. The petticoat is a separate garment hanging from the waist, in historical contexts, petticoat refers to any separate skirt worn with a gown, bedgown, bodice or jacket, these petticoats are not, strictly speaking, underwear as they were made to be seen. In both historical and modern contexts, petticoat refers to skirt-like undergarments worn for warmth or to give the skirt or dress the desired fashionable shape, in this context a petticoat may be called a waist slip or underskirt or half slip, with petticoat restricted to extremely full garments. Petticoat can also refer to a slip in the UK. Petticoat is the name in English for any underskirt worn as part of non-Western clothing such as the lehenga with the sari. The practice of wearing petticoats as undergarments was well established by 1585, Petticoats were worn throughout history by women who wanted to have the currently fashionable shape created by their clothing. The petticoats, if sufficiently full or stiff, would hold the overskirt out in a domed shape. It would also complement the large bust. Elaborately decorated petticoats were worn under open-fronted gowns and looped overskirts from the mid-16th century and these ankle-length petticoats remained a rural fashion, especially in the UK, into the 19th century and are a part of the traditional Welsh costume. In the 18th century, among the upper class women of Europe and America, in the early 19th century, dresses became narrower and simpler with much less lingerie. Then, as the waltz became popular in the 1820s, full-skirted gowns with petticoats were revived in Europe, by the mid 19th century, petticoats were worn over hoops, which were placed over other underwear like a corset cover, a corset, and drawers. The popular novel Gone with the Wind provides considerable, detailed descriptions of these fashions, in the 1939 film adaptation, the character played by Vivien Leigh gives a good idea of the layers of petticoats and underwear that were worn in the 1860s. The sheer weight of the clothing, along with the tightness of the corsets, the use of multiple petticoats continued to be popular until the 1870s, when the bustle was introduced, resulting in a return of narrower skirts. Some full-skirted gowns with petticoats were revived in the 1890s into the early 20th century, the Gibson Girl look with white blouses and long, narrow skirts was very popular during the late 19th and early 20th century. For the first two decades of the 20th century, multiple petticoats fell out of fashion, narrow, sometimes tight, then, in the late 1920s, chiffon dresses with several sheer petticoats became fashionable. With the Great Depression in the 1930s, narrow skirts returned and petticoats again were unpopular until the end of the decade when revived for some evening, prom, world War II, with its rationing and general shortage of materials, brought an end to petticoats. Petticoats were revived by Christian Dior in his full-skirted New Look of 1947 and tiered, ruffled, stiffened petticoats remained extremely popular during the 1950s, most of the petticoats were netlike crinoline, sometimes made of horsehair. Increasingly, nylon chiffon, taffeta, and organdy were used in petticoats, many department stores carried an extensive variety of styles and colors of petticoats until the early 1960s
10.
Crinoline
–
A crinoline /krɪn. əl. ɪn/ is a stiffened or structured petticoat designed to hold out a womans skirt, popular at various times since the mid-19th century. Originally, crinoline described a stiff fabric made of horsehair and cotton or linen which was used to make underskirts, by the 1850s the term crinoline was more usually applied to the fashionable silhouette provided by horsehair petticoats, and to the hoop skirts that replaced them in the mid-1850s. In form and function these hoop skirts were similar to the 16th- and 17th-century farthingale and to 18th-century panniers, in that they too enabled skirts to spread even wider, the steel-hooped cage crinoline, first patented in April 1856 by R. C. Milliet in Paris, and by their agent in Britain a few months later, steel cage crinolines were mass-produced in huge quantity, with factories across the Western world producing tens of thousands in a year. Alternative materials, such as whalebone, cane, gutta-percha and even inflatable caoutchouc were all used for hoops, at its widest point, the crinoline could reach a circumference of up to six yards, although by the late 1860s, crinolines were beginning to reduce in size. By the early 1870s, the smaller crinolette and the bustle had largely replaced the crinoline, crinolines were worn by women of every social standing and class across the Western world, from royalty to factory workers. This led to media scrutiny and criticism, particularly in satirical magazines such as Punch. They were also hazardous if worn without due care, thousands of women died in the mid-19th century as a result of their hooped skirts catching fire. Alongside fire, other hazards included the hoops being caught in machinery, carriage wheels, gusts of wind, the crinoline silhouette was revived several times in the 20th century, particularly in the late 1940s as a result of Christian Diors New Look of 1947. The flounced nylon and net petticoats worn in the 1950s and 1960s to poof out skirts also became known as even when there were no hoops in their construction. In the mid-1980s Vivienne Westwood designed the mini-crini, a mini-length crinoline which was influential on 1980s fashion. Late 20th and early 21st century designers such as John Galliano, since the 1980s and well into the 21st century the crinoline has remained a popular option for formal evening dresses, wedding dresses, and ball gowns. The name crinoline is often described as a combination of the Latin word crinis and/or the French word crin, with the Latin word linum, the crinoline was not the first garment designed to support the wearers skirts in a fashionable shape. The horsehair fabric called crinoline was first noted by 1829, when it was offered for lining and dress-making, petticoats made of horsehair crinoline appeared around 1839, proving so successful that the name crinoline began to refer to supportive petticoats in general, rather than solely to the material. One alternative to horsehair crinoline was the quilted petticoat stuffed with down or feathers, however, quilted skirts were not widely produced until the early 1850s. In about 1849, it was possible to buy stiffened and corded cotton fabric for making petticoats, marketed as crinoline, the artificial crinoline with hoops did not emerge until the 1850s. The cage crinoline made out of spring steel wire was first introduced in the 1850s, alison Gernsheim suggests that the unidentified French inventor was probably R. C. Milliet of Besançon, as the July 1856 patent was filed by their British agent, milliet had already patented a tournure de femme in Paris on 24 April 1856 which was described as comprising elastic extensible circles joined together by vertical bands
11.
Blouse
–
A blouse is a loose-fitting upper garment that was formerly worn by workmen, peasants, artists, women, and children. It is typically gathered at the waist or hips so that it hangs loosely over the wearers body, today, the word most commonly refers to a girls or womans dress shirt but can also refer to a mans shirt if it is a loose-fitting style. Traditionally, the term has been used to refer to a shirt which blouses out or has a feminine appearance. The term is used for some mens military uniform jackets. Blouse is a loanword to English from French, blouse means dust coat and it possibly was brought back from their travels by French Crusaders. They moved on their armor a so-called plusisian shirt, a blue-colored gowns to the dust, the derivation may also be from wool, blouso short wool and blos, blouse deprived, naked taken off. It is first officially noted in 1828, from French blouse, blouses are historically a cask style, mostly mail-like garment, that were rarely part of the fashionable womans wardrobe until the 1890s. Before that time, they were popular for informal wear in styles that echoed peasant or traditional clothing. Blouses usually consist of light such as silk or thin cotton fabrics. Sometimes they are decorated with frills, embroidery or loops, the classic of the ladies blouses is the white shirt blouse. Here the combination possibilities are particularly diverse, the open spade or reverse collar is another common type of classic ladies blouse. At the end of the 19th century the sailor blouses derived from sailor suits were popular for girls to the pleated skirt. In the time of National Socialism this piece of clothing was rejected as a bourgeois-decadent, in the 1950s, the sailors look then entered the leisure mode for adults. The high collar in blouses was pushed out during time by the halsferne variant. Specialist shops also offered ladies cloaks, the KdW in Berlin applied in his illustrated main catalog,1913 among other things a backfisch-confection, with eight blouses between 2.75 and 9.50 Marks. The simplest model was a blouse, navy, white spotted. A simple blouse with a plain skirt was the dress for the newly expanded female workforce of the 1890s. In the 1900s and 1910s, elaborate blouses, such as the lingerie blouse, since then, blouses have remained a wardrobe staple, so by now blouses have not ceased to be fixed in the popular cloakroom style
12.
Poke bonnet
–
A poke bonnet is a womens bonnet, featuring a small crown and wide and rounded front brim. Typically this extends beyond the face and it has been suggested that the name came about because the bonnet was designed in such a way that the wearers hair could be contained within the bonnet. Poke may also refer to the brim itself, which jutted out beyond the wearers face, there were many variations of the style, which remained popular throughout much of the 19th century. The Metropolitan Museum of Art notes that the poke usually had a small crown combined with a large brim extending beyond the face and this prominent brim shaded the face and, over time increased in size so that the wearers face could only be seen from the front. Typically, the bonnet would be secured by ribbons tied under the chin, an 1830s version of the poke bonnet with ornate ribbon wrapping forms part of the Victoria and Albert Museum archive. The poke bonnet came into fashion at the beginning of the 19th century and it is first mentioned in an 1807 fashion report in The Times, the report describes designs made of willow or velvet with long ribbons and full bows on one side of the hat. By the 1830s, Englishwomen had adopted the poke bonnet, the new styles became widely popular and made the aristocracy less visibly distinct from the respectable middle classes. The style is modest and was in line with English fashions after the ascension of Queen Victoria, a poke bonnet features prominently in the illustrations of Beatrix Potters Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck. Another appears in the First World War-era music hall song In your little poke bonnet, salvation Army bonnet Coal scuttle bonnet
13.
High-heeled footwear
–
High-heeled footwear is footwear that raises the heel of the wearers foot significantly higher than the toes. When both the heel and the toes are raised equal amounts, as in a shoe, it is technically not considered to be a high heel, however. High heels tend to give the illusion of longer, more slender legs. High heels come in a variety of styles, and the heels are found in many different shapes, including stiletto, pump, block, tapered, blade. The apparel industry would appear to take a view, the term high heels covers heels ranging from 2 to 5 inches or more. Extremely high-heeled shoes, such as those exceeding 6 inches, strictly speaking, are no longer considered apparel and they are worn for display or the enjoyment of the wearer. High heels are not a modern invention but there is confusion regarding when it was developed, research shows that high heels can be traced back to ancient Egypt. In the middle of the second millennium BC, Egyptians began to frequently uses sandals, retention was obtained generally by the Egyptians by a T or V thong passing through the sole. Egyptian butchers also wore heeled shoes for practical purposes, that is, things started to change when during the European renaissance, the high heel became a status symbol worn by both male and females from the higher social statuses. Catherine de Medici a Franco/Italian noblewomen pioneered the use of heels as a fashion statement, Catherine de Medici is believed to have worn them to impress the French court when she wed the Duke of Orleans, the future king. Two hundred years later King Louis XIV of France decreed that only nobility could wear heels, seventeenth-century portraits of King Louis XIV depict the various intricate heels worn by the king and they were often decorated with miniature battle scenes. During the 16th century, European royalty, such as Catherine de Medici and Mary I of England, by 1580, men wore them, and a person with authority or wealth was often referred to as well-heeled. Since the French Revolution the trend wearing high heels was ended to avoid any associating with the old aristocracy, since people wished to avoid the appearance of wealth, heels were largely eliminated from the common market for both men and women and replace by casual fashion and shoe wear. From the beginning of the Baroque the heel came back to shoes and it is sometimes suggested that raised heels were a response to the problem of the riders foot slipping forward in stirrups while riding. The riders heel, approximately 1 1⁄2 inches high, appeared in Europe around 1600 and these features are evident today in riding boots, notably cowboy boots. Since the Second World War, high heels have fallen in and out of fashion several times, most notably in the late 1990s. Lower heels were preferred during the late 1960s and early 1970s as well, the shape of the fashionable heel has changed from block to tapered, and stiletto. Today, high heels are typically worn with heights varying from a heel of 1.5 inches to a stiletto heel of 5 inches or more
14.
Jumper (dress)
–
A jumper or jumper dress, pinafore dress or informally pinafore is a sleeveless, collarless dress intended to be worn over a blouse, shirt or sweater. In British English, the term describes what is called a sweater in American English. Also, in more formal British usage, a distinction is made between a pinafore dress and a pinafore, the latter, though a related garment, has an open back and is worn as an apron. In American English, pinafore always refers to an apron, a sundress, like a jumper, is sleeveless and collarless, however, such articles are not worn over a blouse or sweater, and are of distinctly different cuts and fashions. The apron dress may be viewed as a case of the jumper. If the design of the dress is directly inspired by an apron, gymslip – a British pinafore worn as athletic wear or school uniform Kirtle – a medieval garment of similar function Sarafan – a Russian jumper women wear when in tall grass or more often, farming
15.
Victorian era
–
The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
16.
Sanrio
–
Sanrio Co. Ltd. is a Japanese company that designs, licenses and produces products focusing on the kawaii segment of Japanese popular culture. Their products include stationery, school supplies, gifts and accessories that are sold worldwide, Sanrios best-known character is Hello Kitty, a little anthropomorphic cat girl. With her red bow and no visible mouth except in most of the animations, besides selling character goods, Sanrio takes part in movie production and publishing. They own the rights to both the Peanuts and Mr. Men characters in Japan and their animatronics branch, called Kokoro Company, Ltd. is best known for the Actroid android. They participate in the fast food industry, running a franchise of KFC in Saitama, Sanrio was founded by Shintaro Tsuji as the Yamanashi Silk Company in 1960, using 1 million yen in capital. In 1962, Tsuji expanded his enterprise from silk to rubber sandals with flowers painted on them, Tsuji noted the profits gained by simply adding a cute design to the sandals and hired cartoonists to design cute characters for his merchandise in response. In 1973 the company was established under the name Sanrio. The companys European website says the name comes from the Spanish words san, according to this book, Tsuji, Sanrios founder, said that Yamanashi, part of the companys former name, has an alternative onyomi reading of sanri. The remaining o was added from the ou sound people make when they are excited, the company produced a line of character merchandise around gift-giving occasions. Hello Kitty was added to the lineup of early Sanrio characters in 1974, the popular feline whose mouth is usually invisible has had both peaks and drops in sales over the years, but always has been the highest contributor to Sanrios sales. Other notably popular characters through the years have been The Little Twin Stars, My Melody, Keroppi, Tuxedo Sam, Badtz-Maru, Chococat, Cinnamoroll, Sugarbunnies, Jewelpet, Sanrio constantly adds new characters to its lineup. Specific characters are rotated in and out of active production, in late 2003, Sanrio won the Top Brand with a Conscience award from the Medinge Group of Sweden for its communication principles. The company has partnered with UNICEF since 1984, in 2006, Sanrio launched Sanrio Digital together with Typhoon Games to expand to the Internet, online games and mobile services. In conjuncture with this, Build-A-Bear Workshop released limited edition stuffed toys of several Sanrio characters, including Hello Kitty, Chococat, My Melody, Hello Kitty is alleged to be drawn in a similar style to the rabbit Miffy. On November 2,2010, a Dutch court ruled against Sanrio and ordered the company to stop marketing Cathy products in Belgium, Luxembourg, instead of continuing the court battle, the two companies will donate the legal fees to help the earthquake victims. In December 2011, Sanrio Global acquired the rights to the Mr. Men, in June 2016, it was announced that Sanrio has partnered with Loot Crate, Inc on a bi-monthly box. Sanrio hosts two theme parks in Japan, Sanrio Puroland in Tama, Tokyo, and Harmonyland in Hiji, Ōita, Sanrio Inc. is Sanrios American subsidiary. Sanrio Inc. has offices in South San Francisco, California and Torrance, Sanrios first Western Hemisphere store opened in San Joses Eastridge Mall
17.
Do it yourself
–
Do it yourself is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things without the direct aid of experts or professionals. DIY behavior can be triggered by various motivations previously categorized as marketplace motivations, the term do-it-yourself has been associated with consumers since at least 1912 primarily in the domain of home improvement and maintenance activities. Subsequently, the term DIY has taken on a meaning that covers a wide range of skill sets. DIY is associated with the alternative rock, punk rock, and indie rock music scenes, indymedia networks, pirate radio stations. In this context, DIY is related to the Arts and Crafts movement, italian archaeologists unearthed the ruins of a 6th-century BC Greek structure in southern Italy that came with detailed assembly instructions and is being called an ancient IKEA building. Professor Christopher Smith, director of the British School at Rome and it looks as if someone was instructing others how to mass-produce components and put them together in this way. Much like the instruction booklets, various sections of the building were inscribed with coded symbols showing how the pieces slotted together. The characteristics of these inscriptions indicate they date back to around the 6th century BC, the building was built by Greek artisans coming from the Spartan colony of Taranto in Apulia. The philosopher Alan Watts reflected a sentiment, In the 1970s, DIY spread through the North American population of college-. In part, this movement involved the renovation of affordable, rundown older homes, but it also related to various projects expressing the social and environmental vision of the 1960s and early 1970s. The first Catalog, and its successors, used a definition of the term tools. There were informational tools, such as books, professional journals, courses, classes, there were specialized, designed items, such as carpenters and masons tools, garden tools, welding equipment, chainsaws, fiberglass materials and so on, even early personal computers. The designer J. Baldwin acted as editor to include such items, the Catalogs publication both emerged from and spurred the great wave of experimentalism, convention-breaking, and do-it-yourself attitude of the late 1960s. Often copied, the Catalog appealed to a wide cross-section of people in North America and had a broad influence, for decades, magazines such as Popular Mechanics and Mechanix Illustrated offered a way for readers to keep current on useful practical skills and techniques. DIY home improvement books began to flourish in the 1970s, first created as collections of magazine articles, an early, extensive line of DIY how-to books was created by Sunset Books, based upon previously published articles from their magazine, Sunset, based in California. Time-Life, Better Homes and Gardens, and other publishers soon followed suit, in the mid-1990s, DIY home-improvement content began to find its way onto the World Wide Web. HouseNet was the earliest bulletin-board style site where users could share information, homeTips. com, established in early 1995, was among the first Web-based sites to deliver free extensive DIY home-improvement content created by expert authors. Since the late 1990s, DIY has exploded on the Web through thousands of sites, in the 1970s, when home video came along, DIY instructors quickly grasped its potential for demonstrating processes by audio-visual means
18.
Angelic Pretty
–
Angelic Pretty is a Japanese fashion company specialized in lolita fashion, founded in 1979 under the name Pretty - later changed to its current name in 2001. As well as the popularity in Japan, Angelic Pretty is one of the most well known Lolita brands worldwide. In 2008, the opened an official English-language site to cater for their fast-growing foreign customers. Angelic Pretty is a sweet lolita brand, heavily influenced by the dream of girls to become princesses. Angelic Pretty provides clothing covered in lace, frills and ribbons, at Cosplay Oneesans Event Yumemiru Musical Paradise, brand designers Maki and Asuka were interviewed about the concept of Angelic Pretty, elaborating on the use of the colour pink. They said that they try to use the colour in as many ways as possible and change it with the season, the fashion trends, with the over-all aim to make it pretty. When asked about the story of the designs, both designers were reluctant to respond, since it is up to the girls wear the clothing to write their own princess story. Establishments outside Japan include a store in Shanghai, China, at Cosplay Oneesan, brand designers Maki and Asuka stated that Angelic Pretty wishes to open a store in the United States. Harajuku Hearts itself sells other Lolita style clothing and accessories from brands such as Enchantlic Enchantilly, Atelier Pierrot, Black Peace Now, Sex Pot Revenge, in Paris, an official Angelic Pretty corner opened in 2009, definitely becoming an official Angelic Pretty store in 2010. It closed in 2013, after the annual Paris Tea Party, Now, each year, Angelic Pretty opens a pop-up store in Paris for a few days, in July, and hold a Tea Party. Two of the designers which have made well known throughout the lolita community are Maki. Maki is from the Saitama prefecture and she started working for Angelic Pretty in 2003 and is one of the main designers. She majored in Illustration from a vocational school, before graduating she brought some of her art to Angelic Pretty to answer their ad and was offered a job, working her way through school. Originally she wasnt interested in clothing design as you cant draw scenery on clothes and she is in charge of designing socks as well as choosing the base cloth and thread. She started at Angelic Pretty in 2001 and she is another of the main designers, however she also oversees all press work. She majored in Design during high school and entered a school for clothing. Similar to Maki she answered an ad that Angelic Pretty had placed and was offered a job and she designs shoes, bags and parasols
19.
Manifesteange Metamorphose temps de fille
–
Manifesteange Metamorphose temps de fille is the name of a Japanese clothing boutique chain created in 1997 by the current president of Metamorphose and its designer, Kuniko Kato. Metamorphose specializes in the Lolita fashion and like Baby, The Stars Shine Bright, Metamorphoses website wrote that, Manifesteange means the advent of an angel. Metamorphose temps de fille means the time of transformation into a little girl, the fictitious word manifesteange is thought to be taken from the word manifestation or to manifest, and metamorphose from metamorphosis, which means to go through a drastic change. Metamorphose state they have used the French language to coin the phrase Manifesteange Metamorphose temps de fille, however, Metamorphose temps de fille in French would literally translate to Transforms time of the little girl. This is due to being translated directly from Japanese grammar, in Japanese, the expression Chisai toki means in little time, and is used in place of the English expression When I was young. Metamorphoses website states, Almost everyone has the desire to “transform” one’s self, be it into an angel, someone who is more elegant, with this concept in mind, we created the Metamorphose brand. In order to assist you in your “transformation”, while not being a slave to the current fashion, Metamorphose is one of the more accessible Japanese Lolita brands to foreign customers. They have a translation of their website in English, ship abroad and accept Paypal, unlike other Lolita brands, which usually are not available overseas without the use of a shopping service. Because Kuniko Kato herself may be considered plus sized in Japan, many plus sized Lolitas have found that Metamorphose clothes, which are made in one size only, can fit quite comfortably. Lolita-chan is Metamorphoses news and information page in the English version of their site and it is divided between News & Tidbits, Pictures of You & Us and Metamorphoses Lovely Characters. News & Tidbits relates to upcoming collections and their pre-orders, shop holidays, sales and it sometimes takes the form of a conversational blog and occasionally contains recommended reading and advice on coordinating the fashion. Pictures of You & Us contains galleries of modelled co-ordinates and a map that shows the location. Metamorphose Lovely Characters contains pictures and information on Metamorphoses mascots, Punky Bear the bear, gothic Lolita Lolita Fashion Sweet Lolita Metamorphose temps de fille official website Metamorphose temps de fille official website in English
20.
Malice Mizer
–
Malice Mizer was a Japanese visual kei rock band active from August 1992 to December 2001. Formed by guitarists Mana and Közi, the name stands for malice and misery, extracted from Nothing but a being of malice. — their reply to the question What is human, throughout their history, the band has gone through several different lineups and three drastic image changes. On December 11,2001, it was announced that Malice Mizer would go on an indefinite hiatus, seven years later, Közi played on stage with Manas Moi dix Mois for a session gig on December 27,2008. In 2009, Közi went on a short two gig coupling tour with Moi dix Mois called Deep Sanctuary. A year later, in July 2010, he went on tour with Moi dix Mois. This was the first time in nine years that the three members were on stage together. The trio have performed several times since. After leaving Matenrou, Mana and Közi formed Malice Mizer in August 1992 with Tetsu on vocals, from the outset, the band established their trademark twin guitar sound, whereby two guitars play different melodies creating polyphony. Malice Mizers sound during the Tetsu era was a mixture of early 1980s gothic rock, progressive rock and their first official release was the song Speed of Desperate on the 1993 compilation Brain Trash. Before this, they had released a tape called Sans Logique which contained no vocals. Shortly after the release of Brain Trash, Gaz left the band to join Kneuklid Romance, only days later, singer and lyricist Tetsu left the band after his last gig on December 27. While the exact reasons are unknown, Tetsu went on to take a different direction in his work, the bands continued use of his lyrics in songs they continued to perform with later vocalists suggest an amicable split. In 1995, after a year of inactivity, Malice Mizer recruited Gackt as their new vocalist, with a new concept created by Mana, the bands music became more art rock and synthpop, incorporating even stronger classical and electronic elements. Visually, the band abandoned their 1980s goth look for colorful costumes with a gothic feel. In 1996, Malice Mizer released their album, Voyage ~Sans Retour~. It was a success and was released on video as Merveilles lespace. In July 1998, the Yokohama Arenas stage would be the last for Gackt as in January 1999, at the height of Malice Mizers success, no reason was given, but after just four months he would release his first solo EP
21.
Visual kei
–
Some Western sources consider that visual kei refers to a music genre, with its sound usually related to glam rock, punk rock and heavy metal. However, second generation visual kei acts play various genres, including those considered by some as unrelated to rock such as electronic, pop, Visual kei emerged in the 1980s underground scene, pioneered by bands such as X Japan, Dead End, Derlanger, Buck-Tick and Color. The term visual kei is believed to come one of X Japans slogans, Psychedelic Violence-Crime of Visual Shock. The movement is divided into two generations, with the first in three transitional eras, of which the first lasted almost a decade. In the late 1980s and until the mid 1990s, visual kei received increasing popularity throughout Japan, the most notable bands to achieve success during this period included X Japan, Buck-Tick and Luna Sea, however, a drastic change in their appearance accompanied their success. In 1992, X Japan tried to launch an attempt to enter the American market, even signing with Atlantic Records for a US album, two record labels, Extasy Records and Free-Will, were instrumental in promoting the visual kei scene. Luna Sea and Glay, who went on to sell millions of records, Free-Will was founded by Color vocalist and leader Dynamite Tommy, while at the time not as popular as Extasy, it had many moderately successful acts, such as By-Sexual and Kamaitachi. The second transition era began in 1993 by bands such as LArc-en-Ciel, Glay, Kuroyume, Malice Mizer, around 1995 the visual kei bands experienced a booming success in the general population. It lasted four years, when began the transition era by bands such as Lacryma Christi, Penicillin, Shazna. During the 1990s emerged some subgenres, local Nagoya kei, and several conceptual like Eroguro kei, Angura kei, and Ouji kei or Kodona kei. In 1998, Billboards Steve McClure commented that To a certain extent, hides death means the end of an era, X were the first generation of visual kei bands, for the next generation of bands, its like, Thats it. The torch has been passed to us, a second generation emerged in visual kei-specific live houses managed by record companies like PS Company and Maverick DC Group. Notable newer visual kei bands include The Gazette, Nightmare, Alice Nine, An Cafe, Sug, Mucc, DespairsRay, who have all performed overseas. Veterans of the scene have also established new acts, such as Malice Mizers Mana with his band Moi dix Mois, in 2007, visual kei was revitalized as Luna Sea performed a one-off performance and X Japan officially reunited with a new single and a world tour. With these developments, visual kei bands enjoyed a boost in public awareness, from this generation emerged subgenre Oshare kei which changed the sound and look of the genre, producing pop-rock type with bright attire. In the first five years Dir en Grey was especially well received, in 2007 was held first international exclusive festival, Jrock Revolution, in Los Angeles. Although recently some bands like The Gazette played at Tokyo Dome, in 2009 at Makuhari Messe, and 2011 at Saitama Super Arena, was held V-Rock Festival which gathered over 50 visual kei rock bands. As an epilogue to their 25th anniversary, Luna Sea hosted a festival titled Lunatic Fest on 27 and 28 June 2015
22.
Kansai region
–
The Kansai region or the Kinki region lies in the southern-central region of Japans main island Honshū. The region includes the prefectures of Mie, Nara, Wakayama, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyōgo, while the use of the terms Kansai and Kinki have changed over history, in most modern contexts the use of the two terms is interchangeable. The urban region of Osaka, Kobe and Kyoto is the second most populated in Japan after the Greater Tokyo Area, the Kansai region is the cultural and historical heart of Japan with 11% of its land area and 22,757,897 residents as of 2010. In the north the region is bordered by the Sea of Japan, to the south by the Kii Peninsula and Pacific Ocean, four of Japans national parks lie within its borders, in whole or in part. The area also contains six of the seven top prefectures in terms of national treasures, other geographical features include Amanohashidate in Kyoto Prefecture and Awaji Island in Hyōgo. The Kansai region is compared with the Kantō region, which lies to its east and consists primarily of Tokyo. This East-West rivalry has deep roots, particularly from the Edo period. With a samurai population of less than 1% the culture of the merchant city of Osaka stood in sharp contrast to that of Edo, many characteristic traits of Kansai people descend from Osaka merchant culture. Catherine Maxwell, an editor for the newsletter Omusubi, writes, Kansai residents are seen as being pragmatic, entrepreneurial, down-to-earth and possessing a strong sense of humour. Kanto people on the hand are perceived as more sophisticated, reserved and formal, in keeping with Tokyo’s history and modern status as the nation’s capital. Kansai is known for its food, especially Osaka, as supported by the saying Kyotoites are ruined by overspending on clothing, popular Osakan dishes include takoyaki, okonomiyaki, kitsune udon and kushikatsu. Kyoto is considered a mecca of traditional Japanese cuisine like kaiseki, Kansai has many wagyu brands such as Kobe beef and Tajima cattle from Hyōgo, Matsusaka beef from Mie and Omi beef from Shiga. Sake is another specialty of the region, the areas of Nada-Gogō, as opposed to food from Eastern Japan, food in the Kansai area tends to be sweeter, and foods such as nattō tend to be less popular. The dialects of the people from the Kansai region, commonly called Kansai-ben, have their own variations of pronunciation, vocabulary, Kansai-ben is the group of dialects spoken in the Kansai area, but is often treated as a dialect in its own right. Kansai is one of the most prosperous areas for baseball in Japan, two Nippon Professional Baseball teams, Hanshin Tigers and Orix Buffaloes, are based in Kansai. Koshien Stadium, the stadium of the Hanshin Tigers, is also famous for the nationwide high school baseball tournaments. In association football, the Kansai Soccer League was founded in 1966, cerezo Osaka, Gamba Osaka, and Vissel Kobe belong to J. League Division 1 and Kyoto Sanga F. C. belongs to J. League Division 2, the top professional leagues in Japan. The terms Kansai, Kinki, and Kinai have a deep history
23.
Tokyo
–
Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
24.
Jingu Bashi
–
Harajuku is a district in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. Harajuku is the name given to a geographic area spreading from Harajuku Station to Omotesando. In popular reference Harajuku also encompasses many smaller backstreets such as Takeshita Street, Harajuku is known internationally as a center of Japanese youth culture and fashion. In the pre Edo period, the area came to be known as Harajuku was a small post town on the Kamakura Highway. It was said that in the Gosannen War, Minamoto no Yoshiie mustered his soldiers in this area, in the Edo period, an Iga clan residence was put in Harajuku to defend Edo, due to its strategic location south of the Koshu Road. Other than the mansion of the Hiroshima Domain feudal lord Asano, the livelihood of the farmers consisted mainly of rice cleaning and flour milling with the watermill at the Shibuya River. However, due to the quality of the land, production never succeeded. It is said that local farmers often performed rain-making invocations at local shrines in an attempt to improve their fortunes, there are also the tales Oyama-Afuri Shrine of Tanzawa and Worship on the day trip to Mt Haruna remaining. At the start of the Meiji period in 1868, the land around Harajuku Village was owned by the shogunate, in November of the same year, the towns and villages of Shibuya Ward, including Harajuku Village, were placed under the jurisdiction of the Tokyo Prefecture. In 1906, Harajuku Station was opened as a part of the expansion of the Yamanote Line, in 1919, with the establishment of Meiji Shrine, Omotesando was widened and reordered as a formal approach route. In 1940, the Tōgō Shrine was built and consecrated in honor of Imperial Japanese Navy Marshal-Admiral Marquis Tōgō Heihachirō, in the final period of the Pacific War in 1945, much of the area was burned to the ground during the Great Tokyo Air Raid. During the postwar occupation, military housing in the area named Washington Heights was constructed on land now occupied by Yoyogi Park and the Yoyogi National Gymnasium. Shops that appealed to the US soldiers and their families, such as Kiddyland, Oriental Bazaar, in 1964, swimming, diving and basketball events for the Tokyo Olympics were held in the neighbouring Yoyogi National Gymnasium. In 1965, the name of the area in the Japanese address system was changed from Harajuku to Jingumae. The name Harajuku has persisted due to the naming of the nearby JR East Harajuku Station. The area from Harajuku station to the area surrounding Takeshita Street was called Takeshita-cho, coming into the 1970s, fashion-obsessed youth culture experienced a transition from Shinjuku to Harajuku, then to Shibuya. Palais France, a building that sold clothing and accessories, furniture. In 1978, the fashion building Laforet Harajuku was opened, in the 1980s, Takeshita Street became known for teenage street dancing groups called takenoko-zoku
25.
Gothic & Lolita Bible
–
Gothic & Lolita Bible is a quarterly Japanese fashion mook, a combination of a magazine and book, which focuses on the Gothic and Lolita fashions. It was first published in 2001 by Index Communications, and is a spin-off of the Japanese fashion magazine Kera, since February 2008, an English-language version has been released in North America by Tokyopop. English-language critics praised the Gothic & Lolita Bible as a magazine with nice pictures. It was discontinued after 5 issues in Spring 2009, first published in 2001 by Index Communications, the Gothic & Lolita Bible is a spin-off of the Japanese fashion magazine Kera. It is a mook, the combination of a book and magazine, essays by Japanese author Takemoto Novala about the proper behavior and attitudes of girls also influenced many to join the Lolita fashion and lifestyle. Most of the Gothic & Lolita Bible focuses on the Lolita fashion as it is the popular of the two fashions. The idea of publishing the Gothic & Lolita Bible in North America was first suggested in 2003, in June 2007, Tokopop announced the decision to publish an English-language version and released the first volume in February 2008. It contained articles from past issues, which the editors chose based on available material, Gothic & Lolita Bible ranked tenth in About. coms 2008 reader poll for the best manga magazine or magazine and book hybrids. It received positive reviews from English-language critics, about. coms Deb Aoki listed it as the 11th most anticipated manga for 2008. Active Animes Sandra Scholes wrote, Superb, this is an essential buy for any Lolitas bookshelf, Gothic & Lolita Bible at Tokyopops website Gothic & Lolita Bible at Anime News Networks encyclopedia
26.
Fruits (magazine)
–
Fruits is a Japanese fashion magazine covering the fashions of the Harajuku district of Tokyo, established in 1997 by photographer Shoichi Aoki. Excerpts from the magazine were compiled to create the Phaidon Press books Fruits, an exhibition of Aokis photographs for the magazine, developed by the Powerhouse Museum, has toured museums in Australia and New Zealand. The photographs document the individualistic styles young people wear around the Harajuku district of Tokyo, if there are identifiable themes, they can broadly be described as fun, original, authentic, and the recording of emerging social trends and technology. The message seems to shout through the format of these photos. The fashion styles showcased in Fruits have a parallel concerning the disregard to conventions that punk takes to the extreme, however, unlike the punk movement, there is less, if any, of a political agenda expressed by Fruits. Fruits photographs styles which are distinct from Cosplay, which is a hobby where people dress like their favourite manga, anime, the inside contains very few ads, most of which are to advertise a shop in Harajuku. The back may include an interview with a member at the magazine. The very back shows reader-submitted pictures, street Fashion Official site Fruits Fan Community Fruits Exhibition at the Powerhouse in Sydney
27.
Tokyopop
–
Tokyopop, styled TOKYOPOP, and formerly known as Mixx Entertainment, is an American distributor, licensor, and publisher of anime, manga, manhwa, and Western manga-style works. The German publishing division produces German translations of licensed Japanese properties and original English-language manga, Tokyopops defunct US publishing division previously published works in English and Japanese. Tokyopop had its US headquarters in the Variety Building in Los Angeles, California, Tokyopop was founded in 1997 by Stuart J. Levy. In the late 1990s, the headquarters were located in Los Angeles. While the company was known as Mixx Entertainment, it sold MixxZine, mixxzine later became Tokyopop before it was discontinued. Cultural anthropologist Matt Thorn praised Stu Levy for opening up a market for cartoons with the publication of Sailor Moon. Before Sailor Moon, the belief among entertainment executives was that girls dont watch cartoons, due to Sailor Moon’s immense popularity, Tokyopop discontinued the serial from its magazines, and released it separately as its first manga graphic novel. Also, together with Diamond, Tokyopop offered retailers free spinner rack displays for Tokyopop manga, Tokyopop also licensed and distributed Japanese anime. ”The film was directed and scripted by Shoji Kawamori, who created Super Dimensional Fortress Macross and The Vision of Escaflowne. Taste of Cinema ranked “Spring and Chaos” thirteenth in its list of Top “25 Weird Animated Movies That Are Worth Your Time. In 2002, Tokyopop launched its line of 100% Authentic Manga, unfortunately, this often compromised the integrity of the titles original artwork. Tokyopop volumes hit the shelves monthly, bi-monthly or quarterly versus the six months or longer typical of competitors. It also allowed Tokyopop to sell books for a price point of $9.99 per book. Tokyopop was the first U. S. publisher to adopt such a sweeping policy, an authentic manga how-to guide was included in each graphic novel to keep readers from accidentally reading the final page first, and the authentic manga also featured special packaging. Tokyopop launched their Global Manga publishing program in 2003 via the introduction of its Rising Stars of Manga talent competition, the competition called for American manga artists to submit 15-25 page English-language stories of any genre. The top 10 entries, as judged by Tokyopop editors, received prizes and were published in an anthology of the winning works. The grand prize winners were given the chance to pitch full-length manga projects to Tokyopop for a chance to become professional manga-ka. The 5th Rising Stars of Manga competition added the People’s Choice award, “We are really pleased to open up the Rising Stars judging to the fans, commented Tokyopop editor Rob Valois. Since so many people have been vocal on the boards and at industry conventions
28.
Fast fashion
–
Fast fashion is a contemporary term used by fashion retailers to express that designs move from catwalk quickly to capture current fashion trends. Fast fashion clothing collections are based on the most recent fashion trends presented at Fashion Week in both the spring and the autumn of every year. This philosophy of quick manufacturing at a price is used in large retailers such as H&M, Zara, Peacocks, Primark, Xcel Brands. It particularly came to the fore during the vogue for boho chic in the mid-2000s, Fast fashion has also become associated with disposable fashion because it has delivered designer product to a mass market at relatively low prices. The slow fashion movement has arisen in opposition to fast fashion, blaming it for pollution, shoddy workmanship, Fast fashion has also come under criticism for contributing to poor working conditions in developing countries. The primary objective of fast fashion is to produce a product in a cost-efficient manner to respond to fast-changing consumer tastes in as near real time as possible. This efficiency is achieved through the understanding of the target markets wants. Primarily, the concept of management has been used to align the retail buyer. Category management is defined as the management of product groups through trade partnerships. This collaboration occurs as many resources are pooled to further develop more sophisticated. The fast fashion market utilizes this by uniting with foreign manufacturers to keep prices at a minimum, quick Response was developed to improve manufacturing processes in the textile industry with the aim of removing time from the production system. Apparel Manufacturing Association initiated the project in the early 1980s to address a threat to its own textile manufactures from imported textiles in low labour cost countries. During the project lead times in the process were halved, the U. S. industry became more competitive for a time. The QR initiative was viewed by many as a mechanism for the American textile industry with the aim of improving manufacturing efficiencies. The concept of response is now used to support fast fashion, creating new. Quick response also makes it possible for new technologies to increase production and efficiency, the Spanish mega chain Zara, owned by Inditex, has become the global model for how to decrease the time between design and production. This production short cut enables Zara to manufacture over 30,000 units of product every year to nearly 1,600 stores in 58 countries, New items are delivered twice a week to the stores, reducing the time between initial sale and replenishment. As a result, the time period improves consumers garment choices
29.
H&M
–
H & M Hennes & Mauritz AB is a Swedish multinational clothing-retail company, known for its fast-fashion clothing for men, women, teenagers and children. H&M and its associated brands operate in 62 countries with over 4,000 stores and, as of 2015 and it is the second largest global clothing retailer, just behind Spain-based Inditex. The company was founded by Erling Persson in 1947, when he opened his first shop in Västerås, the shop, called Hennes, exclusively sold womens clothing. In 1968, Persson acquired the hunting apparel retailer Mauritz Widforss, which led to the inclusion of a collection in the product range. The company was listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1974, shortly after, in 1976, the first store outside of Scandinavia opened in London. H&M continued to expand in Europe, and began to online in 1998. The two-letter domain was registered in the early 1990s, but data on the first registration is lost, the first US store opened in 2000 on Fifth Avenue, New York. In 2008, the company announced in a release that it would begin selling home furnishings. Initially distributed through the online catalogue, there are now H&M Home stores located internationally. Its worth was estimated at $12–16 billion, H&M operated 2,325 stores at the end of 2011, and 2,629 stores at the end of August 2012. Its 3, 000th store opened in September 2013 in Chengdu, the first H&M store to open outside of Sweden was in Norway in 1964, and the first to open outside of Scandinavia was in the United Kingdom in 1976. H&Ms expansion outside of Europe started with the US in 2000, in November 2004, selected company stores offered an exclusive collection by fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld. In November 2005, the company launched a collection by Stella McCartney and, in November 2006, in March 2007, it launched another collaboration designed by the pop star Madonna. In June 2007 the company worked with game developers Maxis to create a stuff pack for the latters The Sims 2 computer game, in November 2007, the company launched a collection by Italian designer Roberto Cavalli. It was reported that the sold out very quickly. Also in 2007, another design with Kylie Minogue was launched in Shanghai, in the spring of 2008 the Finnish company Marimekko was selected as guest designer and was followed by Japanese Comme des Garçons in the fall. In 2008, H&M used the song Hang On by British singer-songwriter Lettie as background music to its UK website. For spring and summer 2009, the British designer Matthew Williamson created two exclusive ranges for the company – the first being a collection of womens clothes released in selected stores, the second collection saw Williamson branch into menswear for the first time, only in selected stores
30.
Forever 21
–
Forever 21 is an American fast fashion retailer with its headquarters in Los Angeles, California. More than 60% of its apparel is made in China and the average size is 38,000 square feet. Forever 21 is known for its offerings and its low pricing. The company sells clothing, accessories, and beauty products for women, men, the company has been involved in various controversies, ranging from labor practice issues to copyright infraction accusations to religion. The clothing ages from toddler to grownup, for kids and adults, Forever 21 is the 5th largest specialty retailer in the United States. Originally known as Fashion 21, the first Forever 21 store was founded in Los Angeles, California on April 21,1984 by husband and wife, Do Won Chang and Jin Sook Chang. The store is located at 5637 N. Figueroa Street in the Highland Park district of Los Angeles and is still in operation, designs similar to those seen in South Korea were sold and targeted to the Los Angeles Korean American community. In its first year in operation, sales totaled $700,000, and as of February 2014, Forever 21 generated a revenue of $3.8 billion. Originally, Forever 21 only sold clothes for women, but later expanded to sell menswear, most Forever 21 stores now sell clothes for both men and women. In September 2001, the Asian Pacific American Legal Center and the Garment Worker Center, workers’ advocacy groups, filed a lawsuit against Forever 21, charging them of violating labor practice laws. Forever 21 denounced the accusations, asserting its commitment to fair labor practices, a three-year boycott of Forever 21 was held throughout the United States by the garment workers and this movement was captured in the Emmy Award-winning documentary, Made in L. A. Although the charge was dismissed by U. S. District Court Judge Manuel Real, attorney Robin D. Dal Soglio asserted that both Forever 21s reputation and its sales were impacted by the allegations and protests. On the other hand, Kimi Lee, the director of one of the groups that represented the workers. Both cases ended in a settlement in December 2004, five Forever 21 employees filed a class action lawsuit in January 2012, declaring they were not compensated for the time they worked during their lunch breaks and the time spent on bag checks. After the Labor Department found that some of Forever 21s suppliers had violated federal laws on wages and record keeping. U. S. District Court Judge Margaret Morrow ordered Forever 21’s compliance after the failed to provide the documents. The retailer claimed that it tried to meet with the Labor Department, as of July 2014, the U. S. According to Forbes,50 copyright violation lawsuits have been placed against Forever 21, diane von Fürstenberg sued the retailer insisting it copied four of her dresses
31.
Alice in Wonderland
–
Alices Adventures in Wonderland is an 1865 novel written by English mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll. It tells of a girl named Alice falling through a hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar. The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children and it is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre. Its narrative course and structure, characters and imagery have been influential in both popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre. The journey began at Folly Bridge in Oxford and ended 3 miles north-west in the village of Godstow, during the trip, Dodgson told the girls a story that featured a bored little girl named Alice who goes looking for an adventure. The girls loved it, and Alice Liddell asked Dodgson to write it down for her and he began writing the manuscript of the story the next day, although that earliest version no longer exists. The girls and Dodgson took another boat trip a month later when he elaborated the plot to the story of Alice, and in November he began working on the manuscript in earnest. To add the finishing touches, he researched natural history for the animals presented in the book and he added his own illustrations but approached John Tenniel to illustrate the book for publication, telling him that the story had been well liked by children. Some, including Martin Gardner, speculate that there was a version that was destroyed later by Dodgson when he wrote a more elaborate copy by hand. Chapter One – Down the Rabbit Hole, Alice is feeling bored and drowsy while sitting on the riverbank with her older sister and she then notices a White Rabbit wearing a waistcoat and pocket watch, talking to itself as it runs past. She follows it down a hole, but suddenly falls a long way to a curious hall with many locked doors of all sizes. She finds a key to a door too small for her to fit through. She then discovers a bottle on a table labelled DRINK ME, the contents of which cause her to shrink too small to reach the key and she eats a cake with EAT ME written on it in currants as the chapter closes. Chapter Two – The Pool of Tears, Chapter Two opens with Alice growing to such a size that her head hits the ceiling. Alice is unhappy and, as she cries, her tears flood the hallway, after shrinking down again due to a fan she had picked up, Alice swims through her own tears and meets a Mouse, who is swimming as well. She tries to make small talk with him in elementary French, offends the mouse and he tries to escape her. Chapter Three – The Caucus Race and a Long Tale, The sea of tears becomes crowded with other animals, Alice and the other animals convene on the bank and the question among them is how to get dry again. The Mouse gives them a very dry lecture on William the Conqueror, a Dodo decides that the best thing to dry them off would be a Caucus-Race, which consists of everyone running in a circle with no clear winner
32.
Lewis Carroll
–
Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English writer, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon, and photographer. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, There are societies in many parts of the world dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life. Dodgsons family was predominantly northern English, with Irish connections, conservative, most of Dodgsons male ancestors were army officers or Church of England clergy. His great-grandfather, also named Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become the Bishop of Elphin. His paternal grandfather, another Charles, had been an army captain, the older of these sons – yet another Charles Dodgson – was Carrolls father. He went to Westminster School and then to Christ Church, Oxford and he reverted to the other family tradition and took holy orders. He was mathematically gifted and won a double first degree, which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career, instead, he married his first cousin Frances Jane Lutwidge in 1830 and became a country parson. Dodgson was born in the parsonage at Daresbury in Cheshire near the towns of Warrington and Runcorn. When Charles was 11, his father was given the living of Croft-on-Tees in North Yorkshire, and this remained their home for the next 25 years. He was High Church, inclining to Anglo-Catholicism, an admirer of John Henry Newman and the Tractarian movement, Young Charles was to develop an ambiguous relationship with his fathers values and with the Church of England as a whole. During his early youth, Dodgson was educated at home and his reading lists preserved in the family archives testify to a precocious intellect, at the age of seven, he was reading books such as The Pilgrims Progress. He also suffered from a stammer – a condition shared by most of his siblings – that often influenced his life throughout his years. At the age of twelve, he was sent to Richmond Grammar School at nearby Richmond, in 1846, Dodgson entered Rugby School where he was evidently unhappy, as he wrote some years after leaving, I cannot say. That any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again, I can honestly say that if I could have been. Secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear, scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease. I have not had a promising boy at his age since I came to Rugby. He left Rugby at the end of 1849 and matriculated at Oxford in May 1850 as a member of his fathers old college, after waiting for rooms in college to become available, he went into residence in January 1851. He had been at Oxford only two days when he received a summons home and his mother had died of inflammation of the brain – perhaps meningitis or a stroke – at the age of 47
33.
Marie Antoinette
–
Marie Antoinette (/ˈmæriˌæntwəˈnɛt/, /ˌɑ̃ːntwə-/, /ˌɑ̃ːtwə-/, US /məˈriː-/, French, born Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna, was the last Queen of France and Navarre before the French Revolution. She was born an Archduchess of Austria, and was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I, in April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, heir apparent to the French throne, she became Dauphine of France. After eight years of marriage, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the family to take refuge at the Assembly. On 21 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, after a two-day trial begun on 14 October 1793, Marie Antoinette was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason, and executed by guillotine on Place de la Révolution on 16 October 1793. Maria Antonia was born on 2 November 1755, at the Hofburg Palace and she was the youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg Empire, and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria, King and Queen of Portugal, Archduke Joseph, shortly after her birth, she was placed under the care of the Governess of the Imperial children, Countess von Brandeis. Maria Antonia was raised with her older sister Maria Carolina. As to her relationship with her mother, it was difficult, despite the private tutoring she received, results of her schooling were less than satisfactory. At the age of ten she could not write correctly in German or in any language used at court, such as French. Under the teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Maria Antonia developed into a good musician and she learned to play the harp, the harpsichord and the flute. During the familys gatherings in the evenings, she would sing and she also excelled at dancing, had an exquisite poise, and loved dolls. Following the Seven Years War and the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy, on 14 May she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne. Upon her arrival in France, she adopted the French version of her name, a further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and, after the festivities, the day ended with the ritual bedding. The lack of consummation of the marriage plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for the seven years. The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was mixed, on the one hand, the Dauphine was beautiful, personable and well-liked by the common people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 was a resounding success, on the other hand, those opposed to the alliance with Austria, and others, for personal reasons, had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette. Madame du Barry, for example, was Louis XVs mistress and had political influence over him
34.
The Rose of Versailles
–
The Rose of Versailles, also known as Lady Oscar or La Rose de Versailles, is one of the best-known titles in shōjo manga and a media franchise created by Riyoko Ikeda. The show remains popular in Italy. The Rose of Versailles focuses on Oscar François de Jarjayes, a girl raised as a man to become her fathers successor as leader of the Palace Guards. It features elements of the yuri genre embodied in the relationship between Oscar and her protégée Rosalie Lamorlière, the daughter of the scheming Madame de Polignac. Rosalie refers to Oscar as her first love, many of the court ladies also greatly adore Oscar, openly admiring her at parties and become very jealous when she brings female companions to them. The setting is in France, before and during the French Revolution. In the early part of the series, the character is the young, flighty Queen of France, Marie Antoinette. Oscars father, General Jarjayes, despaired over never getting a son and he trained her well in the arts of fencing, horsemanship, and medieval combat. Oscar often practiced her skills with her best friend, companion and servant, André Grandier, André is the grandson of her nanny and thus they spent most of their time together in harmonic friendship, near the end of the story, this friendship blossoms into mutual love. Oscar is the commander of the Royal Guard and responsible for the safety of Marie Antoinette, the story revolves around Oscars growing realization of how France is governed, and the plight of the poor. Another important storyline is the story between Marie Antoinette and the Swedish Count Axel von Fersen. The affair between the two is the subject of rumours through all of France, endangering the Queens reputation and driving Oscar to request the Count to leave the country, after the Count decides to leave and sign up for the American war of independence, Marie Antoinette becomes lovesick. She spends money in excess —expensive jewellery and clothes, attending balls every other night— to distract herself from pining for the man she loved. This, in turn, weighs on the taxpayers of France, on July 14,1789, the Taking of the Bastille, the crowds rebel but lack strategy, giving the military the advantage and making themselves easy target for cannon fire. However, Oscar and the regiment B then arrive to help organize the insurgents, during the following fierce battle, Oscar is shot and killed, but the Bastille eventually falls, symbolically striking down the French monarchy. After the Bastille is taken, the revolutionaries burst into the Palace searching for Marie Antoinette, many guards are killed and the royal family taken prisoner. Big trials are started for Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI, but finally, Ikedas editors were opposed to her idea of a biography of Marie Antoinette, and only its popularity among readers kept The Rose of Versailles in publication. Ikeda had read Stefan Zweigs biography of Marie Antoinette in high school, and the first chapters focus on the queen, casting her as a shoujo heroine, Oscar was created as a supporting character
35.
Novala Takemoto
–
Novala Takemoto is a Japanese author and fashion designer. His real name is Toshiaki Takemoto and his pen name is translatable as The Wild Rose. Known as the Lolitas Bard, he is a heterosexual man self-described as having the charisma of a young maiden and he has been one of the most active promoters of the Lolita lifestyle. He once designed a line of clothing featuring his own logo for BABY, a few of his favorite things are Alice and the Pirates, Vivienne Westwood, MILK, rockinghorse shoes, Christian Dior perfume, robots, science fiction, taxidermy, dolls, and Philip Glass. He also has a fascination with the Rococo era, and sometimes claims to have born in the year 1745. Takemoto was born in Uji, south of Kyoto and he was also sometimes beaten by his father, which he says persuaded him to follow his own path in life. After dropping out of Osaka University of Arts in 1987, he participated in a variety of artistic, from 1992 to 1997 he made his literary debut contributing serial essays to Hanagata Bunka Tsūshin, a Kansai free arts newspaper. These essays were collected and published in format in 1998 as Soleilnuit, For Becoming a Proper Young Lady. These essays also increased the popularity of the Japanese term otome, Shogakukan published his debut novel Missin in 2000. He was nominated for the Yukio Mishima Literary Award twice, for his novels Emily, Takemoto is best known for Shimotsuma Monogatari, titled Kamikaze Girls in English. The series was adapted to a manga and a film which was directed by Tetsuya Nakashima, another of his novels, Twins --- A Variety Store Named The End of the World, was also adapted for film in 2001 by Kiseki Hamada. The following biography has been translated from Takemotos official website, NOVALA BOX, I was born on January 26th, in 1745, during the Rococo period. I was born in Ujishi in the Kyoto area, in 1990 I worked at a novice shop in the heart of Kansai, which dealt with artistic, musical and theatrical events. During that time I was a writer and editor for a paper called the Cultural Flourish News. From 1992 to 1997, the Cultural Flourish News serialized my essays Soleilnuit - For Becoming a Proper Young Lady and this allowed the essays to be published in a separate volume. They invoke what I would call a young ladys charisma, in 1999 and 2000, I switched my base of operations to Tokyo and wrote my debut novel Missin for the publisher Shogakukan. On September 2,2007, Novala Takemoto was arrested for possession of cannabis, Takemotos arrest has had serious repercussions for his career. Baby, The Stars Shine Bright has removed any mention of affiliation, such as his Pour Lolita and Hello Kitty lines, Takemotos website was also shut down for an extended period of time and replaced by an apologetic note for visitors, but it has since reopened
36.
Light novel
–
A light novel is a style of Japanese novel primarily, but not exclusively, targeting high-school and middle-school students. Light novel is a wasei-eigo, or a Japanese term formed from words in the English language, Light novels are often called ranobe or LN in the West. The average size of a novel is about 50,000 words long, the equivalent size of an American novel. One of the most remarkable characteristics of a novel is that they are illustrated with anime and manga art style. They are mainly published in separate volumes, while some of them have their chapters serialized in anthology magazines before collection in book form. Light novels are an evolution of pulp magazines, the narrative evolved to please the new generations and became fully illustrated with the popular style. The popular serials are printed in novels, publishing companies are constantly searching for new talent with annual contests, many of which earn the winner a cash prize and publication of their novel. The Dengeki Novel Prize is the largest, with over 6,500 submissions annually and they are all clearly labeled as light novels and are published as low-priced paperbacks. For example, the price for The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya in Japan is ¥540, similar to the price for trade paperbacks — light novels. In 2007 it was estimated that the market for light novels was about ¥20 billion, Kadokawa Group Holdings, which owns major labels like Kadokawa Sneaker Books and Dengeki Books, has a 70% to 80% share of the market. In 2009, light novels made ¥30.1 billion in sales, there are currently many licensed English translations of Japanese light novels available. Other English-language publishers that license light novels are Tokyopop, Viz, DMP, Dark Horse, Yen Press, popular literature has a long tradition in Japan. Even though cheap, pulp novels resembling ranobe were present in Japan for years prior, science fiction and horror writers like Hideyuki Kikuchi or Baku Yumemakura started their careers through such imprints. In the 1980s, epic novels by Yoshiki Tanaka — The Heroic Legend of Arslan — took young male Japanese audiences by storm, also, RPG-inspired Record of Lodoss War novels achieved popularity. All of those were later animated, the 1990s saw the smash-hit Slayers series which merged fantasy-RPG elements with comedy. Some years later MediaWorks founded an imprint called Dengeki Bunko. The Boogiepop series was their first major hit which soon was animated, Dengeki Bunko writers continued to slowly gain attention until the small light novel world experienced a boom around 2006. After the huge success of the Haruhi Suzumiya series, suddenly the number of publishers and readers interested in light novels skyrocketed, Light novels became an important part of the Japanese 2D culture in the late 2000s
37.
Kamikaze Girls
–
Kamikaze Girls, originally released in Japan as Shimotsuma Story–Yankee Girl & Lolita Girl, is a 2002 light novel written by Novala Takemoto. It has been adapted into a manga and film, the movie was released on DVD in the United States in January 2006 under the title Kamikaze Girls. The movie was filmed in the town of Shimotsuma, in the Ibaraki Prefecture in Eastern Japan, the U. S. DVD has English subtitles hardcoded and the original Japanese vocals and musical score. The DVD extras include the original Japanese movie trailers, an interview with each of the two stars, along with a music video by Anna Tsuchiya. A Blu-ray Disc of the film with optional English subtitles, the same extras, a manga based on the book was also created by Yukio Kanesada. It was published in English by Viz Media, a preview of the manga was in the November 2005 issue of Shojo Beat. The book begins with Momoko talking about her life as a Lolita living in a town in the Japanese countryside. She is the only Lolita in her town and has no friends, when she runs out of money though she becomes obsessed with getting clothes from Baby, The Stars Shine Bright, her favorite clothing boutique. She decides to sell some of her fathers old bootleg clothes, when Ichiko, a member of an all-girl biker gang finds out about the bootleg apparel, she decides to take a look and is easily impressed with them. She soon shows up at Momokos house almost daily to buy stuff for the members of her gang, when the members of Ichigos biker gang find out about her new friend, Momoko they are enraged and decide to throw her out of the gang. They plan to challenge her, which means beating her up very badly, Momoko finds out about the challenge and goes to Ichigos aid. After accidentally scaring the gang out of their minds, Momoko is considered the winner and saves Ichigo, when it comes time for Momoko to show Isobe, the work she did on the dress he needed embroidered, she arrives on time and everyone loves her work. When it comes time for the photo shoot there is an accident. Being the only person there the right size to wear the dress, Ichigo hesitantly agrees to even though she hates Lolita fashion. The main part of the manga only takes up half of the book. Viz Media licensed the manga for an English-language release in North America, official website Kamikaze Girls at the Internet Movie Database
38.
Yankee
–
The term Yankee and its contracted form Yank have several interrelated meanings, all referring to people from the United States. Its various senses depend on the scope of context, most broadly, Outside the United States, Yank is used informally to refer to any American, including Southerners. Within Southern American English, Yankee is a term used to refer to any and all Northerners. The speech dialect of Eastern New England is called Yankee or Yankee dialect, within New England itself, the term Yankee refers specifically to old-stock New Englanders of English descent. The informal British and Irish English Yank refers to Americans in general and it is especially popular among Britons and Australians and sometimes carries pejorative overtones. The Southern American English Yankee is typically uncontracted and at least mildly pejorative, the root of the term is uncertain. In 1758, British General James Wolfe made the earliest recorded use of the word Yankee to refer to people from what became the United States, later British use of the word often was derogatory, as in a cartoon of 1775 ridiculing Yankee soldiers. The meaning of Yankee has varied over time, in the 18th century, it referred to residents of New England descended from the original English settlers of the region. Mark Twain used the word in this sense the following century in his novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court, as early as the 1770s, British people applied the term to any person from what became the United States. In the 19th century, Americans in the southern United States employed the word in reference to Americans from the northern United States, though not to recent immigrants from Europe. Thus, a visitor to Richmond, Virginia commented in 1818, The enterprising people are mostly strangers, Scots, Irish, another theory surmises that the word is borrowed from the Wyandot pronunciation of the French langlais, sounded as Yan-gee. Linguists, however, do not support any Indian origins, the change from English to Yengees is very trifling. Sonneck noted that multiple American writers since 1775 had repeated this story as if it were fact, despite what he suggested were clear holes in it. First, he noted that it was proposed at the start of the American Revolution and would have been a welcome anti-English rhetoric. Second, it had never been the tradition of any Indian tribe to transfer their name to group of people. Third and most importantly, there had never been a tribe called the Yankoos, most linguists look to Dutch sources, noting the extensive interaction between the colonial Dutch in New Netherland and the colonial English in New England. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives its origin as around 1683, when it was applied insultingly to Dutch Americans by the English, however, it was at some point reappropriated by Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam who started using it against the English colonists of neighboring Connecticut. Linguist Jan de Vries notes that there was mention of a pirate named Dutch Yanky in the 17th century
39.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
40.
Internet
–
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
41.
Hello Kitty
–
Hello Kitty, is a fictional character produced by the Japanese company Sanrio, created by Yuko Shimizu and currently designed by Yuko Yamaguchi. She is depicted as an anthropomorphic white Japanese Bobtail cat-inspired character with a red bow, shortly after her creation in 1974, Hello Kitty greeted the world with a Hello. on her first product. The Hello Kitty vinyl coin purse was introduced by Sanrio in March 1975, the character was then brought to the United States in 1976. The character is a staple of the segment of Japanese popular culture. By 2010, Sanrio had groomed Hello Kitty into a global marketing phenomenon worth $5 billion a year, originally aimed at pre-adolescent females, Hello Kittys market has broadened to include adult consumers. She can be found on a variety of products ranging from school supplies to fashion accessories, several Hello Kitty TV series, targeted towards children, have been produced. Hello Kitty is also the character at the two Japanese Sanrio theme parks, Harmonyland and the indoor Sanrio Puroland. She has a playful and funny character and is kind, in 1962, Shintaro Tsuji, founder of Sanrio, began selling rubber sandals with flowers painted on them. Tsuji noted the profits gained by adding a cute design to the sandals, the company produced a line of character merchandise around gift-giving occasions. Hello Kitty was designed by Yuko Shimizu and was added to the lineup of early Sanrio characters in 1974, the characters first appearance on an item was a vinyl coin purse in Japan where she was pictured sitting between a bottle of milk and a goldfish bowl. She first appeared in the United States in 1976, Sanrio decided to make Hello Kitty British because at the time when she was created, foreign countries, in particular Britain, were trendy in Japan. In addition, Sanrio already had a number of set in the US. Shimizu got the name Kitty from Lewis Carrolls Through the Looking-Glass, Sanrios motto is social communication and Tsuji wanted the brand name to reflect that. He first considered Hi Kitty before settling on Hello for the greeting, spokespeople for Sanrio have said that Hello Kitty does not have a mouth because they want people to project their feelings onto the character and be happy or sad together with Hello Kitty. Another explanation Sanrio has given for her lack of a mouth is that she speaks from the heart, shes Sanrios ambassador to the world and isnt bound to any particular language. Representatives for Sanrio have said they see Hello Kitty as a symbol of friendship, Hello Kitty sold well immediately after the 1974 launch, and Sanrios sales increased seven times up until they slumped temporarily in 1978. New series with Hello Kitty in different themed designs are released regularly, Yuko Yamaguchi, the main designer for most of Hello Kittys history, has said that she is inspired by fashion, movies and TV in creating new designs. Hello Kitty was originally marketed only to young girls, in the 1990s the target market for Hello Kitty was broadened to include teens and grown-ups as a retro brand
42.
Anime
–
Anime is Japanese hand-drawn or computer animation. The word is the pronunciation of animation in Japanese, where this term references all animation. Arguably, the abstract approach to the words meaning may open up the possibility of anime produced in countries other than Japan. For simplicity, many Westerners strictly view anime as a Japanese animation product, some scholars suggest defining anime as specifically or quintessentially Japanese may be related to a new form of orientalism. The earliest commercial Japanese animation dates to 1917, and Japanese anime production has continued to increase steadily. Anime is distributed theatrically, by way of television broadcasts, directly to home media and it is classified into numerous genres targeting diverse broad and niche audiences. Anime is an art form with distinctive production methods and techniques that have been adapted over time in response to emergent technologies. It consists of an ideal story-telling mechanism, combining art, characterization, cinematography. The production of anime focuses less on the animation of movement and more on the realism of settings as well as the use of effects, including panning, zooming. Being hand-drawn, anime is separated from reality by a gap of fiction that provides an ideal path for escapism that audiences can immerse themselves into with relative ease. Diverse art styles are used and character proportions and features can be quite varied, the anime industry consists of over 430 production studios, including major names like Studio Ghibli, Gainax, and Toei Animation. Despite comprising only a fraction of Japans domestic film market, anime makes up a majority of Japanese DVD sales and it has also seen international success after the rise of English-dubbed programming. This rise in popularity has resulted in non-Japanese productions using the anime art style. Anime is an art form, specifically animation, that all genres found in cinema. In Japanese, the term refers to all forms of animation from around the world. In English, anime is more used to denote a Japanese-style animated film or television entertainment or as a style of animation created in Japan. The etymology of the anime is disputed. The English term animation is written in Japanese katakana as アニメーション and is アニメ in its shortened form, in English, anime—when used as a common noun—normally functions as a mass noun
43.
Manga
–
Manga are comics created in Japan or by creators in the Japanese language, conforming to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century. They have a long and complex pre-history in earlier Japanese art, the term manga in Japan is a word used to refer to both comics and cartooning. Manga as a term used outside Japan refers to comics published in Japan. In Japan, people of all ages read manga, many manga are translated into other languages. Since the 1950s, manga has become a major part of the Japanese publishing industry, representing a ¥406 billion market in Japan in 2007. Manga have also gained a significant worldwide audience, in Europe and the Middle East the market was worth $250 million in 2012. In 2008, in the U. S. and Canada, the market was valued at $175 million, the markets in France. Manga stories are printed in black-and-white, although some full-color manga exist. In Japan, manga are usually serialized in manga magazines, often containing many stories. If the series is successful, collected chapters may be republished in tankōbon volumes, frequently but not exclusively, a manga artist typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company. If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after or even during its run, sometimes manga are drawn centering on previously existing live-action or animated films. Manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in parts of the world, particularly in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan. The word manga comes from the Japanese word 漫画, composed of the two kanji 漫 meaning whimsical or impromptu and 画 meaning pictures, rakuten Kitazawa first used the word manga in the modern sense. In Japanese, manga refers to all kinds of cartooning, comics, among English speakers, manga has the stricter meaning of Japanese comics, in parallel to the usage of anime in and outside Japan. The term ani-manga is used to describe comics produced from animation cels, writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. One view emphasizes events occurring during and after the U. S, occupation of Japan, and stresses U. S. cultural influences, including U. S. comics and images and themes from U. S. television, film, and cartoons. Regardless of its source, an explosion of artistic creativity certainly occurred in the period, involving manga artists such as Osamu Tezuka. Astro Boy quickly became popular in Japan and elsewhere
44.
Society
–
In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant and this is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. The term society came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity, Society, in general, addresses the fact that an individual has rather limited means as an autonomous unit. Cultural relativism as an approach or ethic has largely replaced notions of primitive, better/worse. Societies may also be structured politically, in order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees of power, depending on the cultural, geographical. Thus, an isolated society with the same level of technology. A society that is unable to offer a response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society. Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as. a human product, and nothing but a human product, according to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day. This is similar to the earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. This system of classification contains four categories, Hunter-gatherer bands, tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments, in addition to this there are, Humanity, mankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including societys beliefs. Virtual society, a society based on identity, which is evolving in the information age. Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and this cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages, villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states, many societies distribute largess at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of generosity can be seen in all cultures, typically
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
