1.
Fashion plate
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A fashion plate is an illustration demonstrating the highlights of fashionable styles of clothing. Used figuratively, as is most often the case, the term is a reference to a person whose dress conforms to the latest fashions. Portraits, especially portraits, served as the base for the future of fashion plates, as they offered a visual cue as to the popular styles, fabrics. Fashion plates, as they were known during the height of their popularity, were first circulated at the end of the 18th century in England, rather than in France, as would be expected. The Ladys Magazine, one of the first distributors of fashion plates in magazines, began publishing in 1770, in France, La Galerie des Modes was a pioneer in fashion plate publication, and magazines were distributed irregularly during 1778 and 1787. As technology improved, speed of communication and transportation increased, thus allowing access to foreign fashions. The introduction of a middle class also allowed for a more fashion-conscious population that became devoted to fashion plate publications. However, the popularity of photography spelled out the end for fashion plates. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Tomy revived the concept as a toy marketed simply as Fashion Plates, not to be confused with fashion plates, costume plates depict garments after the event, that is, after the epoch of the fashionable style. Le Monument de Costume of Freudenberg and Moreau le Jeune, published in Paris between 1775 and 1783, consisted of costume plates. Fashion Plate Collection, 19th Century in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library Steele, Valerie, Paris Fashion, A Cultural History, Oxford University Press,1988, Fashion Plate Collection at the University of Washington
2.
Glove
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A glove is a garment covering the whole hand. Gloves have separate sheaths or openings for each finger and the thumb, if there is an opening, fingerless gloves having one large opening rather than individual openings for each finger are sometimes called gauntlets, though gauntlets are not necessarily fingerless. Gloves which cover the entire hand or fist but do not have separate finger openings or sheaths are called mittens, Mittens are warmer than other styles of gloves made of the same material because fingers maintain their warmth better when they are in contact with each other. Reduced surface area reduces heat loss, a hybrid of glove and mitten contains open-ended sheaths for the four fingers and an additional compartment encapsulating the four fingers. This compartment can be lifted off the fingers and folded back to allow the individual fingers ease of movement and access while the hand remains covered. The usual design is for the cavity to be stitched onto the back of the fingerless glove only. These hybrids are called convertible mittens or glittens, a combination of glove, Gloves protect and comfort hands against cold or heat, damage by friction, abrasion or chemicals, and disease, or in turn to provide a guard for what a bare hand should not touch. Latex, nitrile rubber or vinyl gloves are often worn by health care professionals as hygiene. Police officers often wear them to work in crime scenes to prevent destroying evidence in the scene, many criminals wear gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints, which makes the crime investigation more difficult. However, the gloves themselves can leave prints that are just as unique as human fingerprints, after collecting glove prints, law enforcement can then match them to gloves that they have collected as evidence. In many jurisdictions the act of wearing gloves itself while committing a crime can be prosecuted as an inchoate offense, fingerless gloves are useful where dexterity is required that gloves would restrict. Cigarette smokers and church organists often use fingerless gloves, some gloves include a gauntlet that extends partway up the arm. Cycling gloves for road racing or touring are usually fingerless, guitar players often use fingerless gloves in circumstances when weather is much too cold to play with an un-covered hand. Gloves are made of materials including cloth, knitted or felted wool, leather, rubber, latex, neoprene, Gloves of kevlar protect the wearer from cuts. Gloves and gauntlets are integral components of pressure suits and spacesuits such as the Apollo/Skylab A7L which went to the moon, spacesuit gloves combine toughness and environmental protection with a degree of sensitivity and flexibility. Gloves appear to be of great antiquity, according to some translations of Homers The Odyssey, Laërtes is described as wearing gloves while walking in his garden so as to avoid the brambles. Herodotus, in The History of Herodotus, tells how Leotychides was incriminated by a full of silver that he received as a bribe. There are occasional references to the use of gloves among the Romans as well, pliny the Younger, his uncles shorthand writer wore gloves in winter so as not to impede the elder Plinys work
3.
Bonnet (headgear)
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Bonnet is a term for a wide variety of styles of headgear for both sexes, but most often female, which has been in use from the Middle Ages to the present. However the term has also used, for example, for steel helmets. This was from Scotland, where the term has long been especially popular, Bonnet derives from the same word in French, where it originally indicated a type of material. In the 21st century, only a few kinds of headgear are still referred to as bonnets, most commonly worn by babies. The most common kind of bonnet worn today is a soft headcovering for babies and they are shaped similarly to the kind of bonnets women used to wear, that is they cover the hair and ears, but not the forehead. In the mid-17th and 18th century house bonnets worn by women and girls were generally brimless headcoverings which were secured by tying under the chin, and they were worn indoors, to keep the hair tidy, and outdoors, to keep dust out of the hair. From Waterloo, more structured fashionable bonnets made by milliners rapidly grew larger and this ornament is partially placed on one side, the edge of the bonnet finished by blond laid on strait. Straw was available again after 1815, the best straw bonnets came from Leghorn, as a bonnet developed a peak, it would extend from the entire front of the bonnet, from the chin over the forehead and down the other side of the face. Some styles of bonnets between ca 1817 and 1845 had a peak which effectively prevented women from looking right or left without turning their heads. Others had a peak which was angled out to frame the face. In the 1840s it might be crimped at the top to frame the face in a heart shape, as the bonnet became more complicated, under it might be worn a lace cornette to hold the hair in place. Bonnets remained one of the most common types of headgear worn by women throughout most of the 19th century, for a widow, a bonnet was de rigueur. Silk bonnets, elaborately pleated and ruched, were worn outdoors, or in places like shops, galleries, churches. Under the French Second Empire, parasols took the place of protection from sun, most middle-class women in the 19th century would have had at least two bonnets, one suitable for summer weather, often made from straw, and one made from heavier fabric for winter wear. This is where the tradition of an Easter bonnet originated, when women would switch from their winter bonnet to their summer bonnet, wealthier women would have many bonnets, suitable for different occasions. In some religious groups it has been customary for women to wear bonnets and this was the case among the Friends until well into the 20th century, and is still the case among the Old Order Mennonites and the Amish. Bonnets were adopted by The Salvation Army as part of regalia for women. Initially, bonnets were introduced as protection for women soldiers and were reinforced with black tar to turn them into helmets, later versions were smaller when there was no longer any need for protection
4.
Culture of the United Kingdom
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The wider culture of Europe has also influenced British culture, and Humanism, Protestantism and representative democracy developed from broader Western culture. British literature, music, cinema, art, theatre, comedy, media, television, philosophy, architecture, the United Kingdom is also prominent in science and technology, producing world-leading scientists and inventions. Sport is an important part of British culture, numerous sports originated in the country, the UK has been described as a cultural superpower, and London has been described as a world cultural capital. The Industrial Revolution, which started in the UK, had an effect on the socio-economic. These states are collectively known as the Anglosphere, and are among Britains closest allies. In turn the empire also influenced British culture, particularly British cuisine, the cultures of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are diverse and have varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness. First spoken in early medieval England, the English language is the de facto language of the UK. Individual countries within the UK have frameworks for the promotion of their indigenous languages, Irish and Ulster Scots enjoy limited use alongside English in Northern Ireland, mainly in publicly commissioned translations. There is also a campaign under way to recognise Scots as a language in Scotland, the Cornish language enjoys neither official recognition nor promotion by the state in Cornwall. Under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, the UK Government has committed to the promotion of linguistic traditions. The United Kingdom has ratified the charter for, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Scots, Cornish, British Sign Language is also a recognised language. Owing to its history, dialects and regional accents vary amongst the four countries of the United Kingdom. Some cities in close proximity have a different dialect and accent, such as Scousers from Liverpool, notable Scouse speakers include John Lennon and Paul McCartney from The Beatles while Mancunians include Liam and Noel Gallagher from Oasis. Received Pronunciation is the accent of standard English in the UK, brummie is the dialect of natives of Birmingham in the west midlands of England – notable Brummies include rock musicians Ozzy Osbourne, Jeff Lynne, and Rob Halford. Geordie is the dialect of people from Tyneside in northeast England – musicians Brian Johnson, Mark Knopfler, notable exponents of the Scottish accent include Sean Connery, comedian Billy Connolly, and The Proclaimers. The West Country accent from southwest England is identified in film as pirate speech – cartoon-like Ooh arr, talk is very similar, while famous pirates hailed from this region, including Blackbeard, West Country native Robert Newtons performance as Long John Silver in films standardised the pirate voice. The Northern Irish accent includes golfer Rory McIlroy and actor Liam Neeson, the early 18th century is known as the Augustan Age of English literature. From the late 18th century, the Romantic period showed a flowering of poetry comparable with the Renaissance 200 years earlier, in Scotland the poetry of Robert Burns revived interest in Scots literature, and the Weaver Poets of Ulster were influenced by literature from Scotland
5.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
6.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
7.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
8.
Decorative arts
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The decorative arts are arts or crafts concerned with the design and manufacture of beautiful objects that are also functional. It includes interior design, but not usually architecture, the decorative arts are often categorized in opposition to the fine arts, namely, painting, drawing, photography, and large-scale sculpture, which generally have no function other than to be seen. The distinction between the decorative and the arts has essentially arisen from the post-Renaissance art of the West. This distinction is less meaningful when considering the art of other cultures and periods. For example, Islamic art in many periods and places consists entirely of the arts, often using geometric and plant forms. The distinction between decorative and fine arts is not very useful for appreciating Chinese art, and neither is it for understanding Early Medieval art in Europe, large-scale wall-paintings were much less regarded, crudely executed, and rarely mentioned in contemporary sources. They were probably seen as a substitute for mosaic, which for this period must be viewed as a fine art. The term ars sacra is sometimes used for medieval Christian art done in metal, ivory, textiles, illuminated manuscripts have a much higher survival rate, especially in the hands of the church, as there was little value in the materials and they were easy to store. Most European art during the Middle Ages had been produced under a different set of values. The lower status given to works of art in contrast to fine art narrowed with the rise of the Arts and Crafts Movement. This aesthetic movement of the half of the 19th century was born in England and inspired by William Morris. The movement represented the beginning of an appreciation of the decorative arts throughout Europe. Many converts, both professional artists ranks and from among the intellectual class as a whole, helped spread the ideas of the movement. The influence of the Arts and Crafts Movement led to the arts being given a greater appreciation and status in society. Until the enactment of the Copyright Act 1911 only works of art had been protected from unauthorised copying. The 1911 Act extended the definition of a work to include works of artistic craftsmanship
9.
Visual arts
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The visual arts are art forms such as ceramics, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, design, crafts, photography, video, filmmaking, literature, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines involve aspects of the arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the arts are the applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design. Current usage of the visual arts includes fine art as well as the applied, decorative arts and crafts. The distinction was emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement, Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts, maintaining that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of the arts. The increasing tendency to painting, and to a lesser degree sculpture. The Western hierarchy of genres reflected similar attitudes, training in the visual arts has generally been through variations of the apprentice and workshop systems. Visual arts have now become a subject in most education systems. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used, the main techniques used in drawing are, line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman, drawing goes back at least 16,000 years to Paleolithic cave representations of animals such as those at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain. In ancient Egypt, ink drawings on papyrus, often depicting people, were used as models for painting or sculpture, drawings on Greek vases, initially geometric, later developed to the human form with black-figure pottery during the 7th century BC. Painting taken literally is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier, like drawing, painting has its documented origins in caves and on rock faces. The finest examples, believed by some to be 32,000 years old, are in the Chauvet, in shades of red, brown, yellow and black, the paintings on the walls and ceilings are of bison, cattle, horses and deer. Paintings of human figures can be found in the tombs of ancient Egypt, in the great temple of Ramses II, Nefertari, his queen, is depicted being led by Isis. The Greeks contributed to painting but much of their work has been lost, one of the best remaining representations are the hellenistic Fayum mummy portraits. Another example is mosaic of the Battle of Issus at Pompeii, Greek and Roman art contributed to Byzantine art in the 4th century BC, which initiated a tradition in icon painting. Apart from the manuscripts produced by monks during the Middle Ages
10.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
11.
Mass production
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Mass production, flow production or continuous production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods, the term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article, the concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk to discrete solid parts to assemblies of such parts. Mass production is a field, but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels, materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production is intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased, however, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. One of the descriptions of mass production is that the skill is built into the tool, for example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself. Later, once computerized control came about, jigs were obviated and this is the specialized capital required for mass production, each workbench and set of tools is different. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period, the Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. Ships of war were produced on a scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors. The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later, the Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day, in what was effectively the worlds first factory which, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Mass production in the industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century. In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham, the Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery, by 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, the machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability
12.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
13.
Social class
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Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and social historians. However, there is not a consensus on the best definition of the class, the precise measurements of what determines social class in society has varied over time. According to philosopher Karl Marx, class is determined entirely by ones relationship to the means of production, the term class is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth, in order to determine military service obligations. In the late 18th century, the class began to replace classifications such as estates, rank. Historically social class and behavior was sometimes laid down in law, definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology, and sociology. The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and Structural functionalism, the common stratum model of class divides society into a simple hierarchy of working class, middle class and upper class. For Marx, class is a combination of objective and subjective factors, objectively, a class shares a common relationship to the means of production. Subjectively, the members will necessarily have some perception of their similarity, Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of ones own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically. These class relations are reproduced through time and this is the fundamental economic structure of work and property, a state of inequality that is normalized and reproduced through cultural ideology. Marxists explain the history of civilized societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society, in the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists and wage-workers. Furthermore, in countries where modern civilisation has become fully developed, an industrial army of workmen, under the command of a capitalist, requires, like a real army, officers and sergeants who, while the work is being done, command in the name of the capitalist. This would mark the beginning of a society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class, no state and no need for financial and banking institutions and money. Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, that saw social class as emerging from an interplay between class, status and power. Weber believed that class position was determined by a relationship to the means of production. Weber derived many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the structure of many countries. He noted that contrary to Marxs theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership of capital, Weber pointed out that some members of the aristocracy lack economic wealth yet might nevertheless have political power. Likewise in Europe, many wealthy Jewish families in lack prestige and honor, Class, A persons economic position in a society
14.
Upper class
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The upper class in modern societies is the social class composed of the wealthiest members of society, who also wield the greatest political power. According to this view, the class is generally distinguished by immense wealth which is passed on from generation to generation. Prior to the 20th century, the aristocracy was widely used. The term is used in conjunction with terms like upper-middle class, middle class. Upper-class status commonly derived from the position of ones family. Much of the population that composed the upper consisted of aristocrats, ruling families, titled people. These people were born into their status and historically there was not much movement across class boundaries. This is to say that it was harder for an individual to move up in class simply because of the structure of society. The Transatlantic Slave Trade also helped create a class of white Europeans while maintaining a lower class of black Europeans, Americans and Africans. This fact is often edited out of academic research both in publications and online ones such as Wikipedia. In many countries, the upper class was intimately associated with hereditary land ownership. Political power was often in the hands of the landowners in many pre-industrial societies despite there being no legal barriers to land ownership for other social classes. Upper-class landowners in Europe were often members of the titled nobility, though not necessarily. Some upper classes were almost entirely untitled, for example, the Szlachta of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, the upper class traditionally comprised the landed gentry and the aristocracy of noble families with hereditary titles. The vast majority of post-medieval aristocratic families originated in the merchant class and were ennobled between the 14th and 19th centuries while intermarrying with the old nobility and gentry. Since the Second World War, the term has come to encompass rich, members of the English gentry organized the colonization of Virginia and New England and ruled these colonies for generations forming the foundation of the American upper class or East Coast Elite. In this respect, the US differs little from such as the UK where membership of the upper class is also dependent on other factors. The American upper class is estimated to less than 1% of the population
15.
Corset
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A corset is a garment worn to hold and train the torso into a desired shape for aesthetic or medical purposes. Both men and women are known to wear corsets, though this item was for years an integral part of womens wardrobes. Since the late 20th century, the industry has borrowed the term corset to refer to tops which, to varying degrees. While these modern corsets and corset tops often feature lacing or boning and generally imitate a historical style of corsets, they have little, if any. Genuine corsets are made by a corsetmaker and are frequently fitted to the individual wearer. The word corset is derived from the Old French word corps and the diminutive of body, the craft of corset construction is known as corsetry, as is the general wearing of them. Someone who makes corsets is a corsetier or corsetière, or sometimes simply a corsetmaker, in 1828, the word corset came into general use in the English language. The word was used in The Ladies Magazine to describe a quilted waistcoat that the French called un corset and it was used to differentiate the lighter corset from the heavier stays of the period. The most common and well-known use of corsets is to slim the body, for women, this most frequently emphasizes a curvy figure by reducing the waist and thereby exaggerating the bust and hips. However, in some periods, corsets have been worn to achieve a tubular straight-up-and-down shape, for men, corsets are more customarily used to slim the figure. An overbust corset encloses the torso, extending from just under the arms toward the hips, an underbust corset begins just under the breasts and extends down toward the hips. A longline corset – either overbust or underbust – extends past the iliac crest, a longline corset is ideal for those who want increased stability, have longer torsos, or want to smooth out their hips. A standard length corset will stop short of the iliac crest and is ideal for those who want increased flexibility or have a shorter torso, some corsets, in very rare instances, reach the knees. A shorter kind of corset that covers the waist area, is called a waist cincher, a corset may also include garters to hold up stockings, alternatively, a separate garter belt may be worn for that. Traditionally, a corset supports the visible dress and spreads the pressure from large dresses, such as the crinoline, at times, a corset cover is used to protect outer clothes from the corset and to smooth the lines of the corset. The original corset cover was worn under the corset to provide a layer between it and the body. Corsets were not worn next to the skin, possibly due to difficulties with laundering these items during the 19th century, as they had steel boning, the corset cover was generally in the form of a light chemise, made from cotton lawn or silk. Modern corset wearers may wear corset liners for many of the same reasons and those who lace their corsets tightly use the liners to prevent burn on their skin from the laces
16.
Bodice
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A bodice is an article of clothing for women, covering the body from the neck to the waist. The term comes from pair of bodies, in dressmaking, the term waist was also used. During wear, the parts might be connected by hooks and eyes, one-piece construction became more common after 1900 due to the trend for looser, more simply-constructed clothing with narrower skirts. To achieve a shape and support the bust, the bodice was frequently stiffened with bents. The bodice was different from the corset of the time because it was intended to be worn over the other garments, in earlier periods, bodices and corsets were laced in spiral fashion, with one continuous lace. In later periods, both were laced like the tennis shoe, with eyelets facing one another. This was more convenient for women who had to dress themselves, one mid-19th-century style included the Agnes Sorel bodice, named after 15th-century royal mistress Agnes Sorel. This style was a day wear bodice, with a square cut neckline that had a front and back. Bodice continues in use to refer to the portion of a one- or two-piece dress. The bodice of a dress was called the corsage in the 19th century, bodices survive into modern times in the traditional or revived folk dress of many European countries. They are also seen today at Society for Creative Anachronism events or a Renaissance Fair. Dirndl Arnold, Janet, Patterns of Fashion, the cut and construction of clothes for men and women 1560-1620, steele, Valerie, The Corset, A Cultural History Yale University Press,2001
17.
Chemisette
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A chemisette is an article of womens clothing worn to fill in the front and neckline of any garment. Chemisettes give the appearance of a blouse or shirt worn under the garment without adding bulk at the waist or upper arm. Chemisettes of linen or cotton were often worn with day dresses in the mid-19th century, when wide pagoda sleeves were fashionable, chemisettes might have matching engageantes. Godeys Ladys Book 1850s in fashion 1860s in fashion Trim Victorian fashion S. F. A, saward, The Dictionary of Needlework,1885. Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Wagnalls,1957, apparel Search glossary of textile and apparel terms
18.
Skirt
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A skirt is the lower part of a dress or gown, covering the person from the waist downwards, or a separate outer garment serving this purpose. Most skirts are self-standing garments, but some skirt-looking panels may be part of another garment such as leggings, shorts, some fashion designers, such as Jean Paul Gaultier, have shown mens skirts. Modern skirts are made of light to mid-weight fabrics, such as denim, jersey, worsted. Skirts of thin or clingy fabrics are often worn with slips to make the material of the skirt drape better, a straw-woven skirt dating to 3900 BC was discovered in Armenia at the Areni-1 cave complex. Skirts have been worn by men and women from many cultures, such as the lungi, lehnga, kanga and sarong worn in South Asia and Southeast Asia, and the kilt worn in Scotland and Ireland. The earliest known culture to have females wear clothing resembling miniskirts were the Duan Qun Miao and this was in reference to the short miniskirts that barely cover the buttocks worn by women of the tribe, and which were probably shocking to observers in medieval and early modern times. In the Middle Ages, some upper-class women wore skirts over three metres in diameter at the bottom, at the other extreme, the miniskirts of the 1960s were minimal garments that may have barely covered the underwear when seated. Costume historians typically use the word petticoat to describe skirt-like garments of the 18th century or earlier, during the 19th century, the cut of womens dresses in western culture varied more widely than in any other century. Waistlines started just below the bust and gradually sank to the natural waist, skirts started fairly narrow and increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s, then fullness was draped and drawn to the back by means of bustles. In the 1890s the rainy daisy skirt was introduced for walking or sportswear and it had a significantly shorter hemline measuring as much as six inches off the ground and would eventually influence the wider introduction of shorter hemlines in the early 20th century. Beginning around 1915, hemlines for daytime dresses left the floor for good, broomstick skirt, a light-weight ankle-length skirt with many crumpled pleats formed by compressing and twisting the garment while wet, such as around a broomstick. Bubble dress/skirt, a voluminous skirt whose hem is tucked back under to create a “bubble effect” at the bottom, Cargo skirt, a plain utilitarian skirt with belt loops and numerous large pockets, based on the military style of Cargo pants and popularised in the 1990s. Crinoline, a full skirt supported by hoops or multiple petticoats. Hobble skirt, a long and tight skirt with a hem narrow enough to impede the wearers stride Kilt-skirt. Though traditionally designed as womens wear, it is fashioned to mimic the appearance of a mans kilt. Leather skirt, a made of leather Lehenga, a long, pleated skirt, often embroidered, worn mostly as the bottom part of the Gagra choli in North India. Mini-crini, a version of the crinoline, designed by Vivienne Westwood in the mid 1980s. Poodle skirt, a circle or near-circle skirt with an appliqued poodle or other decoration Puffball skirt, popular in the mid-late 1980s when it was inspired by Westwoods mini-crini
19.
Embroidery
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Embroidery is the handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate materials such as, pearls, beads, quills. Today, embroidery is most often seen on caps, hats, coats, blankets, dress shirts, denim, stockings, Embroidery is available with a wide variety of thread or yarn color. The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted, It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery. There are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, on the other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times. The art of embroidery has been found world-wide and several examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period, depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a wide-spread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane, in 18th century England and its colonies, samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a marking a girls path into womanhood as well as conveying rank. Conversely, embroidery is also an art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger from Norway, Merezhka from Ukraine, Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland, Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal, many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing. Embroidery was an important art in the Medieval Islamic world, the 17th century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the craft of the two hands. Because embroidery was a sign of social status in Muslim societies. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread, Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items. Taste for fine material has become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description. The development of embroidery and its mass production came about in stages in the Industrial Revolution. The earliest machine embroidery used a combination of machine looms and teams of women embroidering the textiles by hand and this was done in France by the mid-1800s. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the half of the 19th century
20.
Trim (sewing)
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Trim or trimming in clothing and home decorating is applied ornament, such as gimp, passementerie, ribbon, ruffles, or, as a verb, to apply such ornament. Before the industrial revolution, all trim was made and applied by hand, thus making heavily trimmed furnishings and garments expensive and high-status. As a predictable reaction, high fashion came to emphasize exquisiteness of cut and construction over denseness of trimming, the iconic braid and gold button trim of the Chanel suit are a notable survival of trim in high fashion. In home decorating, the 1980s and 1990s saw a fashion for dense, elaborately layered trimmings on upholstered furniture, today, most trimmings are commercially manufactured. Scalamandré is known for elaborate trim for home furnishings, and Wrights is a manufacturer of trim for home sewing. Trims are used generally to enhance the beauty of the garments, appropriate use of it creates more value of the product
21.
Petticoat
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A petticoat or underskirt is an article of clothing, specifically an undergarment to be worn under a skirt or a dress. The petticoat is a separate garment hanging from the waist, in historical contexts, petticoat refers to any separate skirt worn with a gown, bedgown, bodice or jacket, these petticoats are not, strictly speaking, underwear as they were made to be seen. In both historical and modern contexts, petticoat refers to skirt-like undergarments worn for warmth or to give the skirt or dress the desired fashionable shape, in this context a petticoat may be called a waist slip or underskirt or half slip, with petticoat restricted to extremely full garments. Petticoat can also refer to a slip in the UK. Petticoat is the name in English for any underskirt worn as part of non-Western clothing such as the lehenga with the sari. The practice of wearing petticoats as undergarments was well established by 1585, Petticoats were worn throughout history by women who wanted to have the currently fashionable shape created by their clothing. The petticoats, if sufficiently full or stiff, would hold the overskirt out in a domed shape. It would also complement the large bust. Elaborately decorated petticoats were worn under open-fronted gowns and looped overskirts from the mid-16th century and these ankle-length petticoats remained a rural fashion, especially in the UK, into the 19th century and are a part of the traditional Welsh costume. In the 18th century, among the upper class women of Europe and America, in the early 19th century, dresses became narrower and simpler with much less lingerie. Then, as the waltz became popular in the 1820s, full-skirted gowns with petticoats were revived in Europe, by the mid 19th century, petticoats were worn over hoops, which were placed over other underwear like a corset cover, a corset, and drawers. The popular novel Gone with the Wind provides considerable, detailed descriptions of these fashions, in the 1939 film adaptation, the character played by Vivien Leigh gives a good idea of the layers of petticoats and underwear that were worn in the 1860s. The sheer weight of the clothing, along with the tightness of the corsets, the use of multiple petticoats continued to be popular until the 1870s, when the bustle was introduced, resulting in a return of narrower skirts. Some full-skirted gowns with petticoats were revived in the 1890s into the early 20th century, the Gibson Girl look with white blouses and long, narrow skirts was very popular during the late 19th and early 20th century. For the first two decades of the 20th century, multiple petticoats fell out of fashion, narrow, sometimes tight, then, in the late 1920s, chiffon dresses with several sheer petticoats became fashionable. With the Great Depression in the 1930s, narrow skirts returned and petticoats again were unpopular until the end of the decade when revived for some evening, prom, world War II, with its rationing and general shortage of materials, brought an end to petticoats. Petticoats were revived by Christian Dior in his full-skirted New Look of 1947 and tiered, ruffled, stiffened petticoats remained extremely popular during the 1950s, most of the petticoats were netlike crinoline, sometimes made of horsehair. Increasingly, nylon chiffon, taffeta, and organdy were used in petticoats, many department stores carried an extensive variety of styles and colors of petticoats until the early 1960s
22.
Textile
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
23.
Crinoline
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A crinoline /krɪn. əl. ɪn/ is a stiffened or structured petticoat designed to hold out a womans skirt, popular at various times since the mid-19th century. Originally, crinoline described a stiff fabric made of horsehair and cotton or linen which was used to make underskirts, by the 1850s the term crinoline was more usually applied to the fashionable silhouette provided by horsehair petticoats, and to the hoop skirts that replaced them in the mid-1850s. In form and function these hoop skirts were similar to the 16th- and 17th-century farthingale and to 18th-century panniers, in that they too enabled skirts to spread even wider, the steel-hooped cage crinoline, first patented in April 1856 by R. C. Milliet in Paris, and by their agent in Britain a few months later, steel cage crinolines were mass-produced in huge quantity, with factories across the Western world producing tens of thousands in a year. Alternative materials, such as whalebone, cane, gutta-percha and even inflatable caoutchouc were all used for hoops, at its widest point, the crinoline could reach a circumference of up to six yards, although by the late 1860s, crinolines were beginning to reduce in size. By the early 1870s, the smaller crinolette and the bustle had largely replaced the crinoline, crinolines were worn by women of every social standing and class across the Western world, from royalty to factory workers. This led to media scrutiny and criticism, particularly in satirical magazines such as Punch. They were also hazardous if worn without due care, thousands of women died in the mid-19th century as a result of their hooped skirts catching fire. Alongside fire, other hazards included the hoops being caught in machinery, carriage wheels, gusts of wind, the crinoline silhouette was revived several times in the 20th century, particularly in the late 1940s as a result of Christian Diors New Look of 1947. The flounced nylon and net petticoats worn in the 1950s and 1960s to poof out skirts also became known as even when there were no hoops in their construction. In the mid-1980s Vivienne Westwood designed the mini-crini, a mini-length crinoline which was influential on 1980s fashion. Late 20th and early 21st century designers such as John Galliano, since the 1980s and well into the 21st century the crinoline has remained a popular option for formal evening dresses, wedding dresses, and ball gowns. The name crinoline is often described as a combination of the Latin word crinis and/or the French word crin, with the Latin word linum, the crinoline was not the first garment designed to support the wearers skirts in a fashionable shape. The horsehair fabric called crinoline was first noted by 1829, when it was offered for lining and dress-making, petticoats made of horsehair crinoline appeared around 1839, proving so successful that the name crinoline began to refer to supportive petticoats in general, rather than solely to the material. One alternative to horsehair crinoline was the quilted petticoat stuffed with down or feathers, however, quilted skirts were not widely produced until the early 1850s. In about 1849, it was possible to buy stiffened and corded cotton fabric for making petticoats, marketed as crinoline, the artificial crinoline with hoops did not emerge until the 1850s. The cage crinoline made out of spring steel wire was first introduced in the 1850s, alison Gernsheim suggests that the unidentified French inventor was probably R. C. Milliet of Besançon, as the July 1856 patent was filed by their British agent, milliet had already patented a tournure de femme in Paris on 24 April 1856 which was described as comprising elastic extensible circles joined together by vertical bands
24.
Engageante
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Engageantes are false sleeves worn with womens clothing. They were worn during the 18th and 19th centuries, with a revival in the 20th century. In the 18th century, engageantes took the form of ruffles or flounces of linen, cotton, or lace, tacked to the elbow-length sleeves then fashionable. In the mid-19th century, the term engageante was used for separate false sleeves, usually with fullness gathered tight at the wrist, the fashion reappeared briefly just after the turn of the 20th century. Glossary of 18th century dress terms 18th Century Womens Engageantes Fashion in the Edwardian Era
25.
Bustle
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A bustle is a type of framework used to expand the fullness or support the drapery of the back of a womans dress, occurring predominantly in the mid-to-late 19th century. Bustles were worn under the skirt in the back, just below the waist, heavy fabric tended to pull the back of a skirt down and flatten it. Thus, a womans petticoated or crinolined skirt would lose its shape during everyday wear, the word bustle has become synonymous with the fashion to which the bustle was integral. As the fashion for crinolines wore on, their shape changed, instead of the large bell-like silhouette previously in vogue, they began to flatten out at the front and sides, creating more fullness at the back of the skirts. One type of crinoline, the crinolette, created a very similar to the one produced by a bustle. Fullness of some sort was considered necessary to make the waist look smaller. The bustle was worn in different shapes for most of the 1870s and 1880s, in the early stages of the fashion for the bustle, the fullness to the back of the skirts was carried quite low and often fanned out to create a train. The transition from the voluminous crinoline enhanced skirts of the 1850s and 1860s can be seen in the loops and gathers of fabric, the fashion for large bustles ended in 1889. The bustle had completely disappeared by 1905, as the corset of the early 20th century was now successful in shaping the body to protrude behind. The bustle was a typically Victorian fashion, a notable comparison is with the exaggerated images of the South African woman known as Hottentot Venus exhibited throughout Europe in the first part of the 19th century. Bustles and bustle gowns are worn in contemporary society. Notable exceptions occur in the realm of couture, bridal fashion. A dress in the style may be worn as a costume. For example, in 1993 Eiko Ishioka won an Academy Award for her designs from Bram Stokers Dracula. The film features several extravagant bustle gowns created for female leads Winona Ryder and its positioning on the vehicle resembling the similar placement of the bustle as used on the dress item. 1870s in fashion 1880s in fashion Corset Crinoline Victorian fashion Media related to Bustle at Wikimedia Commons
26.
Seam (sewing)
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In sewing, a seam is the join where two or more layers of fabric, leather, or other materials are held together with stitches. Prior to the invention of the machine, all sewing was done by hand. In clothing construction, seams are classified by their type and position in the finished garment, seams are finished with a variety of techniques to prevent raveling of raw fabric edges and to neaten the inside of garments. It joins two pieces of fabric together face-to-face by sewing through both pieces, leaving a seam allowance with raw edges inside the work, the seam allowance usually requires some sort of seam finish to prevent raveling. Either piping or cording may be inserted into a plain seam, in a French seam, the raw edges of the fabric are fully enclosed for a neat finish. The seam is first sewn with wrong sides together, then the seam allowances are trimmed and pressed, a second seam is sewn with right sides together, enclosing the raw edges of the original seam. In a flat or abutted seam, two pieces of fabric are joined edge-to edge with no overlap and sewn with hand or machine stitching that encloses the raw edges. Antique or old German seam is the 19th century name for a flat seam that joins two pieces of fabric at their selvages. This type of construction is found in traditional linen garments such as shirts and chemises, in a lapped seam, the two layers overlap with the wrong side of the top layer laid against the right side of the lower layer. Lapped seams are typically used for materials that do not ravel, such as leather. A seam finish is a treatment that secures and neatens the raw edges of a seam to prevent raveling. On mass-produced clothing, the allowances of plain seams are usually trimmed and stitched together with an overlock stitch using a serger. Plain seams may also be pressed open, with each seam allowance separately secured with an overlock stitch, traditional home sewing techniques for finishing plain seams include trimming with pinking shears, oversewing with a zig-zag stitch, and hand or machine overcasting. A bound seam has each of the raw edges of its seam allowances enclosed in a strip of fabric, an example of binding is double-fold bias tape. A Hong Kong seam or Hong Kong finish is a home sewing term for a type of seam in which each raw edge of the seam allowance is separately encased in a fabric binding. In couture sewing or tailoring, the binding is usually a strip of lightweight lining fabric, in home sewing. In a Hong Kong finish, a strip of fabric is cut to the width of the seam allowance plus 1/4. The bias strip is placed on top of the allowance, right sides together
27.
Ruffle
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The term flounce is a particular type of fabric manipulation that creates a similar look but with less bulk. The term derives from terms of frounce or fronce. A wavy effect is achieved without gathers or pleats by cutting a strip of fabric. The depth of the curve as well as the width of the fabric determines the depth of the flounce, ruffles appeared at the draw-string necklines of full chemises in the 15th century, evolved into the separately-constructed ruff of the 16th century. Ruffles and flounces remained a form of trim, off-and-on into modern times. Oxford English Dictionary Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk, arnold, Janet, Patterns of Fashion, the cut and construction of clothes for men and women 1560-1620, Macmillan 1985. Baumgarten, Linda, What Clothes Reveal, The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America, ISBN 0-300-09580-5 Tozer, Jane and Sarah Levitt, Fabric of Society, A Century of People and their Clothes 1770-1870, Laura Ashley Press, ISBN 0-9508913-0-4
28.
Pleat
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A pleat is a type of fold formed by doubling fabric back upon itself and securing it in place. It is commonly used in clothing and upholstery to gather a wide piece of fabric to a narrower circumference, pleats are categorized as pressed, that is, ironed or otherwise heat-set into a sharp crease, or unpressed, falling in soft rounded folds. Pleats sewn into place are called tucks, a vertically hanging piece of fabric such as a skirt or a drape will often be described in terms of its fullness. Accordion pleats or knife pleats are a form of tight pleating which allows the garment to expand its shape when moving. Accordion pleating is also used for some dress sleeves, such as pleating the end of the elbow and this form of pleating inspired the skirt dancing of Loie Fuller. Accordion pleats may also be used in hand fans, box pleats are knife pleats back-to-back, and have a tendency to spring out from the waistline. They have the same 3,1 ratio as knife pleats and these stacked box pleats create more fullness and have a 5,1 ratio. They also create a bulkier seam, inverted box pleats have the box on the inside rather than the outside. Cartridge pleats are used to gather a large amount of fabric into a small waistband or armscye without adding bulk to the seam and this type of pleating also allows the fabric of the skirt or sleeve to spring out from the seam. During the 15th and 16th centuries, this form of pleating was popular in the garments of men and women, Fabric is evenly gathered using two or more lengths of basting stitches, and the top of each pleat is whipstitched onto the waistband or armscye. Cartridge pleating was resurrected in 1840s fashion to attach the increasingly full bell-shaped skirts to the narrow waist. Fluted pleats or flutings are very small, rounded or pressed pleats used as trimmings, the name comes from their resemblance to a pan flute. Fortuny pleats are crisp pleats set in silk fabrics by designer Mariano Fortuny in the early 20th century, honeycomb pleats are narrow, rolled pleats used as a foundation for smocking. Kick pleats are short pleats leading upwards from the hem of garments such as skirts or coats. They allow the garment to drape straight down when stationary while allowing freedom of movement. Organ pleats are parallel rows of softly rounded pleats resembling the pipes of a pipe organ, carl Köhler suggests that these are made by inserting one or more gores into a panel of fabric. Plissé pleats are narrow pleats set by gathering fabric with stitches, wetting the fabric, linen chemises or smocks pleated with this technique have been found in the 10th century Viking graves in Birka. Rolled pleats create tubular pleats which run the length of the fabric from top to bottom, a piece of the fabric to be pleated is pinched and then rolled until it is flat against the rest of the fabric, forming a tube
29.
Collar (clothing)
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In clothing, a collar is the part of a shirt, dress, coat or blouse that fastens around or frames the neck. A collar may be attached to the main body of the garment or detachable. The Oxford English Dictionary traces collar in its meaning to c. Todays shirt collars descend from the created by the drawstring at the neck of the medieval chemise, through the Elizabethan ruff and its successors. Separate collars exist alongside attached collars since the century, usually to allow starching. During the Edwardian period and sporadically thereafter, ornamental collars were worn as a form of jewelry, band - a strip of fabric that fastens around the neck, perpendicular to the body of the garment, to which a collar proper may be attached. Points - the corners of a collar, in a buttoned-down collar, spread - the distance between the points of a shirt collar. Stand - the band on a coat or shirt collar that supports the collar itself, Collars can be categorized as, Standing or stand-up, fitting up around the neck and not lying on the shoulders. Turnover, standing around the neck and then folded or rolled over, flat or falling, lying flat on the shoulders. Collars may also be stiffened, traditionally with starch, modern wash-and-wear shirt collars may be stiffened with interfacing or may include metal or plastic collar stays, shirt collars which are not starched are described as soft collars. The shape of collars is also controlled by the shape of the neckline to which they are attached, names for specific styles of collars vary with the vagaries of fashion. Some specific styles of collars include, Conventions on fastening the buttons on a collar differ globally. In the United States and the United Kingdom, the top button is always left unbuttoned, unless one is wearing a necktie. By contrast, in Slavic countries, including at least Poland, and Ukraine, examples are blue-collar, pink-collar and white-collar. Media related to Collars at Wikimedia Commons Collars on Boys Shirts and Blouses, From the Historical Boys Clothing website
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Train (clothing)
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In clothing, a train describes the long back portion of a skirt, overskirt, or dress that trails behind the wearer. It is a part of a womans court dress, formal evening gowns or wedding dress. In the Roman Catholic Church the cappa magna, a form of mantle, is an ecclesiastical vestment with a long train. Cardinals, bishops, and certain other honorary prelates are entitled to wear the cappa magna, court train - Worn for formal court occasions, the court train had to fall in with strict dress codes which differed from court to court. For example, the French court code set in 1804 by Jean-Baptiste Isabey prescribed a maximum width for embroidered train borders for non-Royal wearers. Double train - Two trains attached to the dress, or a single train divided into two trails. Fishtail train - A train popular at times from the 1870s onwards. Trains in modern bridal wear have their own terminology, Cathedral train - also known as a monarch train, a royal cathedral train is considered the longest, most formal train, measuring up to ten feet or more. Chapel train - a medium length train up to five feet long, court train - in bridal terminology, a court train is a narrow train extending 1 metre behind. Sweep train - a short train that does not necessarily reach the floor and it is so called because it might just sweep the ground. Watteau train - a modern version of the pleated backs seen in 18th century sack-back gowns, black, J. Anderson and Madge Garland, A History of Fashion, Morrow,1975. ISBN 0-688-02893-4 Payne, Blanche, History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century, no ISBN for this edition, ASIN B0006BMNFS
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Sleeve
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A sleeve is the part of a garment that covers the arm, or through which the arm passes or slips. The pattern of the sleeve is one of the characteristics of fashion in dress, varying in every country, various survivals of the early forms of sleeve are still found in the different types of academic or other robes. Where the long hanging sleeve is worn it has, as still in China and Japan, been used as a pocket, whence has come the phrase to have up ones sleeve, to have something concealed ready to produce. There are many other proverbial and metaphorical expressions associated with the sleeve, such as to ones heart upon ones sleeve. Sleeve length varies from barely over the shoulder to floor-length, most contemporary shirt sleeves end somewhere between the mid-upper arm and the wrist. Early medieval sleeves were cut straight, and underarm triangle-shaped gussets were used to ease of movement. In the 14th century, the sleeve cap was invented. Often the names applied to sleeves in historical costume are modern, oxford English Dictionary Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Wagnalls,1957. Media related to Sleeves at Wikimedia Commons
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Drapery
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Drapery is a general word referring to cloths or textiles. It may refer to cloth used for decorative purposes – such as around windows – or to the trade of retailing cloth, originally mostly for clothing, in art history, drapery refers to any cloth or textile depicted, which is usually clothing. After the Renaissance, large cloths with no obvious purpose are often used decoratively, especially in portraits in the grand manner. Drapery, by suggesting lines of force, indicates for each action a past, undraped male figures, Clark observed, were kept in motion by their flying cloaks
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Overskirt
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An overskirt, or peplum, is a type of elongated hem resembling a short skirt, worn to lie over another garment, either another skirt such as a petticoat or underskirt, or breeches. Overskirts may serve various purposes, ranging from protecting the underlying clothing from mud and dirt, overskirts have been popular as a clothing detail for both men and women during various periods of history. More recently, they are associated with womens jackets and blouses, included in closely fitted clothing, overskirts first came into fashion during the Victorian Era in 1867, after the pre-hoop and hoop periods of multiple petticoats and crinoline, and before the bustle period. A reduction in overall size was seen at this time. Fashion in ladies dresses changed from the wide, very lacy skirts, early skirts were often looped up for walking, showing a pretty petticoat underneath, which led to the introduction of the overskirt. There have been many predecessors to the fashionable overskirt, such as bibs, today, overskirts can be a separate article worn over shorts or another dress, or a continuation on a shirt or jacket of longer or pleated material. Popular modern overskirt fashion are sheer materials, tulle, and lace patterns that allow see through to garments beneath such as half-skirts, the term peplum originates with the ancient Greek peplos, a womens garment that had the same decorative detail as an overskirt
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Basque (clothing)
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A basque is an item of womens clothing. The term, of French origin, refers to a type of bodice or jacket and it is so called because the fashion was adopted from Basque traditional dress, initially by the French and then throughout Western fashion. In Victorian fashion, basque refers to a closely fitted bodice or jacket extending past the waistline over the hips, depending on era, a basque bodice could also be referred to as a corset waist, because of its close fit. In modern usage, basque may also refer to clothing details reminiscent of such as frilly lace and cutout. The undergarment is similar to a Victorian-era corset, but with less compression of the ribs, the modern-day torsolette features lace-up or hook-and-eye fastening, as well as boning or vertical seams for structure and support. It usually, though not always, has brassiere cups, and is distinguished from the bustier by its length and it sometimes features detachable garters, or suspenders. In American English, it is known as a merry widow. A soft torsolette is a bandeau A long torsolette is a corselette Media related to Torsolette at Wikimedia Commons
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Polonaise (clothing)
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From the late 19th century, the term polonaise also described a fitted overdress which extended into long panels over the underskirt, but was not necessarily draped or swagged. As early as the 1720s, English painters had begun to portray fashionable ladies dressed in romanticized versions of the costume of an earlier, as depicted in portraits by Van Dyck. By the 1770s, elements of this began to appear in fashionable dress, including the wide-brimmed hat. One way to create the bulk at the back and sides of the dress was to kilt up the overskirt by means of interior or exterior loops. Was known as à la polonaise and this style was characterized by ankle length petticoats that revealed high-heeled walking shoes. Due to this it served as a garment for walking because the skirts did not drag along the ground. Since the beginning of the 18th century, middle-class women had adopted various impromptu ways of kilting their overskirts up out of the muck of the streets, the polonaise was a fashionable variant of this style. The name Polonaise derives obviously from Polish styles—whether it referred originally to the fur trimming or to the kilting up to one side is not really clear, there is some controversy over application of the name polonaise to 18th century dress. Some sources define it as being cut in the fashion as a robe à langlaise. This was cut like the coat of the same period, with centre back. It was caught to the top of the centre front. Sleeves could be three-quarter length or long, and various such as the Irish, Italian. A variation on the robe à la polonaise was the robe à la circassienne, cut the same, the term polonaise was applied to a variety of garments throughout the 19th century, often because their styling was thought to be Polish in inspiration. One such example was the witzchoura, a cloak with sleeves sometimes described as being à la Polonaise. During the very late 1860s references to historical dress became fashionable, in 1871 Petersons Magazine stated that the polonaise was an overdress based on the 18th century sacque, with the bodice cut in one with the gathered-up skirt. Petersons Magazine also described a Polonaise basque as being gathered fully on the hips and this style of linen Polonaise can be looped up and worn over a corresponding linen skirt also. Overskirts to the dress, or the Polonaise skirt, must be very long, cretonne costumes are the novelty of the season, they were introduced last year at French watering places, and a few have been imported here this season. They are made with a skirt and Polonaise, caught up by large bows of black velvet
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Cuirass
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A cuirass is a piece of armour, formed of a single or multiple pieces of metal or other rigid material which covers the front of the torso. In a suit of armour, the cuirass was generally connected to a back piece, cuirass could also refer to the complete torso-protecting armour. As parts of the military equipment of classic antiquity, cuirasses and corsets of bronze, iron. Secondary protection for the breast was worn in earlier times by men-at-arms in addition to mail hauberks and it was not until the 14th century that the plate armour became an established part of medieval armour. The Roman emperor Galba donned a cuirass just before he went to his death. Suetonius records in 12 Caesars that, As was offering sacrifice on the morning before he was killed and he did however put on a linen cuirass, though he openly declared that it would afford little protection against so many swords. The cuirass was almost universally worn throughout its lifespan as a form of armour, the cuirass was always made long enough to rest on the hips. If it had been suspended by the shoulders, its weight would have exhausted its wearer. In the second half of the 15th century, the cuirass was occasionally superseded by the brigandine jacket, in essence, the brigandine jacket was constructed of metal plates sewn into a fabric jacket. About 1550, the breast-piece of the cuirass was characterized by a central ridge, called the tapul. Somewhat later, the tapul was moved lower on the breast, eventually, the profile of the plate began to resemble a pea pod and, as such, was referred to as the peascod cuirass. Corslets provided with both breast and back pieces were worn by foot-soldiers in the 17th century, while their comrades were equipped in heavier and stronger cuirasses. These defenses continued in use longer than any single piece of armour. Both the French and German heavy cavalry wore cuirasses in parade leading up to World War I, in the early part of that conflict, they painted their cuirasses black and wore canvas protection covers over the neo-Roman style helmets. Some years after Waterloo, certain historical cuirasses were taken from their repose in the Tower of London and adapted for service by the Life Guards, for parade purposes, the Prussian Gardes du Corps and other corps wore cuirasses of richly decorated leather. During the Heian period, Japanese armourers started to use leather as a material, by the end of the Heian period, the Japanese cuirass had arrived at the shape recognized as part of iconic samurai armor. Scales of iron and leather, bound together by silk lace, were used to construct samurai armours, the introduction of firearms to Japan in 1543 resulted in the development of a cuirass constructed of solid iron plates. The use of the samurai cuirass lasted until the 1860s when an army using conventional uniforms was established
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Victorian dress reform
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Dress reformists were largely middle class women involved in the first wave of feminism in the United States and in Britain, from the 1850s through the 1890s. The movement emerged in the Progressive Era along with calls for temperance, womens education, suffrage, dress reform called for emancipation from the dictates of fashion, expressed a desire to “cover the limbs as well as the torso adequately, ” and promoted rational dress. The movement had its greatest success in the reform of womens undergarments, dress reformers were also influential in persuading women to adopt simplified garments for athletic activities such as bicycling or swimming. The movement was less concerned with mens clothing, although it initiated the widespread adoption of knitted wool union suits or long johns. Some proponents of the movement established dress reform parlors, or storefronts, fashions in the 1850s through 1880s accented large crinolines, cumbersome bustles and padded busts with tiny waists laced into ‘steam-moulded corsetry’. The obvious health risks, including damaged and rearranged internal organs, compromised fertility, weakness, eventually, the reformers critique of the corset joined a throng of voices clamoring against tightlacing, which became gradually more common and extreme as the 19th century progressed. American women active in the anti-slavery and temperance movements, with experience in public speaking, despite these protests, little changed in restrictive fashion and undergarments by 1900. The Edwardian Era featured a decadence of fashion following the shape of the Gibson Girl. Skirts weighed from the hips, high collars chaffed the neck, invariably, the ideal image of feminine attractiveness that a Victorian woman saw around her was of a wasp-waisted, firmly-corseted lady. Dress reformers promoted the emancipation waist, or liberty bodice, as a replacement for the corset, the emancipation bodice was a tight sleeveless vest, buttoning up the front, with rows of buttons along the bottom to which could be attached petticoats and a skirt. The entire torso would support the weight of the petticoats and skirt, the bodices had to be fitted by a dressmaker, patterns could be ordered through the mail. Physician Alice Bunker Stockham railed against the corset and said of the pregnancy corset, the emancipation union under flannel was first sold in America in 1868. It combined a waist and drawers in the form we now know as the union suit, while first designed for women, the union suit was also adopted by men. Indeed, it is sold and worn today, by both men and women, as winter underclothing. In 1878, a German professor named Gustav Jaeger published a book claiming that only clothing made of hair, such as wool. A British accountant named Lewis Tomalin translated the book, then opened a shop selling Dr Jaeger’s Sanitary Woollen System and these were soon called Jaegers, they were widely popular. It is not clear how many women, in either the Americas or on the Continent, most famous product of the dress reform era is the bloomers suit. She displayed her new clothing to temperance activist and suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who found it sensible and becoming, in this garb, she visited yet another activist, Amelia Bloomer, the editor of the temperance magazine The Lily
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Artistic Dress movement
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Artistic Dress was a fashion movement circa 1850-1900 that rejected highly structured and heavily trimmed Victorian trends in favour of beautiful materials and simplicity of design. It arguably developed in Britain in the early 1850s, influenced by artistic circles such as the Pre-Raphaelites and it subsequently developed into more specific categories such as Aesthetic Dress and Künstlerkleid on the continent. Dante Gabriel Rossetti and other members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood were conscious archaizers, emulating the work of the old masters and choosing romantic and they dressed their models in long flowing gowns loosely inspired by styles of the Middle Ages. These styles were adopted by the painters wives and models for everyday dress. Artistic dress was an extreme contrast to the tight corsets, hoop skirts and bustles, bright synthetic aniline dyes, the Aesthetes belief that the Arts should provide refined sensuous pleasure was a direct rejection of the reverence for simplicity and handwork propounded by William Morris. From artistic circles, artistic and aesthetic dress spread to fashionable ones, the delicate, lightly corseted tea gowns of the turn of the 20th century echo the lines of late aesthetic dress, and in their turn paved the way for the early Art Deco creations of Paul Poiret. Liberty & Co. tea gown of figured silk twill, c, los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.2007.211. Ashelford, Jane, The Art of Dress, Clothing and Society 1500-1914, Abrams,1996
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Tightlacing
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Tightlacing is the practice of wearing a tightly laced corset. It is done to achieve cosmetic modifications to the figure and posture or to experience the sensation of bodily restriction, the most frequent aim of tightlacing is a slim waist. Depending on the desired, the shape of the ribcage may be altered as well. Wearing a corset can also change the bustline, by raising the breasts upwards and shaping them, flattening the stomach, the shape of the waist and breasts can be complemented by the shape and design of the corset offering a range of different shapes. These are not true corsets and cannot be used for tightlacing, trying to use such items can result in pinching, bruising, pain and discomfort. Elastic waist cinchers, bustiers and basques may have very few bones, hook and eye fastening. Corsets were first worn by male and female Minoans of Crete and these corsets were mainly designed to turn the torso into the fashionable cylindrical shape although they narrowed the waist as well. They had shoulder straps, they ended at the waist, they flattened the bust and, in so doing, the corset then went into eclipse. Fashion embraced the Empire silhouette, a Graeco-Roman style, with the dress that was unique to this style gathered under the bosom. The waist was de-emphasised, and dresses were sewn from thin muslins rather than the heavy brocades, the reign of the Empire waist was short. In the 1830s, shoulders widened, skirts widened, and the waist narrowed and migrated towards its natural position, by the 1850s, exaggerated shoulders were out of fashion and waistlines were cinched at the natural waist above a wide skirt. Fashion had achieved what is now known as the Victorian silhouette, in the 1830s, the artificially inflated shoulders and skirts made the intervening waist look narrow, even with the corset laced only moderately. When the exaggerated shoulders disappeared, the waist itself had to be cinched tightly in order to achieve the same effect and it is in the 1840s and 1850s that tightlacing is first recorded. It was ordinary fashion taken to an extreme, young and fashionable women were most likely to tightlace, especially for balls, fashionable gatherings, and other occasions for display. Older, poorer, and primmer women would have laced moderately – just enough to be decent, the Victorian and Edwardian corset differed from earlier corsets in numerous ways. The corset no longer ended at the waist, but flared out, the corset was exaggeratedly curvaceous rather than cylindrical. It was also much sturdier in construction, thanks to improvements in technology, spiral steel stays curved with the figure rather than dictating a cylindrical silhouette. While many corsets were still sewn by hand to the wearers measurements, in the late years of the Victorian era, medical reports and rumors claimed that tightlacing was fatally detrimental to health
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Ford Madox Brown
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Ford Madox Brown was an English painter of moral and historical subjects, notable for his distinctively graphic and often Hogarthian version of the Pre-Raphaelite style. Arguably, his most notable painting was Work, Brown spent the latter years of his life painting the Manchester Murals, depicting Mancunian history, for Manchester Town Hall. Brown was the grandson of the medical theorist John Brown, founder of the Brunonian system of medicine and his great grandfather was a Scottish labourer. His father Ford Brown served as a purser in the Royal Navy, including a period serving under Sir Isaac Coffin and he left the Navy after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1818, Ford Brown married Caroline Madox, of an old Kentish family, Browns parents had limited financial resources, and they moved to Calais to seek cheaper lodgings, where their daughter Elizabeth Coffin was born in 1819 and their son Ford Madox Brown in 1821. Browns education was limited, as the family moved between lodgings in the Pas-de-Calais and relatives in Kent, but he showed artistic talent in copying of old master prints. His father initially sought a career for his son, writing to his former captain Sir Isaac Coffin. The family moved to Bruges in 1835 so Brown could study at the academy under Albert Gregorius, Brown moved to Ghent in 1836 to continue his studies under Pieter van Hanselaere. He moved to Antwerp in 1837 to study under Gustaf Wappers and he continued to study in Antwerp after his mothers death in 1839. His sister died in 1840, and then his father in 1842, the Tate Gallery holds an early example of Browns work, a portrait of his father. He lived in Montmartre with his new wife and aging father in 1841 and he painted Manfred on the Jungfrau, inspired by Lord Byrons poem Manfred while he was in Paris. In 1843 he submitted work to the Westminster Cartoon Competition, for compositions to decorate the new Palace of Westminster and his entry, The Body of Harold Brought before William, was not successful. His early works were, however, greatly admired by the young Dante Gabriel Rossetti, through Rossetti, Brown came into contact with the artists who went on to form the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Though closely linked to them, he was never actually a member of the brotherhood itself and he was also influenced by the works of Holbein that he saw in Basel in 1845, and by Friedrich Overbeck and Peter Cornelius, whom he met in Rome in 1845-46. Brown struggled to make his mark in the 1850s, with his paintings failing to find buyers, in 1852 he started work on two of his most significant works. One of his most famous images is The Last of England, painted from 1852 to 1855 and it depicts a pair of stricken emigrants as they sail away on the ship that will take them from England forever. It was inspired by the departure of the Pre-Raphaelite sculptor Thomas Woolner, the husband and wife are portraits of Brown and his second wife Emma. Browns most important painting was Work, begun in Hampstead in 1852, Thomas Plint advanced funds to enable Brown to complete the work, in anticipation of obtaining the finished painting, but died in 1861 before the painting had been completed
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Poke bonnet
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A poke bonnet is a womens bonnet, featuring a small crown and wide and rounded front brim. Typically this extends beyond the face and it has been suggested that the name came about because the bonnet was designed in such a way that the wearers hair could be contained within the bonnet. Poke may also refer to the brim itself, which jutted out beyond the wearers face, there were many variations of the style, which remained popular throughout much of the 19th century. The Metropolitan Museum of Art notes that the poke usually had a small crown combined with a large brim extending beyond the face and this prominent brim shaded the face and, over time increased in size so that the wearers face could only be seen from the front. Typically, the bonnet would be secured by ribbons tied under the chin, an 1830s version of the poke bonnet with ornate ribbon wrapping forms part of the Victoria and Albert Museum archive. The poke bonnet came into fashion at the beginning of the 19th century and it is first mentioned in an 1807 fashion report in The Times, the report describes designs made of willow or velvet with long ribbons and full bows on one side of the hat. By the 1830s, Englishwomen had adopted the poke bonnet, the new styles became widely popular and made the aristocracy less visibly distinct from the respectable middle classes. The style is modest and was in line with English fashions after the ascension of Queen Victoria, a poke bonnet features prominently in the illustrations of Beatrix Potters Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck. Another appears in the First World War-era music hall song In your little poke bonnet, salvation Army bonnet Coal scuttle bonnet
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