1.
Pearson Education
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Pearson Education is a British-owned education publishing and assessment service to schools and corporations, as well as directly to students. Pearson owns educational media brands including Addison–Wesley, Peachpit, Prentice Hall, eCollege, Longman, Poptropica, Scott Foresman, Pearson is part of Pearson PLC, which formerly owned the Financial Times. Pearson Education was rebranded to Pearson in 2011 and split into an International, although Pearson generates approximately 60% of its sales in North America, it operates in more than 70 countries. Pearson International is headquartered in London, and it maintains offices across Europe, Asia and its online chat support is based in the Philippines. Pearson North America is headquartered at 330 Hudson in New York City and it previously was located in Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. In 2010, Pearson agreed to a 5-year, $32 million, greyCampus partnered with Pearson for higher-education teaching-learning solutions under the Learningware brand. Que Publishing, an imprint of Pearson based out of Seattle, partnered with AARP in order to develop. The series, which includes My iPad For Seniors, and My Social Media for Seniors, are large-print, in the spring of 2012, tests that Pearson designed for the NYSED were found to contain over 30 errors, which caused controversy. One of the most prominent featured a passage about a talking pineapple on the 8th Grade ELA test, after public outcry, the NYSED announced it would not count the questions in scoring. In May 2015, the Wall Street Journal online reported British comedian John Oliver reviewing problems with Pearsons standardized tests on his HBO series Last Week Tonight, Pearsons products include MyMathLab and Mastering Platform. Pearson owns Cogmed, a fitness and working memory training program founded in 1999 by Swedish researcher Torkel Klingberg. Educational publishing companies List of largest UK book publishers Official website Official website Official website Official website
2.
Thomas Longman
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Thomas Longman was an English publisher who founded the publishing house of Longman. Longman was born at Bristol, the son of Ezekiel Longman, the Longman family had been involved in the manufacture of soap for several generations and his father owned a shop and stalls in Temple Street. Longmans parents had died by the time he was nine and his father requested in his will that he be especially well and handsomely bred and educated. From his mother he inherited a considerable amount of property at Winford, Winfrith, Rudghill, when Longman was seventeen his guardians - his brother Ezekiel, Nathaniel Webb and Mrs Thomas Coules - apprenticed him for seven years to John Osbom, a bookseller in Lombard Street, London. In 1724, when his apprenticeship was ended, he purchased the business of John Taylor, Taylor had been the first publisher of Robinson Crusoe, and traded at the sign of the Ship and Black Swan. In time, John Osborn entered into partnership with Longman, and he steadily increased the business by buying shares in sound literary properties. In 1740 he published the volume of David Humes first work. In 1744 he held the largest number of shares of Chamberss Cyclopaedia and he was one of the six booksellers who entered into an agreement with Samuel Johnson to produce an English dictionary, the Plan of which was issued in 1747. In 1753 he took into partnership his nephew Thomas who carried on the business, Longman died, apparently childless, on 18 June 1755. Longman married Mary Osborn, daughter of John Osborn in 1731
3.
Pearson PLC
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Pearson PLC is a British multinational publishing and education company headquartered in London. It was founded as a business in the 1840s. It shut down its activities in the 1920s and switched to publishing. It is the largest education company and the largest book publisher in the world, Pearson has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange in the form of American Depository Receipts. The company was founded by Samuel Pearson in 1844 as a building and engineering concern operating in Yorkshire under the name S. Pearson & Son. In 1880, control passed to his grandson Weetman Dickinson Pearson, an engineer, in November 1915, the firm began construction of HM Factory, Gretna, the largest cordite factory in the UK during World War I. The construction business was shut down in the 1920s, among its final projects was completion of the Sennar Dam, in Sudan, in 1925. In 1919, the firm acquired a 45% stake in the London branch of merchant bankers Lazard Brothers, Pearson continued to hold a 50% stake until 1999. In 1921, Pearson purchased a number of daily and weekly newspapers in the United Kingdom. In 1957, it bought the Financial Times and acquired a 50% stake in The Economist and it purchased the publisher Longman in 1968. The company was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1969 and it went on to buy paperback publisher Penguin in 1970, and in 1972, childrens imprint Ladybird Books. In 1986, Pearson invested in the British Satellite Broadcasting consortium, which, during the 1990s, Pearson acquired a number of TV production and broadcasting assets and sold most of its non-media assets, under the leadership of future U. S. Westminster Press was sold to Newsquest in 1996, Pearson acquired the education division of HarperCollins in 1996 from News Corporation and acquired book publishers Scott Foresman & Co. in 1996. In 1998 Pearson acquired Prentice Hall Textbooks/Simon & Schuster Trade Books from Viacom and merged it with its own education unit, Addison-Wesley Longman to form Pearson Education. In 2002, Pearson sold its 22% stake in RTL Group for 1.5 billion Euros, and then purchased Rough Guides, the travel publisher, and brought it under Penguin. Pearson acquired Edexcel, a provider of qualifications in the UK, in 2003, Pearson purchased a series of other testing and assessment businesses, including Knowledge Technologies in 2004, AGS in 2005, and National Evaluation Systems and Promissor in 2006. Pearson then completed the acquisition of Harcourt Assessment, merging the businesses into Pearson Assessment & Information
4.
Harlow
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Harlow is a former Mark One New Town and local government district in the west of Essex, England. In Old Harlow is a field named Harlowbury, a de-settled monastic area which has the remains of a chapel, the M11 motorway passes through the east of the district, entirely to the east of the town. It is also a part of the London commuter belt and employment centre of the M11 corridor which includes Cambridge. There is some dispute as to where the placename Harlow derives from, One theory is that it derives from the Anglo-Saxon words here and hlaw, meaning army hill, probably to be identified with Mulberry Hill, which was used as the moot or meeting place for the district. The other theory is that it derives from the here and hearg, meaning temple hill/mound, probably to be identified with an Iron Age burial mound. The earliest deposits are of a Mesolithic hunting camp excavated by Davey in Northbrooks in the 1970s closely followed by the large and these deposits are mostly known because of the large numbers of surface-bound, worked flint. Substantial amounts of worked flint suggest an organised working of flint in the area, large amounts of debitage litter the area and tools found include axeheads, hammers, blades, dowels and other boring tools and multipurpose flints such as scrapers. An organised field walk in the late 1990s by Bartlett indicates that most of the area, some 80 hectares and this indicates organised industry existed from 5000 BC to 2000 BC. The deposits are so large and dispersed that any major work in the area will have to take this into consideration before any ground work is started. Harlow was in Roman times the site of a town with a substantial stone built temple. The entry in the Norman Domesday Book reads, Herlaua, St Edmunds Abbey before and after 1066, Geoffrey from Count Eustace, Thorgils from Eudo the Steward, Richard from Ranulf, Mill,7 beehives,8 cobs,43 cattle,3 foals. The mill is now a 300-year-old listed building and restaurant, the original village, mentioned in the Domesday Book, developed as a typical rural community around what is now known as Old Harlow, with many of its buildings still standing. This includes for instance the Grade II listed St Marys Church in Churchgate Street and its former Chapel is in a ruinous state in a field which was once the Harlowbury Abbey part of Old Harlow, is Grade I listed and is a scheduled ancient monument. The original Harlow New Town was built after World War II to ease overcrowding in London, Harlow was a Mark One New Town along with other new towns such as Basildon, Stevenage and Hemel Hempstead. New Towns were designated following the New Towns Act of 1946, the town was planned from the outset and was designed to respect the existing landscape. A number of landscape wedges - which later known as Green Wedges - were designed to cut through the town. Each of the neighbourhoods is self-supporting with its own shopping precincts, community facilities. Harlow has one of the most extensive cycle track networks in the country, connecting all areas of the town to the town centre, the cycle network is composed mostly of the original old town roads
5.
Reference work
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A reference work is a book or periodical to which one can refer for information. The information is intended to be found quickly when needed, Reference works are usually referred to for particular pieces of information, rather than read beginning to end. The writing style used in works is informative, the authors avoid use of the first person. Many reference works are compiled by a team of contributors whose work is coordinated by one or more editors rather than by an individual author, indices are commonly provided in many types of reference work. Updated editions are published as needed, in some cases annually. Reference works include dictionaries, thesauruses, encyclopedias, almanacs, bibliographies, many reference works are available in electronic form and can be obtained as application software, CD-ROMs, DVDs, or online through the Internet. A reference work is useful to its users if they attribute some degree of trust, in comparison, a reference book or reference-only book in a library is one that may only be used in the library and may not be borrowed from the library. Many such books are works, which are, usually, used briefly or photocopied from. Keeping them in the library assures that they always be available for use on demand. Some reference-only books are too valuable to permit borrowers to take them out, reference-only items may be shelved in a reference collection located separately from circulating items. Some libraries consist entirely, or to an extent, of books which may not be borrowed. An electronic resource is a piece of information that is stored electronically, general American Reference Books Annual, ARBA. Littleton, Col. Libraries Unlimited, 1970- Bergenholtz, H. Nielsen, S. Tarp, S. Lexicography at a Crossroads, Dictionaries and Encyclopedias Today, printed Reference Material London, Library Association Katz, W. A. Introduction to Reference Work, 3rd ed.2 vols, new York, McGraw-Hill Nielsen, Sandro The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use. J. Walfords Concise Guide to Reference Material, London, Library Association ISBN 0-85365-882-X, p.19. Books of Reference for School Libraries, an annotated list, 2nd ed. London, Library Association Malclès, geneva, Droz, 1950-58 Sheehy, E. P. et al. comps. Guide to Reference Books, 9th ed. Chicago, American Library Association, Supplement,1980 Totok, W. & Weitzel, aufl. hrg. von W. Totok, K. -H. Frankfurt am Main, Klostermann Day, Alan, walford, A. J. Walfords Guide to Reference Material
6.
Textbook
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A textbook or coursebook is a manual of instruction in any branch of study. Textbooks are produced according to the demands of educational institutions, schoolbooks are textbooks and other books used in schools. Although most textbooks arent only published in printed format, many are now available as online electronic books, the ancient Greeks wrote texts intended for education. The modern textbook has its roots in the standardization made possible by the printing press, Johannes Gutenberg himself may have printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus. Early textbooks were used by tutors and teachers, who used the books as instructional aids, the Greek philosopher Plato lamented the loss of knowledge because the media of transmission were changing. Before the invention of the Greek alphabet 2,500 years ago, knowledge and stories were recited aloud, the new technology of writing meant stories no longer needed to be memorized, a development Socrates feared would weaken the Greeks mental capacities for memorizing and retelling. The next revolution for books came with the 15th-century invention of printing with changeable type, the invention is attributed to German metalsmith Johannes Gutenberg, who cast type in molds using a melted metal alloy and constructed a wooden-screw printing press to transfer the image onto paper. Gutenbergs invention made mass production of texts possible for the first time, compulsory education and the subsequent growth of schooling in Europe led to the printing of many standardized texts for children. Textbooks have become the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century, two textbooks of historical significance in United States schooling were the 18th century New England Primer and the 19th century McGuffey Readers. Technological advances change the way people interact with textbooks, online and digital materials are making it increasingly easy for students to access materials other than the traditional print textbook. Students now have access to electronic and PDF books, online tutoring systems, an example of an electronically published book, or e-book, is Principles of Biology from Nature Publishing. Most notably, a number of authors are foregoing commercial publishers. The textbook market does not operate in the manner as most consumer markets. First, the end consumers do not select the product, therefore, price is removed from the purchasing decision, giving the producer disproportionate market power to set prices high. This fundamental difference in the market is often cited as the reason that prices are out of control. The term broken market first appeared in the economist James Kochs analysis of the commissioned by the Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance. This situation is exacerbated by the lack of competition in the textbook market, consolidation in the past few decades has reduced the number of major textbook companies from around 30 to just a handful. Consequently, there is less competition than there used to be, Students seek relief from rising prices through the purchase of used copies of textbooks, which tend to be less expensive
7.
Publishing
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Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information—the activity of making information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver, also, the word publisher can refer to the individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint or to a person who owns/heads a magazine. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books, Publishing includes the following stages of development, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing, and marketing and distribution. There are two categories of book publisher, Non-paid publishers, A non-paid publisher is a house that does not charge authors at all to publish their books. Paid publishers, The author has to meet with the expense to get the book published. This is also known as vanity publishing, at a small press, it is possible to survive by relying entirely on commissioned material. But as activity increases, the need for works may outstrip the publishers established circle of writers, for works written independently of the publisher, writers often first submit a query letter or proposal directly to a literary agent or to a publisher. Submissions sent directly to a publisher are referred to as unsolicited submissions, the acquisitions editors send their choices to the editorial staff. Unsolicited submissions have a low rate of acceptance, with some sources estimating that publishers ultimately choose about three out of every ten thousand unsolicited manuscripts they receive. Many book publishers around the world maintain a strict no unsolicited submissions policy and this policy shifts the burden of assessing and developing writers out of the publisher and onto the literary agents. At these publishers, unsolicited manuscripts are thrown out, or sometimes returned, established authors may be represented by a literary agent to market their work to publishers and negotiate contracts. Literary agents take a percentage of earnings to pay for their services. Some writers follow a route to publication. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter, for a submission to reach publication, it must be championed by an editor or publisher who must work to convince other staff of the need to publish a particular title. An editor who discovers or champions a book that becomes a best-seller may find their reputation enhanced as a result of their success. Once a work is accepted, commissioning editors negotiate the purchase of property rights. The authors of traditional printed materials typically sell exclusive territorial intellectual property rights that match the list of countries in which distribution is proposed. In the case of books, the publisher and writer must also agree on the formats of publication —mass-market paperback
8.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
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Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English was first published by Longman in 1978. The dictionary is available in formats, paper only, paper with a bundled premium website. LDOCE is an advanced learners dictionary, providing definitions by using a restricted vocabulary, the latest version of Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English is the sixth edition. The 9000 most important English words to learn have been highlighted via the Longman Communication 9000, the gratis LDOCE online was updated to its current layout in 2008 and offers a search, definitions, collocations, many examples and pictures. A key feature of the LDOCE is its utilization of the Longman Defining Vocabulary and this defining vocabulary was developed from Michael Wests General Service List of high-frequency words and their most common meanings. Longman Dictionaries Online - official website Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online - free online version
9.
Bristol
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Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
10.
Robinson Crusoe
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Robinson Crusoe /ˌrɒbɪnsən ˈkruːsoʊ/ is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published on 25 April 1719. The first edition credited the works protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author, leading readers to believe he was a real person. Despite its simple style, Robinson Crusoe was well received in the literary world and is often credited as marking the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre. It is generally seen as a contender for the first English novel, Crusoe sets sail from the Queens Dock in Hull on a sea voyage in August 1651, against the wishes of his parents, who want him to pursue a career, possibly in law. After a tumultuous journey where his ship is wrecked in a storm and this journey, too, ends in disaster, as the ship is taken over by Salé pirates and Crusoe is enslaved by a Moor. Two years later, he escapes in a boat with a boy named Xury, the ship is en route to Brazil. Crusoe sells Xury to the captain, with the captains help, Crusoe procures a plantation. He observes the latitude as 9 degrees and 22 minutes north and he sees penguins and seals on his island. As for his arrival there, only he and three animals, the dog and two cats, survive the shipwreck. Overcoming his despair, he fetches arms, tools and other supplies from the ship before it breaks apart and he builds a fenced-in habitat near a cave which he excavates. By making marks in a cross, he creates a calendar. By using tools salvaged from the ship, and some he makes himself from ironwood, he hunts, grows barley and rice, dries grapes to make raisins, learns to make pottery and he also adopts a small parrot. He reads the Bible and becomes religious, thanking God for his fate in which nothing is missing, more years pass and Crusoe discovers native cannibals, who occasionally visit the island to kill and eat prisoners. At first he plans to them for committing an abomination but later realizes he has no right to do so. He dreams of obtaining one or two servants by freeing prisoners, when a prisoner escapes, Crusoe helps him, naming his new companion Friday after the day of the week he appeared. Crusoe then teaches him English and converts him to Christianity, after more natives arrive to partake in a cannibal feast, Crusoe and Friday kill most of the natives and save two prisoners. One is Fridays father and the other is a Spaniard, who informs Crusoe about other Spaniards shipwrecked on the mainland. A plan is devised wherein the Spaniard would return to the mainland with Fridays father and bring back the others, build a ship, before the Spaniards return, an English ship appears, mutineers have commandeered the vessel and intend to maroon their captain on the island
11.
Paternoster Row
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The prayers said at these processions may have also given the names to nearby Ave Maria Lane and Amen Corner. An alternative etymology is the traders who sold a type of prayer bead known as a pater noster. The area was a centre of the London publishing trade, with operating from the street. In 1819 Paternoster Row was described as almost synonymous with the book trade, trübner & Co. was one of the publishing companies on Paternoster Row. Note, Before c.1762 premises in London had signs rather than numbers. The Globe - T. Cooper No.1 - J Van Voorst No.2 - Orr and Co. J. W. Myers No.3 Jan Van Voorst No.9 - S. W. Partridge and Co. No.12 - Trubner and Co No.15 - Bagster and Sons No.20 &21 - F. Pitman, later F. Pitman Hart and Co. Ltd. No.21 J. Parsons, No.23 Piper, Stephenson, and Spence No.24 - George Wightman No.31 - Sheed & Ward No.33 - Hamilton and Co. No.37 - James Duncan, Blackwood and Sons, No.39 - Longman, Hust, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, later Longman and Co. later Longmans, Green, sampson Low Thomas Nelson Hawes, Clarke and Collins H. Woodfall & Co. C Davis No,27 Ivy Lane, Paternoster Row - Walton and Maberly No.60 - Friendly Female Society, for indigent widows and single women of good character, entirely under the management of ladies. The Paternoster Gang are a trio of Victorian detectives aligned with the Doctor in the television series Doctor Who, in the episode Young England of the 2016 television series Victoria, a stalker of Queen Victoria indicates that he lives on Paternoster Row. London Past and Present, Its History, Associations, and Traditions
12.
Ephraim Chambers
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Ephraim Chambers was an English writer and encyclopaedist, who is primarily known for producing the Cyclopaedia, or a Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Chambers was born in Kendal, Westmorland, England, little is known of his early life, other than that he was apprenticed to a globe maker, John Senex, in London from 1714 to 1721. It was here that he developed the plan of the Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts, after beginning the Cyclopaedia, he left Senexs service and devoted himself entirely to the encyclopedia project. He also took lodging in Grays Inn, where he remained for the rest of his life, Chambers died in Islington and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. The first edition of the Cyclopaedia appeared by subscription in 1728, in addition, Chambers wrote for, and possibly edited, the Literary Magazine, which mainly published book reviews. Chambers worked on translating works in French on perspective and chemistry from 1726 to 1727. He also worked with John Martyn to translate the History and Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, chamberss Encyclopaedia A work by different authors. In, Notable Encyclopedias of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, Nine Predecessors of the Encyclopédie, the Gentlemans Magazine v.10, p.262. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Chambers. Chambers Cyclopaedia, digitized and placed online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center
13.
Samuel Johnson
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Johnson was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and is described by the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history. He is also the subject of perhaps the most famous biography in English literature, born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, Johnson attended Pembroke College, Oxford for just over a year, before his lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London, where he began to write for The Gentlemans Magazine and his early works include the biography Life of Mr Richard Savage, the poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes, and the play Irene. After nine years of work, Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755 and it had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been described as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship. This work brought Johnson popularity and success, until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later, Johnsons was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary. His later works included essays, an annotated edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare. In 1763, he befriended James Boswell, with whom he travelled to Scotland. Towards the end of his life, he produced the massive and influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, Johnson was a tall and robust man. His odd gestures and tics were disconcerting to some on first meeting him, after a series of illnesses, he died on the evening of 13 December 1784, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Born on 18 September 1709, to Michael Johnson, a bookseller and he did not cry and, with doubts surrounding the newborns health, his aunt exclaimed that she would not have picked such a poor creature up in the street. Since it was feared that the baby die, the vicar of St Marys was summoned to perform a baptism. Two godfathers were chosen, Samuel Swynfen, a physician and graduate of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Richard Wakefield, a lawyer, coroner, Johnsons health improved and he was put to wet-nurse with Joan Marklew. He soon contracted scrofula, known at time as the Kings Evil because it was thought royalty could cure it. Sir John Floyer, former physician to King Charles II, recommended that the young Johnson should receive the royal touch, however, the ritual was ineffective, and an operation was performed that left him with permanent scars across his face and body. Johnson demonstrated signs of intelligence as a child, and his parents, to his later disgust. His education began at the age of three, and was provided by his mother, who had him memorise and recite passages from the Book of Common Prayer. When Samuel turned four, he was sent to a nearby school, a year later, Johnson went to Lichfield Grammar School, where he excelled in Latin. During this time, Johnson started to exhibit the tics that would influence how people viewed him in his years
14.
A Dictionary of the English Language
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Johnson took nearly nine years to complete the work, although he had claimed he could finish it in three. Remarkably, he did so single-handedly, with clerical assistance to copy out the illustrative quotations that he had marked in books. Johnson produced several revised editions during his life, until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 173 years later, Johnsons was viewed as the pre-eminent English dictionary. A hundred years earlier, books had been regarded with something approaching veneration, such an explosion of the printed word demanded a set pattern of grammar, definition, and spelling for those words. This could be achieved by means of a dictionary of the English language. Johnsons dictionary was not the first English dictionary, nor even among the first dozen, over the previous 150 years more than twenty dictionaries had been published in England, the oldest of these being a Latin-English wordbook by Sir Thomas Elyot published in 1538. The next to appear was by Richard Mulcaster, a headmaster, Mulcaster compiled what he termed a generall table we commonlie use. It were a thing verie praise worthy. if som well learned. would gather all words which we use in the English tung. into one dictionary, in 1598 an Italian–English dictionary by John Florio was published. It was the first English dictionary to use quotations to give meaning to the word, surprisingly and this was to change, to a small extent, in schoolmaster Robert Cawdreys Table Alphabeticall, published in 1604. Though it contained only 2,449 words, and no word beginning with the letters W, X, or Y, several more dictionaries followed, in Latin, English, French and Italian. Benjamin Martins Lingua Britannica Reformata and Ainsworths Thesaurus Linguae Latinae are both significant, in that they define entries in separate senses, or aspects, of the word. But perhaps the greatest single fault of these early lexicographers was, as historian Henry Hitchings put it, in that sense Dr. Johnsons dictionary was the first to comprehensively document the English lexicon. Johnsons dictionary was prepared at 17 Gough Square, London, an eclectic household, by 1747 Johnson had written his Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language, which spelled out his intentions and proposed methodology for preparing his document. Johnsons Plan received the patronage of Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, Chesterfield did not care about praise, but was instead interested by Johnsons abilities. Seven years after first meeting Johnson to discuss the work, Chesterfield wrote two essays in The World that recommended the Dictionary. He complained that the English language was lacking structure and argued, We must have recourse to the old Roman expedient in times of confusion, upon this principle, I give my vote for Mr Johnson to fill that great and arduous post. However, Johnson did not appreciate the tone of the essay, such treatment I did not expect, for I never had a patron before. Is not a patron, my lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, a Dictionary of the English Language was somewhat large and very expensive
15.
Lindley Murray
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Lindley Murray, was an American Quaker who moved to England and became a writer and grammarian. Lindley Murray was born at Harper Tavern, Pennsylvania, on 27 March 1745 and his father, Robert Murray, a member of an old Quaker family, was one of the leading New York merchants. Murray was the eldest of twelve children, all of whom he survived, although he was puny, when six years old, he was sent to school in Philadelphia, but soon left to accompany his parents to North Carolina, where they lived until 1753. They then moved to New York, where Murray was sent to a good school, contrary to his inclinations, he was placed when only fourteen in his fathers counting-house. In spite of endeavors to foster in him the commercial spirit, collecting his books, he escaped to Burlington, New Jersey, entered a boarding-school, and started to study French. His retreat was discovered, he was back to New York. His father still desired him to himself to commerce. Four years later Murray was called to the bar, and practiced as counsel, at the age of twenty-two he married, and in 1770 came to England, whither his father had preceded him, but Lindley returned in 1771 to New York. Here his practice became large and lucrative, in spite of his conscientious care to discourage litigation, and to recommend a peaceable settlement of differences. On the outbreak of hostilities in America, Murray went with his wife to Long Island, where four years were spent in fishing, sailing, and shooting. On the declaration of independence he returned to New York, and was so successful that he retired in 1783 to a place on the Hudson. As Murrays health was failing, he decided to try the English climate, in 1784, he left America and never returned. The remainder of his life was spent in literary pursuits at Holgate, for the last sixteen years of his life, Murrays physical condition, likely the result of Post-Polio Syndrome, confined him to his house. His library became noted for its theological and philological treasures and he studied botany, and his garden was said to exceed in variety the Royal Gardens at Kew. The summer house in which his grammars were composed still remains, Murrays first published work, The Power of Religion on the Mind, York,1787, 20th edition 1842, was twice translated into French. To the 8th edition was added Extracts from the Writings of divers Eminent Men representing the Evils of Stage Plays and his attention was then drawn to the want of suitable lesson-books for a Friends school for girls in York, and in 1795 he published his English Grammar. The manuscript petition from the teachers requesting him to prepare it has been preserved, in 1816, an edition corrected by the author was issued in 2 vols. An Abridgment of this version by Murray, issued two years later, went through more than 120 editions of ten thousand each and it was printed at the New England Institution for the Blind in embossed characters, Boston,1835, and translated into Marathi, Bombay,1837
16.
Robert Southey
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Robert Southey was an English poet of the Romantic school, one of the so-called Lake Poets, and Poet Laureate for 30 years from 1813 until his death in 1843. Although his fame has long been eclipsed by that of his contemporaries and friends William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Southey was also a prolific letter writer, literary scholar, essay writer, historian and biographer. His biographies include the life and works of John Bunyan, John Wesley, William Cowper, Oliver Cromwell, the last has rarely been out of print since its publication in 1813 and was adapted for the screen in the 1926 British film, Nelson. He also wrote on issues, which led to a brief, non-sitting. Robert Southey was born in Wine Street, Bristol, to Robert Southey and he was educated at Westminster School, London, and Balliol College, Oxford. Southey later said of Oxford, All I learnt was a little swimming, experimenting with a writing partnership with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, most notably in their joint composition of The Fall of Robespierre, Southey published his first collection of poems in 1794. Each young man should take to himself a mild and lovely woman for his wife, it would be her part to prepare their innocent food, and tend their hardy and beautiful race. Southey was the first to reject the idea as unworkable, suggesting that they move the location to Wales. In 1799 Southey and Coleridge were involved with experiments with nitrous oxide. Southey married Edith Fricker at St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol and she was a sister of Sara Fricker, Coleridges wife. The Southeys made their home at Greta Hall, Keswick, in the Lake District, also living at Greta Hall and supported by him were Sara Coleridge and her three children, after Coleridge abandoned them, as well as the widow of poet Robert Lovell and her son. In 1808 Southey met Walter Savage Landor, whose work he admired and that same year he wrote Letters from England under the pseudonym Don Manuel Alvarez Espriella, an account of a tour supposedly from a foreigners viewpoint. From 1809 Southey contributed to the Quarterly Review and he had become so well known by 1813 that he was appointed Poet Laureate after Walter Scott refused the post. In 1819, through a friend, Southey met the leading civil engineer Thomas Telford. From mid-August to 1 October 1819, Southey accompanied Telford on an tour of his engineering projects in the Scottish Highlands. This was published in 1929 as Journal of a Tour in Scotland in 1819 and he was also a friend of the Dutch poet Willem Bilderdijk, whom he met twice, in 1824 and 1826, at Bilderdijks home in Leiden. In 1837 Southey received a letter from Charlotte Brontë, seeking his advice on some of her poems and he wrote back praising her talents, but also discouraging her from writing professionally. He said Literature cannot be the business of a womans life, years later, Brontë remarked to a friend that the letter was kind and admirable, a little stringent, but it did me good
17.
Joan of Arc (poem)
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Joan of Arc is a 1796 epic poem composed by Robert Southey. The idea for the story came from a discussion between Southey and Grosvenor Bedford, when Southey realised that the story would be suitable for an epic. The subject further appealed to Southey because the events of the French Revolution were concurrent to the writing of the poem, eventually, Samuel Taylor Coleridge helped rewrite parts of the poem for a 1798 edition. Later editions removed Coleridges additions along with other changes, the poem is divided into two-halves with the first describing Joans quest to meet Charles, the Dauphin of France. Eventually, she is capable of gaining the Dauphins support and begins to lead the French military, the secondary half describes the French defeat of the British army at Orléans. After many victories, the ends with Charles crowned King of France. Later editions of the poem shifted from a promotion of a view of religion to a more traditional view. Critics gave the mixed reviews, with some emphasising the quality of the images and themes of the poem. However, others believed that the poem lacked merit and some believed that the matter was inappropriate to the time. Many critics felt that Southey rushed in composing the work and did not devote time to it. In July 1793, Southey discussed the story of Joan of Arc with Grosvenor Bedford, the conversation led to him believe that Joan of Arc would serve as a good basis for an epic so he began to work a plan for the poem and started composing lines. The subject of the poem appealed to Southey because it reflected incidents surrounding the French Revolution that started in early 1793, by 8 August, he had around 300 lines of the poem written. On 13 August, he devoted his time to writing a 12-book poem that he hoped to complete by the end of September, after admitting this desire for haste in the preface to the poems first edition, critics accused Southey of not spending enough time on composing the poem. During Summer 1794, Southey attempted to find a publisher for John of Arc while taking up The Fall of Robespierre, during 1794, Southey began to plan with Coleridge and others about a political system that they would start in America called Pantisocracy. He needed to get money for the project and he contacted Richard Cruttwell on 19 July 1794 to publish Joan of Arc for that end. After notifying Bedford about the plan, Bedford advised Southey to contact William Nicol, Southey did find a publisher, Joseph Cottle, to print his poem. The poem was published by Cottle in 1796 after changes to the text including a section added by Coleridge. The second edition would later be printed without Coleridges lines and they were published on their own
18.
William Wordsworth
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William Wordsworth was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads. Wordsworths magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published, before which it was known as the poem to Coleridge. Wordsworth was Britains Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850 and his sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. Wordsworths father was a representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale and, through his connections. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783. However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit to memory large portions of verse, including works by Milton, Shakespeare, William was also allowed to use his fathers library. William also spent time at his mothers house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide, Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the Spectator, but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, after the death of his mother, in 1778, Wordsworths father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for nine years. Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in The European Magazine and that same year he began attending St Johns College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791 and he returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland. In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement and he fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who in 1792 gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britains tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year. The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his wish to marry Annette. With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette, the purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson
19.
Lyrical Ballads
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The immediate effect on critics was modest, but it became and remains a landmark, changing the course of English literature and poetry. A second edition was published in 1800, in which Wordsworth included additional poems, for another edition, published in 1802, Wordsworth added an appendix titled Poetic Diction in which he expanded the ideas set forth in the preface. They place an emphasis on the vitality of the voice that the poor use to express their reality. Using this language also helps assert the universality of human emotions, in the Advertisement included in the 1798 edition, Wordsworth explained his poetical concept, The majority of the following poems are to be considered as experiments. They were written chiefly with a view to ascertain how far the language of conversation in the middle, one of the main themes of Lyrical Ballads is the return to the original state of nature, in which people led a purer and more innocent existence. Wordsworth subscribed to Rousseaus belief that humanity was essentially good but was corrupted by the influence of society and this may be linked with the sentiments spreading through Europe just prior to the French Revolution. Poems marked were written by Coleridge, all poems were written by Wordsworth. For the 1800 edition, Wordsworth added several poems which make up Volume II, the poem The Convict was in the 1798 edition but Wordsworth omitted it from the 1800 edition, replacing it with Coleridges Love. Lewti or the Circassian Love-chaunt exists in some 1798 editions in place of The Convict, Lyrical Ballads 1798 at Project Gutenberg Lyrical Ballads 1800 vol.1 at Project Gutenberg Lyrical Ballads 1800 vol
20.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He wrote the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan and his critical work, especially on William Shakespeare, was highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. Coleridge coined many words and phrases, including suspension of disbelief. He was an influence on Ralph Waldo Emerson and American transcendentalism. Throughout his adult life Coleridge had crippling bouts of anxiety and depression, it has been speculated that he had bipolar disorder and he was physically unhealthy, which may have stemmed from a bout of rheumatic fever and other childhood illnesses. He was treated for these conditions with laudanum, which fostered a lifelong opium addiction, Coleridge was born on 21 October 1772 in the town of Ottery St Mary in Devon, England. He had previously been Master of Hugh Squiers School in South Molton, Devon, John Coleridge had three children by his first wife. Samuel was the youngest of ten by the Reverend Mr. Coleridges second wife, Anne Bowden, probably the daughter of John Bowden, Mayor of South Molton, Devon, Coleridge suggests that he took no pleasure in boyish sports but instead read incessantly and played by himself. At that school Coleridge became friends with Charles Lamb, a schoolmate, in fancy I can almost hear him now, exclaiming Harp. Pen and ink, boy, you mean, oh aye. the cloister-pump, I suppose. Be this as it may, there was one custom of our masters and he would often permit our theme exercises. To accumulate, till each lad had four or five to be looked over, throughout his life, Coleridge idealised his father as pious and innocent, while his relationship with his mother was more problematic. His childhood was characterised by attention seeking, which has linked to his dependent personality as an adult. He was rarely allowed to return home during the term. He later wrote of his loneliness at school in the poem Frost at Midnight, With unclosed lids, from 1791 until 1794, Coleridge attended Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1792, he won the Browne Gold Medal for an ode that he wrote on the slave trade, afterwards, he was rumoured to have had a bout of severe depression. His brothers arranged for his discharge a few months later under the reason of insanity and he was readmitted to Jesus College, at Jesus College, Coleridge was introduced to political and theological ideas then considered radical, including those of the poet Robert Southey. Coleridge joined Southey in a plan, soon abandoned, to found a utopian society, called Pantisocracy
21.
Walter Scott
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Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet, FRSE was a Scottish historical novelist, playwright and poet. Many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature, famous titles include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Old Mortality, The Lady of the Lake, Waverley, The Heart of Midlothian and The Bride of Lammermoor. A prominent member of the Tory establishment in Edinburgh, Scott was an member of the Highland Society. He survived a bout of polio in 1773 that left him lame. To cure his lameness he was sent in 1773 to live in the rural Scottish Borders at his grandparents farm at Sandyknowe, adjacent to the ruin of Smailholm Tower. Here he was taught to read by his aunt Jenny, and learned from her the speech patterns and many of the tales and legends that characterised much of his work. In January 1775 he returned to Edinburgh, and that went with his aunt Jenny to take spa treatment at Bath in England. In the winter of 1776 he went back to Sandyknowe, with another attempt at a cure at Prestonpans during the following summer. In 1778, Scott returned to Edinburgh for private education to him for school. In October 1779 he began at the Royal High School of Edinburgh and he was now well able to walk and explore the city and the surrounding countryside. His reading included chivalric romances, poems, history and travel books and he was given private tuition by James Mitchell in arithmetic and writing, and learned from him the history of the Church of Scotland with emphasis on the Covenanters. Scott began studying classics at the University of Edinburgh in November 1783, at the age of 12, in March 1786 he began an apprenticeship in his fathers office to become a Writer to the Signet. While at the university Scott had become a friend of Adam Ferguson, Scott met the blind poet Thomas Blacklock, who lent him books and introduced him to James Macphersons Ossian cycle of poems. During the winter of 1786–87 the 15-year-old Scott saw Robert Burns at one of these salons, for what was to be their only meeting. When Burns noticed a print illustrating the poem The Justice of the Peace and asked who had written the poem, only Scott knew that it was by John Langhorne, and was thanked by Burns. When it was decided that he would become a lawyer, he returned to the university to study law, first taking classes in Moral Philosophy, after completing his studies in law, he became a lawyer in Edinburgh. As a lawyers clerk he made his first visit to the Scottish Highlands directing an eviction and he was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1792. He had an unsuccessful love suit with Williamina Belsches of Fettercairn, as a boy, youth and young man, Scott was fascinated by the oral traditions of the Scottish Borders
22.
Abraham Rees
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Abraham Rees was a Welsh nonconformist minister, and compiler of Reess Cyclopædia. He was the son of Lewis Rees, by his wife Esther, daughter of Abraham Penry. Lewis Rees was independent minister at Llanbrynmair and Mynyddbach, Glamorganshire, Abraham was educated for the ministry at Cowards academy in Wellclose Square, near London, under David Jennings, entering in 1759. His first ministerial engagement was in the independent congregation at Clapham, in 1768 he became assistant to Henry Read in the presbyterian congregation at St. Thomass, Southwark, and succeeded him as pastor in 1774. A new meeting-house, of form, was erected for him in Jewin Street. He was elected trustee of Dr. Daniel Williamss foundations in 1774, and secretary of the board in 1778. On 31 January 1775 he received the degree of D. D. from Edinburgh University and he made a triennial visit to Wales as examiner of Carmarthen Academy. In 1806 he was appointed distributor of the English regium donum and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1813. He was the last of the London dissenting ministers who officiated in a wig, Rees survived his wife and all his children, but left several grandchildren. His son, Nathaniel Penry Rees, died 8 July 1802 and his only daughter married John Jones. Reess work as a cyclopædist began as an improver of the Cyclopædia of Ephraim Chambers, originally published in 1728, in 2 volumes. This was re-edited by Rees in 1778, and, with the incorporation of a supplement and much new matter, was issued by him in 1781–6, in 4 volumes, reprinted 1788–91. In recognition of his labour he was elected in 1786 a Fellow of the Royal Society, and subsequently of the Linnean Society and he then projected a more comprehensive publication. The parts were issued at intervals, two parts constituting a volume. Great attention is paid to English biography, the articles were generally contributed by Sir James Edward Smith. Besides single sermons, Rees published ‘Practical Sermons, ’1809,2 vols, 2nd ed.1812, with two additional volumes,1821. In conjunction with Kippis, Thomas Jervis, and Thomas Morgan and he brought out ‘A Collection of Hymns and Psalms, ’ &c. This collection, generally known as Kippiss, was the first attempt to supply, for use among liberal dissenters
23.
Thomas Moore
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Thomas Moore was an Irish poet, singer, songwriter, and entertainer, now best remembered for the lyrics of The Minstrel Boy and The Last Rose of Summer. He was responsible, with John Murray, for burning Lord Byrons memoirs after his death, in his lifetime he was often referred to as Anacreon Moore. From a relatively early age Moore showed an interest in music and he sometimes appeared in musical plays with his friends, such as The Poor Soldier by John OKeeffe, and at one point had ambitions to become an actor. Moore attended several Dublin schools including Samuel Whytes English Grammar School in Grafton Street where he learned the English accent with which he spoke for the rest of his life. In 1795 he graduated from Trinity College, which had recently allowed entry to Catholic students, Moore was initially a good student, but he later put less effort into his studies. This movement sought support from the French government to launch a revolution in Ireland, in 1798 a rebellion broke out followed by a French invasion, neither of which succeeded. Thomas Moore was born at 12 Aungier Street in Dublin, Ireland, over his fathers grocery shop, his father being from the Kerry Gaeltacht and his mother, Anastasia Codd, from Wexford. He had two sisters, Kate and Ellen. From a relatively early age Moore showed an interest in music and he sometimes appeared in musical plays with his friends, such as The Poor Soldier by John OKeeffe, and at one point had ambitions to become an actor. Moore attended several Dublin schools including Samuel Whytes English Grammar School in Grafton Street where he learned the English accent with which he spoke for the rest of his life. In 1795 he graduated from Trinity College, which had recently allowed entry to Catholic students, Moore was initially a good student, but he later put less effort into his studies. This movement sought support from the French government to launch a revolution in Ireland, in 1798 a rebellion broke out followed by a French invasion, neither of which succeeded. In 1799 he travelled to London to study law at Middle Temple and he was an impecunious student and had difficulties in paying the fees and his tailors bills. He was helped in this by his friends in the expatriate Irish community in London, including Barbara, widow of Arthur Chichester and she and her sister became his lifelong friends. However, it was as a poet, translator, balladeer and singer that he found fame, often simply called Moores Melodies, they were originally published between 1808 and 1834. But Moore was far more than a balladeer and he had major success as a society figure in London, meeting the Prince of Wales on several occasions and enjoying in particular the patronage of the Irish aristocrat Lord Moira. Moore stayed repeatedly at Moiras house at Donnington Park in Leicestershire where he enjoyed the extensive library and he also collaborated with Michael Kelly and Charles Edward Horn in staging operas to his librettos in 1801 and 1811. In 1803 he was appointed registrar to the Admiralty in Bermuda and he spent around three months on the island, but he found his work very light and uninspiring
24.
Archibald Constable
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Archibald David Constable was a Scottish publisher, bookseller and stationer. Constable was born at Carnbee, Fife, son of the steward to the Earl of Kellie. In 1788 Archibald was apprenticed to Peter Hill, an Edinburgh bookseller and he bought the Scots Magazine in 1801, and John Leyden, the orientalist, became its editor. Constable made a new departure in publishing by the generosity of his terms to authors, writers for the Edinburgh Review were paid at an unprecedented rate, and Constable offered Scott 1000 guineas in advance for Marmion. Hunter joined Constable as partner, bringing considerable capital into the firm, in 1805, jointly with Longman & Co. Constable published Scotts Lay of the Last Minstrel, and in 1807 Marmion, in 1808 a split took place between Constable and Sir Walter Scott, who transferred his business to the publishing firm of John Ballantyne & Co. for which he supplied most of the capital. In 1813, however, a reconciliation took place, in 1814 he bought the copyright of Waverley. This was issued anonymously, but in a short time 12,000 copies were disposed of, the firm also published the Annual Register. Through over-speculation, complications arose, and in 1826 a crash came, Constables London agents stopped payment, and he failed for over £250,000, while James Ballantyne & Co. also went bankrupt for nearly £90,000. Sir Walter Scott was affected by the failure of both firms, Constable died on 21 July 1827, but his firm survived, and the Constable publishing business continued in the twentieth century, issuing a wide range of fiction and non-fiction books. It continues today as Constable & Robinson, Constable was married to Mary Willison. They lived in Craigcrook House in western Edinburgh and their son, Thomas Constable FRSE took over his printing business on his fathers death. In 1839 he was appointed printer and publisher in Edinburgh to Queen Victoria, and issued, among other series, Constables Educational Series. In 1865 his son Archibald David Constable became a partner, Thomas married Lucia Anne Cowan, daughter of Alexander Cowan paper-maker. They lived at 11 Thistle Street in Edinburghs First New Town and their son was also Archibald David Constable FRSE LLD, named after his grandfather, and followed in the family tradition as a printer. His daughter, Elizabeth Constable married his junior publishing partner, Robert Cadell of Ratho, Constable, Archibald, Encyclopædia Britannica,6, Cambridge University Press, pp. 981–982 Henderson, Thomas Finlayson. London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 32–33, Edinburgh, A. Constable & Co.1822
25.
Dionysius Lardner
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Prof Dionysius Lardner FRS FRSE was an Irish scientific writer who popularised science and technology, and edited the 133-volume Cabinet Cyclopædia. He was born in Dublin on 3 April 1793 the son of William Lardner, a solicitor in Dublin, who wished his son to follow the same calling. After some years of uncongenial desk work, Lardner entered Trinity College, Dublin in 1812, and obtained a B. A. in 1817 and he married Cecilia Flood on 19 December 1815, but they separated in 1820 and were divorced in 1835. About the time of the separation, he began a relationship with a woman, Anne Maria Darley Boursiquot. It is believed that he fathered her son, Dion Boucicault, Lardner provided him with financial support until 1840. Whilst in Dublin, Lardner began to write and lecture on scientific and mathematical matters, in 1828 Lardner was elected professor of natural philosophy and astronomy at University College, London, a position he held until he resigned his professorship in 1831. Lardner showed himself to be a successful populariser of science, giving talks on topics such as Babbages Difference Engine. He was the author of mathematical and physical treatises on such subjects as algebraic geometry, the differential and integral calculus. He also wrote hand-books on various departments of philosophy. The Cabinet Cyclopædia eventually comprised 133 volumes, and many of the ablest savants of the day contributed to it, sir Walter Scott contributed a history of Scotland and Thomas Moore contributed a history of Ireland. Connop Thirlwall provided a history of Ancient Greece, whilst Robert Southey provided a section on naval history, many eminent scientists contributed as well. Lardner himself was the author of the treatises on arithmetic, geometry, heat, hydrostatics and pneumatics, mechanics, the Cabinet Library and the Museum of Science and Art were his other chief undertakings. In 1840 Lardners career received a setback as a result of his involvement with Mary Spicer Heaviside. He had previously married to Cecilia Flood in 1815, but had separated in 1820. Lardner ran off to Paris with Mrs Heaviside, pursued by her husband, when he caught up with them, Heaviside subjected Lardner to a flogging, he was unable to persuade his wife to return with him. Later that year he successfully sued Lardner for criminal conversation and received a judgment of £8,000, the Heavisides were divorced in 1845, and in 1846 Lardner was able to marry Mary Heaviside. The scandal caused by his affair with a married woman effectively ended his career in England, so Lardner and he was able to maintain his career by lecturing in the United States between 1841 and 1844, which proved financially rewarding, realising £40,000. He died in Naples, Italy, and is buried in the Cimitero degli Inglesi there, Lardner became involved in a number of ill-advised public disagreements with Isambard Kingdom Brunel regarding technical matters, in which he came off the worse
26.
John Ramsay McCulloch
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John Ramsey McCulloch was a Scottish economist, author and editor, widely regarded as the leader of the Ricardian school of economists after the death of David Ricardo in 1823. He was appointed the first professor of economy at University College London in 1828. He wrote extensively on policy, and was a pioneer in the collection, statistical analysis. McCulloch was a co-founder, and one of the first editors, of The Scotsman newspaper and he edited the 1828 edition of The Wealth of Nations. McCulloch attended the University of Edinburgh, but did not graduate, McCulloch collected the early literature of political economy, and wrote on the scope and method of economics and the history of economic thought. After his death his library was purchased by Lord Overstone and eventually presented to the University of Reading. He was a participant in the Political Economy Club, London, founded by James Mill, mcCullochs works include a textbook, Principles of Political Economy. He worked on subsequent editions until his death and this book contains a memorable discussion of the origins of profit or interest in the case of a cask of new wine. This question is used in discussions of the labour theory of value. Reflecting on discussions in the Political Economy Club, Ricardo had privately expressed his famous opinion about the non-existence of any measure of absolute value, McCulloch died in 1864, and is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. McCullochs theoretical work received harsh criticism from Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk in the latters History, but probably no member of the English school has been so unhappy in his treatment of the subject or done the theory of interest such a disservice as McCulloch, wrote Böhm-Bawerk. He hovers about the fringes of a number of divergent opinions and he penetrates just far enough into each to become involved in glaring self-contradictions, but he does not expand any one of them sufficiently to form a theory that even approaches consistency. On the subject of the cask, Böhm-Bawerk wrote that there was an enormous difference between what he was supposed to prove and what he did prove. Although such examples may prove that the passage of time is not enough of a change to produce an increase of value. An Essay on a Reduction of the Interest of the National Debt,1816, on Ricardos Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,1818, Edinburgh Review Taxation and the Corn Laws,1820, Edinburgh Review The Opinions of Messrs. Say, Sismondi and Malthus, on Effects of Machinery and Accumulation,1821, Edinburgh Review On Combination Laws, Restraints on Emigration,1824, Edinburgh Review Political Economy,1824, Encyclopædia Britannica. French Law of Succession,1824, Edinburgh Review, a Discourse on the Rise, Progress, Peculiar Objects and Importance of Political Economy,1824. The Principles of Political Economy, with a sketch of the rise, an Essay on the Circumstances which Determine the Rate of Wages and the Condition of the Working Classes,1826
27.
Thomas Babington Macaulay
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Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay, PC was a British historian and Whig politician. He wrote extensively as an essayist and reviewer, his books on British history have been hailed as literary masterpieces, Macaulay held political office as the Secretary at War between 1839 and 1841, and the Paymaster-General between 1846 and 1848. He played a role in introducing English and western concepts to education in India. He supported the replacement of Persian by English as the language, the use of English as the medium of instruction in all schools. In his view, Macaulay divided the world into civilised nations and barbarism and he was wedded to the Idea of Progress, especially in terms of the liberal freedoms. He opposed radicalism while idealising historic British culture and traditions, Macaulay was the son of Zachary Macaulay, a Scottish Highlander, who became a colonial governor and abolitionist, and Selina Mills of Bristol, a former pupil of Hannah More. They named their first child after his uncle Thomas Babington, a Leicestershire landowner and politician, Thomas Macaulay was born in Leicestershire, England, where he was noted as a child prodigy. As a toddler, gazing out of the window from his cot at the chimneys of a local factory and he was educated at a private school in Hertfordshire and at Trinity College, Cambridge. Whilst at Cambridge he wrote poetry and won several prizes. In 1825 he published a prominent essay on Milton in the Edinburgh Review and he studied law and in 1826 he was called to the bar but showed more interest in a political than a legal career. Macaulay, who never married and had no children, was rumoured to have fallen in love with Maria Kinnaird. But in fact, Macaulays strongest emotional ties were to his youngest sisters, Margaret who died while he was in India, as Hannah grew older, he formed the same close attachment to Hannahs daughter Margaret, whom he called Baba. Macaulay retained a passionate interest in literature throughout his life. He likely had an eidetic memory, while in India, he read every ancient Greek and Roman work that was available to him. In his letters, he describes reading the Aeneid whilst on vacation in Malvern in 1851 and he also taught himself German, Dutch, and Spanish, and remained fluent in French. In 1830 the Marquess of Lansdowne invited Macaulay to become Member of Parliament for the borough of Calne. His maiden speech was in favour of abolishing the civil disabilities of the Jews in the UK, Macaulay made his name with a series of speeches in favour of parliamentary reform. After the Great Reform Act of 1832 was passed, he became MP for Leeds, in the Reform, Calnes representation was reduced from two to one, Leeds had never been represented before, but now had two members
28.
Lays of Ancient Rome
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Lays of Ancient Rome is a collection of narrative poems, or lays, by Thomas Babington Macaulay. Four of these recount heroic episodes from early Roman history with strong dramatic and tragic themes, Macaulay also included two poems inspired by recent history, Ivry and The Armada. The Lays were composed by Macaulay in his thirties, during his time while he was the legal member of the Governor-General of Indias Supreme Council from 1834 to 1838. The Roman ballads are preceded by brief introductions, discussing the legends from a scholarly perspective, Macaulay explains that his intention was to write poems resembling those that might have been sung in ancient times. The Lays were first published by Longman in 1842, at the beginning of the Victorian Era and they became immensely popular, and were a regular subject of recitation, then a common pastime. The Lays were standard reading in British public schools for more than a century, winston Churchill memorised them while at Harrow School, in order to show that he was capable of mental prodigies, notwithstanding his lacklustre academic performance. The first poem, Horatius, describes how Publius Horatius and two companions, Spurius Lartius and Titus Herminius, held the Sublician bridge against the Etruscan army of Lars Porsena, King of Clusium. The three heroes are willing to die in order to prevent the enemy crossing the bridge. While the trio close with the front ranks of the Etruscans and this poem contains the often-quoted lines, Lartius and Herminius regain the Roman side before the bridge falls, but Horatius is stranded, and jumps into the river still wearing his full armor. Macaulay writes, He reaches the Roman shore, is rewarded, the fighting described by Macaulay is fierce and bloody, and the outcome is only decided when the twin gods Castor and Pollux descend to the battlefield on the side of Rome. This poem includes a number of finely described single-combats, in imitation of Homers Iliad. This poem describes the tragedy of Virginia, the daughter of Virginius. The wicked Appius Claudius, a member of one of Romes most noble patrician families and he initiates legal proceedings, claiming Virginia as his runaway slave, knowing that his claim will be endorsed by the corrupt magistracy over which he and his cronies preside. Driven to despair, Virginius resolves to save his daughter from Claudius lust by any means—even her death is preferable, when Romulus and Remus arrive in triumph at the house of their grandfather, Capys, the blind old man enters a prophetic trance. He foretells the future greatness of Romulus descendants, and their victory over their enemies in the Pyhrric and Punic wars. Originally composed in 1824, Ivry celebrates a battle won by Henry IV of France, Henry went on to issue the Edict of Nantes in 1598, granting tolerance to the French Protestants, and ending the French Wars of Religion. Lays of Ancient Rome has been reprinted on occasions, and is now in the public domain. An 1881 edition, lavishly illustrated by John Reinhard Weguelin, was frequently republished, countless schoolchildren have encountered the work as a means of introducing them to history, poetry, and the moral values of courage, self-sacrifice, and patriotism emphasized in Macaulays text
29.
New Testament
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The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
30.
Edward III of England
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Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France, at age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337. This started what would become known as the Hundred Years War, following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England, victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny. Edwards later years, however, were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity, Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, Edward was denounced as an adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs. This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements, Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years. The reign of his father, Edward II, was a problematic period of English history. One source of contention was the inactivity, and repeated failure. Another controversial issue was the kings patronage of a small group of royal favourites. The birth of an heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward IIs position in relation to the baronial opposition. To bolster further the independent prestige of the prince, the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age. In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law, Charles IV of France, Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger. Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place, the young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was the sister of King Charles, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, however, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward deposed, to build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault. An invasion of England was launched and Edward IIs forces deserted him completely, the king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 and it was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer, who was now the de facto ruler of England
31.
Fraser's Magazine
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Frasers Magazine for Town and Country was a general and literary journal published in London from 1830 to 1882, which initially took a strong Tory line in politics. It was founded by Hugh Fraser and William Maginn in 1830, in its early years the publisher James Fraser played a role in soliciting contributors and preparing the magazine for the press. After James Frasers death in 1841 the magazine was acquired by George William Nickisson and its last notable editor was James Anthony Froude. Among the contributors were Thomas Carlyle, William Makepeace Thackeray, Thomas Medwin, James Hogg, William Mudford, Janet Ross and John Stuart Mill. The 1835 group portrait by Maclise misleads in that David Brewster, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Gibson Lockhart and Robert Southey, others who were active at that period were Percival Banks, T. C. Croker, John Galt, John Abraham Heraud, E. V. Kenealy, David Macbeth Moir, Francis Mahony, Robert Willmott, another contributor was William Jardine Smith. Rebellious Frasers, Nol Yorkes Magazine in the Days of Maginn, Carlyle, new York, Columbia University Press,1934
32.
John Stuart Mill
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John Stuart Mill was an English philosopher, political economist and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory, political theory, Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by his predecessor Jeremy Bentham, and contributed significantly to the theory of the scientific method. A member of the Liberal Party, he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for womens suffrage. John Stuart Mill was born on Rodney Street in the Pentonville area of London, the eldest son of the Scottish philosopher, historian and economist James Mill, John Stuart was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place. He was given a rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings. Mill was a precocious child. He describes his education in his autobiography, at the age of three he was taught Greek. By the age of eight, he had read Aesops Fables, Xenophons Anabasis, and the whole of Herodotus and he had also read a great deal of history in English and had been taught arithmetic, physics and astronomy. At the age of eight, Mill began studying Latin, the works of Euclid, and algebra and his main reading was still history, but he went through all the commonly taught Latin and Greek authors and by the age of ten could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father also thought that it was important for Mill to study, one of Mills earliest poetic compositions was a continuation of the Iliad. In his spare time he enjoyed reading about natural sciences and popular novels, such as Don Quixote. In the following year he was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and David Ricardo with his father, Ricardo, who was a close friend of his father, used to invite the young Mill to his house for a walk in order to talk about political economy. At the age of fourteen, Mill stayed a year in France with the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, the mountain scenery he saw led to a lifelong taste for mountain landscapes. The lively and friendly way of life of the French also left an impression on him. In Montpellier, he attended the courses on chemistry, zoology, logic of the Faculté des Sciences. While coming and going from France, he stayed in Paris for a few days in the house of the renowned economist Jean-Baptiste Say, there he met many leaders of the Liberal party, as well as other notable Parisians, including Henri Saint-Simon. Mill went through months of sadness and pondered suicide at twenty years of age, according to the opening paragraphs of Chapter V of his autobiography, he had asked himself whether the creation of a just society, his lifes objective, would actually make him happy. His heart answered no, and unsurprisingly he lost the happiness of striving towards this objective, eventually, the poetry of William Wordsworth showed him that beauty generates compassion for others and stimulates joy
33.
James Anthony Froude
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James Anthony Froude FRSE was an English historian, novelist, biographer, and editor of Frasers Magazine. Froude turned to writing history, becoming one of the best known historians of his time for his History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada. Inspired by Thomas Carlyle, Froudes historical writings were often fiercely polemical, Froude continued to be controversial up until his death for his Life of Carlyle, which he published along with personal writings of Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle. These publications illuminated Carlyles often selfish personality, and led to persistent gossip and he was the son of Robert Hurrell Froude, archdeacon of Totnes, and his wife Margaret Spedding. James Anthony was born at Dartington, Devon on 23 April 1818 and he was the youngest of eight children, including engineer and naval architect William Froude and Anglo-Catholic polemicist Richard Hurrell Froude, who was fifteen years his elder. He studied at Westminster School from age 11 until 15, where he was bullied and tormented. Despite his unhappiness and his failure in education, Froude cherished the classics and read widely in history. Beginning in 1836, he was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, here Froude began to thrive personally and intellectually, motivated to succeed by a brief engagement in 1839. He obtained a second degree in 1840 and travelled to Delgany. He returned to Oxford in 1842, won the Chancellors English essay prize for an essay on political economy, Froudes brother Richard Hurrell had been one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement, a group which advocated a Catholic rather than a Protestant interpretation of the Anglican Church. Froude grew up hearing the conversation and ideas of his brother with friends John Henry Newman and John Keble, during his time at Oxford and Ireland, Froude became increasingly dissatisfied with the Movement. Froudes experience living with an Evangelical clergyman in Ireland conflicted with the Movements characterisation of Protestantism and he increasingly turned to the unorthodox religious views of writers such as Spinoza, David Friedrich Strauss, Emerson, Goethe, and especially Thomas Carlyle. Froude retained a favourable impression of Newman, however, defending him in the controversy over Tract 90, Froude agreed to contribute to Newmans Lives of the English Saints, choosing Saint Neot as his subject. However, he found himself unable to credit the accounts of Neot or any saint, ultimately considering them mythical rather than historical. Nevertheless, Froude was ordained deacon in 1845, initially intending to reform the church from within. However, he found his situation untenable, although he never lost his faith in God or Christianity. The Nemesis of Faith in particular raised a storm of controversy, being burned at Exeter College by William Sewell. Froude took refuge from the popular outcry by residing with his friend Charles Kingsley at Ilfracombe and his plight won him the sympathy of kindred spirits, such as George Eliot, Elizabeth Gaskell, and later Mrs. Humphrey Ward
34.
Rivington (publishers)
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Rivington, or Rivingtons, also called Rivington & Co. was a London-based publishing company founded by Charles Rivington, originally from Derbyshire, and continued by his sons and grandsons. In 1736 Charles Rivington and a partner called Bettesworth founded a company of booksellers called The New Conger, from selling books, Rivington moved on to the business of publishing books. In 1741 he published the first volume of Samuel Richardsons novel Pamela, both men were from Derbyshire, and Rivington had persuaded Richardson to write a novel in the form of a correspondence. After his death in 1742, Charles Rivington was succeeded by his two sons, John and James Rivington, in 1760, he was appointed publisher to the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and the firm kept up this relationship for over seventy years. John Rivington died on 16 January 1792, in 1810, another John Rivington, the eldest son of Francis, was admitted a partner. In 1815 they published Robert Thorpes A Letter to William Wilberforce, M. P. Vice-President of the African Institution In 1827 George and Francis, sons of Charles Rivington, also joined the firm. Rivington made new links with the High Church party by the publication from 1833 of Tracts for the Times, John Rivington died on 21 November 1841, after his son, another John Rivington had been admitted a partner in 1836. George Rivington died in 1858, and in 1859 Francis Rivington retired, leaving the conduct of affairs in the hands of John Rivington and his own sons, Francis Hansard, in 1887 Arthur John Butler joined the firm as a partner. In 1890 the business was sold to Longmans, and Butler then moved to Cassell & Company as chief editor. Despite this merger, a similar to Rivingtons was carried on from 1889 to 1893 by Septimus Rivington and John Guthrie Percival. The Publishers Circular dated 15 January 1885, and 2 June 1890
35.
The Blitz
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By September 1940—two months into the battle—faulty German intelligence suggested that the Royal Air Force was close to defeat at the hands of the Luftwaffe. The German air fleets were ordered to attack London, thereby drawing up the last remnants of RAF Fighter Command into a battle of annihilation, Adolf Hitler and commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, sanctioned the change in emphasis on 6 September 1940. From 7 September 1940, one year into the war, London was systematically bombed by the Luftwaffe for 56 out of the following 57 days, on 15 September 1940, a large daylight attack against London was repulsed with significant German losses. Thereafter, the Luftwaffe gradually decreased daylight operations in favour of nocturnal attacks, ports and industrial centres outside London were also attacked. The main Atlantic sea port of Liverpool was bombed, the North Sea port of Hull, a convenient and easily found target or secondary target for bombers unable to locate their primary targets, was subjected to raids in the Hull Blitz during the war. More than one million London houses were destroyed or damaged and more than 40,000 civilians were killed, by May 1941, the threat of an invasion of Britain had ended, and Hitlers attention turned to Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. The bombing failed to demoralise the British into surrender or significantly damage the war economy, the eight months of bombing never seriously hampered British production and the war industries continued to operate and expand. The German offensives greatest effect was forcing the dispersal of aircraft production, British wartime studies concluded that cities generally took 10 to 15 days to recover when hit severely but exceptions like Birmingham took three months. The German air offensive failed for several reasons, discussions in OKL revolved around tactics rather than strategy. Poor intelligence on British industry and economic efficiency was also a factor, in the 1920s and 1930s, air power theorists Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell espoused the idea that air forces could win wars, without a need for land and sea fighting. It was thought there was no defence against air attack, particularly at night, enemy industry, seats of government, factories and communications could be destroyed, taking away their means to resist. It was also thought the bombing of residential centres would cause a collapse of civilian will, democracies, where the populace was allowed to show overt disapproval of the state, were thought particularly vulnerable. This thinking was prevalent in both the RAF and the United States Army Air Corps, the policy of RAF Bomber Command became an attempt to achieve victory through the destruction of civilian will, communications and industry. In the Luftwaffe, there was a view of strategic bombing. OKL did not believe that air power alone could be decisive, contrary to popular belief, evidence suggests that the Luftwaffe did not adopt an official bombing policy in which civilians became the primary target until 1942. The vital industries and transport centres that would be targeted for shutdown were valid military targets and it could be claimed civilians were not to be targeted directly, but the breakdown of production would affect their morale and will to fight. German legal scholars of the 1930s carefully worked out guidelines for what type of bombing was permissible under international law. Wever outlined five points of air strategy, To destroy the air force by bombing its bases and aircraft factories
36.
Penguin Books
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Penguin Books is a British publishing house. It was founded in 1935 by Sir Allen Lane as a line of the publishers The Bodley Head, Penguins success demonstrated that large audiences existed for serious books. Penguin also had a significant impact on public debate in Britain, through its books on British culture, politics, the arts, and science. Penguin Books is now an imprint of the worldwide Penguin Random House and it is one of the largest English-language publishers, formerly known as the Big Six, now the Big Five. The first Penguin paperbacks were published in 1935, but at first only as an imprint of The Bodley Head with the books originally distributed from the crypt of Holy Trinity Church Marylebone, Penguin Books has its registered office in the City of Westminster, London, England. However the question of how publishers could reach a larger public had been the subject of a conference at Rippon Hall, inexpensive paperbacks did not initially appear viable to Bodley Head, since the deliberately low price of 6d. This helped Allen Lane purchase publication rights for some works more cheaply than he otherwise might have done since other publishers were convinced of the short term prospects of the business. By March 1936, ten months after the launch on 30 July 1935. It was Frost who in 1945 was entrusted with the reconstruction of Penguin Inc after the departure of its first managing director Ian Ballantine, from the outset, design was essential to the success of the Penguin brand. In the central panel, the author and title were printed in Gill Sans. The initial design was created by the then 21-year-old office junior Edward Young, series such as Penguin Specials and The Penguin Shakespeare had individual designs. Lane actively resisted the introduction of images for several years. Some recent publications of literature from that time have duplicated the original look, from 1937 and on, the headquarters of Penguin Books was at Harmondsworth west of London and so it remained until the 1990s when a merge with Viking involved the head office moving to London. Paper rationing was the problem of publishers during wartime, with the fall of France cutting off supply of esparto grass. This was particularly advantageous to Penguin who as a volume printer had enjoyed a successful year that year. Further in a deal with the Canadian Government, Penguin had agreed to publish editions for their armed forces for which they were paid in tons of paper. Penguin would receive 60 tons a month from Paper Supply in return for 10 titles a month in runs of 75,000 at 5d, however demand was exceeding supply on the home front leading Lane to seek a monopoly on army books made specifically for overseas distribution. This dominance over the paper supply put Penguin in a strong position after the war as rationing continued
37.
The Financial Times
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The Financial Times is an English-language international daily newspaper with a special emphasis on business and economic news. The paper, published and owned by Nikkei Inc. in Tokyo, was founded in 1888 by James Sheridan and Horatio Bottomley, and merged in 1945 with its closest rival, the Financial Times has an average daily readership of 2.2 million people worldwide. FT. com has 4.5 million registered users and over 285,000 digital subscribers, FT Chinese has more than 1.7 million registered users. The world editions of the Financial Times newspaper had an average daily circulation of 234,193 copies in January 2014. In February 2014 the combined sale of the editions of the Financial Times was 224,000 copies. In October 2013 the combined print and digital circulation of the Financial Times reached nearly 629,000 copies. In December 2016 print sales for the paper stood at 193,211, on 23 July 2015 Nikkei Inc. agreed to buy the Financial Times from Pearson for £844m. On 30 November 2015 Nikkei completed the acquisition, the FT was launched as the London Financial Guide on 10 January 1888, renaming itself the Financial Times on 13 February the same year. Describing itself as the friend of The Honest Financier, the Bona Fide Investor, the Respectable Broker, the Genuine Director, the readership was the financial community of the City of London, its only rival being the slightly older and more daring Financial News. After 57 years of rivalry the Financial Times and the Financial News were merged in 1945 by Brendan Bracken to form a single six-page newspaper, the Financial Times brought a higher circulation while the Financial News provided much of the editorial talent. The Lex column was introduced from Financial News. Pearson bought the paper in 1957, over the years the paper grew in size, readership and breadth of coverage. It established correspondents in cities around the world, reflecting early moves in the economy towards globalisation. On 1 January 1979 the first FT was printed outside the UK, since then, with increased international coverage, the FT has become a global newspaper, printed in 22 locations with five international editions to serve the UK, continental Europe, the U. S. The European edition is distributed in continental Europe and Africa and it is printed Monday to Saturday at five centres across Europe reporting on matters concerning the European Union, the Euro and European corporate affairs. In 1994 FT launched a lifestyle magazine, How To Spend It. In 2009 it launched a website for the magazine. On 13 May 1995 the Financial Times group made its first foray into the world with the launch of FT. com
38.
English as a second or foreign language
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English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Instruction for English-language learners may be known as English as a language, English as a foreign language, English as an additional language. English as a language is used for non-native English speakers learning English in a country where English is not commonly spoken. The term ESL has been misinterpreted by some to indicate that English would be of secondary importance, however, it simply refers to the order in which the language was learned, consistent with the linguistic terminology of second-language acquisition. The term ESL can be a misnomer for some students who have learned several languages before learning English, the terms English Language Learners, and more recently English Learners, have been used instead, and the students’ home language and cultures are considered important. The way English learners are instructed depends on their level of English proficiency, in some programs, instructions are taught in both, English and their home language. In other programs, instructions are only in English, but in a manner that is comprehensible to the students. Yet, there are programs in which ELLs are pulled out of the classroom for separate English instruction. English as a language has great reach and influence, it is all over the world. Matters are further complicated by the fact that the United States, although English is the principal language in both the US and the United Kingdom, it differs between the two countries, primarily in pronunciation and vocabulary. For example, some words and phrases that are inoffensive in the US are offensive in the UK and these differences are the butt of many jokes. We have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course, similarly, Bertrand Russell said, It is a misfortune for Anglo-American friendship that the two countries are supposed to have a common language. Variations have been misattributed to Winston Churchill, and George Bernard Shaw, the many acronyms and abbreviations used in the field of English teaching and learning may be confusing and the following technical definitions may have their currency contested upon various grounds. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and these terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English as a second language, but they may also be used in relation to demographic information. English language teaching is a widely used teacher-centered term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, Teaching English as a second language, teaching English to speakers of other languages, and teaching English as a foreign language are also used. Those who are learning English are often referred to as English language learners, EFL, English as a foreign language, indicates the teaching of English in a non–English-speaking region. TEFL is the teaching of English as a language, note that this sort of instruction can take place in any country. Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a part of ones education
39.
Express Publishing
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Express Publishing is an independent UK based publishing house with its headquarters in Berkshire, UK. The company was founded in 1988 and it specializes in English language learning and teaching, Express Publishing has established a presence in more than 90 countries, in many of them holding ministerial approvals. Key partnerships Prosveshcheniye Publishers, Russia Aksorn Charoen Tat ACT Co. Ltd, the Interactive Whiteboard software caters to instructors needs for in-class teaching and the Interactive e-Book eases students learning process for after class practice and activities. Express Publishing won the Digita Award 2005 in Germany for the Story of Santa Claus, british Council has nominated Express Publishing multiple times for the Elton awards, Blockbuster Series nominated for Product Innovation and Effective Digital Learning. Fairyland series nominated for Product Innovation and Effective Digital Learning, spark series nominated for Product Innovation and Effective Digital Learning. Career Paths Beauty Salon an English for specific purposes book, nominated for Excellence in Course Innovation Happy Rhymes nominated for Digital Innovation, discover our Amazing World - CLIL Readers nominated for Innovation in Learner Resources. Pathways to Literature nominated for Excellence in Course Innovation
40.
Macmillan Publishers
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Macmillan Publishers Ltd is an international publishing company owned by Holtzbrinck Publishing Group. It has offices in 41 countries worldwide and operates in more than thirty others, Macmillan was founded in 1843 by Daniel and Alexander Macmillan, two brothers from the Isle of Arran, Scotland. Alfred Tennyson joined the list in 1884, Thomas Hardy in 1886, other major writers published by Macmillan included W. B. Chaudhuri, Seán OCasey, John Maynard Keynes, Charles Morgan, Hugh Walpole, Margaret Mitchell, C. P. Snow, Rumer Godden and Ram Sharan Sharma. Beyond literature, the company created such enduring titles as Nature, Macmillan established an office in New York City. It sold its American division in 1896, which published as the Macmillan Company, Macmillan Publishers re-entered the American market in 1954 under the name St. Martins Press. After retiring from politics in 1964, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Harold Macmillan became chairman of the company and he had been with the family firm as a junior partner from 1920 to 1940, and from 1945 to 1951 while he was in the opposition in Parliament. The company was one of the oldest independent publishing houses until 1995, Holtzbrinck purchased the remaining shares in 1999, ending the Macmillan familys ownership of the company. Even with the split of the American company from its parent company in England, George Brett, Jr. and he came to the United States with his family in the service of Macmillans of England and built up a business of approximately $50,000 before he died. By my father, who eventually incorporated The Macmillan Company of New York, I succeeded my father, and we currently doing a business of approximately $12,000,000. So then, the name of Brett and the name of Macmillan have been and are synonymous in the United States, pearson acquired the Macmillan name in America in 1998, following its purchase of the Simon & Schuster educational and professional group. Holtzbrinck purchased it from them in 2001, mcGraw-Hill continues to market its pre-kindergarten through elementary school titles under its Macmillan/McGraw-Hill brand. The US operations of Georg von Holtzbrinck are now known as Macmillan, one of the leading companies is Macmillan, that started by selling British English dictionaries and textbooks that were adapted for Russian readers. Their site website provides Russian teachers and students with an access for tests, competitions, contests and information on scheduled online seminars. By some estimates, as of 2009 e-books account for three to five per cent of total sales, and are the fastest growing segment of the market. Following the announcement of the Apple iPad on 27 January 2010—a product that comes with access to the iBookstore—Macmillan gave Amazon, in the latter case, Amazon. com would receive a 30 per cent commission. Amazon responded by pulling all Macmillan books, both electronic and physical, from their website, on 31 January 2010, Amazon chose the agency model preferred by Macmillan. In April 2012, the United States Department of Justice filed United States v. Apple Inc. naming Apple, Macmillan, the suit alleged that they conspired to fix prices for e-books, and weaken Amazon. coms position in the market, in violation of antitrust law
41.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Longmans". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 984–985.
