1.
American Indian Wars
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These conflicts occurred in the current boundaries of the United States from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. In many cases, wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as Europeans, Warfare and raiding also took place as a result of conflicts between European governments and later the United States. These governments enlisted Native Americans tribes to help them conduct warfare against each others settlements, after 1776, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. In the 1800s, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, in the years leading up to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 there were many armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Prior to the Act of 1830, some conflicts were resolved through sale or exchange of territory through treaties between the government and specific tribes. The 1830 act authorized the removal of indigenous peoples who lived East of the Mississippi River to the West. As United States citizens continued to settle areas towards the Pacific, the policy of removal was refined to move some indigenous peoples to very specific reservations. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory
2.
John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore
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John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, PC, generally known as Lord Dunmore, was a Scottish peer and colonial governor in the American colonies and The Bahamas. As Virginias governor, Dunmore directed a series of campaigns against the trans-Appalachian Indians and he is noted for issuing a 1775 document offering freedom to any slave who fought for the Crown against the Patriots in Virginia. Dunmore fled to New York after the Burning of Norfolk in 1776 and he was Governor of the Bahama Islands, from 1787 to 1796. Dunmore was the last royal governor of Virginia, Murray was born in Tymouth, Scotland, the eldest son of William Murray, 3rd Earl of Dunmore, by his marriage to Catherine Nairne, he was a nephew of John Murray, 2nd Earl of Dunmore. In 1745 both Murray, then only 15, and his father joined the ill-fated Rising of Bonnie Prince Charlie, the second Earl, his uncle, remained loyal to the Hanoverians. After the Jacobite army was defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, William Murray was imprisoned in Tower of London, by 1750, William Murray had received a conditional pardon. John Murray was now aged twenty and joined the British Army, in 1756, after the deaths of his uncle and father, he became the fourth Earl of Dunmore. In 1759 Dunmore married Lady Charlotte, a daughter of Alexander Stewart and their daughter Lady Augusta Murray later became an unwanted daughter-in-law of King George III, when she married his son Prince Augustus Frederick without the consent of the King. The Dunmores had another close to her age, Lady Catherine Murray. Dunmore was named the British governor of the Province of New York from 1770 to 1771, soon after his appointment, in 1770, Virginias governor, Norborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt died, and Dunmore was eventually named to replace him. Dunmore became royal governor of the Colony of Virginia on 25 September 1771, despite growing issues with Great Britain, his predecessor, Lord Botetourt, had been a popular governor in Virginia, even though he served only two years before his death. As Virginias colonial governor, Dunmore directed a series of campaigns against the Indians known as Lord Dunmores War, some even accused Dunmore of colluding with the Shawnees and arranging the war to deplete the Virginia militia and help safeguard the Loyalist cause, should there be a colonial rebellion. John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, in his history of the Indian Wars, lacking in diplomatic skills, Dunmore tried to govern without consulting the House of Burgesses of the Colonial Assembly for more than a year, which exacerbated an already tense situation. Many of burgesses gathered a short distance away at the Raleigh Tavern and continued discussing their problems with the new taxes, perceived corruption, when Dunmore reconvened the Assembly in 1774, the burgesses passed a resolution declaring 1 June 1774 a day of fasting and prayer in Virginia. In response, Dunmore dissolved the House, the burgesses again reconvened as the Second Virginia Convention and elected delegates to the Continental Congress. Dunmore issued a proclamation against electing delegates to the Congress, in March,1775, Patrick Henrys Give me Liberty, or give me Death. Speech delivered at St. Johns Episcopal Church in Richmond helped convince delegates to approve a resolution calling for armed resistance, in the face of rising unrest in the colony, Dunmore sought to deprive Virginias militia of military supplies. Dunmore gave the key to the Williamsburg magazine to Lieutenant Henry Colins, commander of HMS Magdalen, local militia rallied, and word of the incident spread across the colony
3.
Ohio River
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The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Shawnee
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The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking ethnic group indigenous to North America. Pushed west by European-American pressure, the Shawnee migrated to Missouri and Kansas, Other Shawnee did not remove to Oklahoma until after the Civil War. The Shawnee language, an Algonquian language, was spoken by 200 people in 2002, the language is written in the Latin script. It has a dictionary and portions of the Bible were translated into Shawnee, some scholars believe that the Shawnee are descendants of the people of the precontact Fort Ancient culture of the Ohio region, although this is not universally accepted. Fort Ancient culture flourished from 1000 to 1650 CE among a people who predominantly inhabited lands along the Ohio River in areas of southern Ohio, northern Kentucky, Fort Ancient culture was once thought to have been an extension of the Mississippian culture. But, scholars now believe Fort Ancient culture developed independently and was descended from the Hopewell culture, uncertainty surrounds the fate of the Fort Ancient people. There is a gap in the record between the most recent Fort Ancient sites and the oldest sites of the Shawnee. The latter were recorded by European explorers as occupying this area at the time of encounter, the Shawnee traditionally considered the Lenape of the East Coast mid-Atlantic region, who were also Algonquian speaking, as their grandfathers. The Algonquian nations of present-day Canada regarded the US Shawnee as their southernmost branch, along the East Coast, the Algonquian-speaking tribes were mostly located in coastal areas, from Quebec to the Carolinas. Algonquian languages have similar to the archaic shawano meaning south. However, the stem šawa- does not mean south in Shawnee, in one Shawnee tale, Sawage is the deity of the south wind. Curtin translates Sawage as it thaws, referring to the weather of the south. šaawaki is attested as the spirit of the South, or the South Wind, in account, in one of Voegelins tales. Europeans reported encountering Shawnee over a geographic area. One of the earliest mentions of the Shawnee may be a 1614 Dutch map showing some Sawwanew located just east of the Delaware River, later 17th-century Dutch sources also place them in this general location. Accounts by French explorers in the same century usually located the Shawnee along the Ohio River, where the French encountered them on forays from eastern Canada, a Shawnee town might have from forty to one hundred bark-covered houses similar in construction to Iroquois longhouses. Each village usually had a house or council house, perhaps sixty to ninety feet long. According to one European legend, some Shawnee were descended from a party sent by Chief Opechancanough, ruler of the Powhatan Confederacy 1618–1644, the party was led by his son, Sheewa-a-nee
6.
Mingo
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The Mingo people are an Iroquoian-speaking group of Native Americans made up of peoples who migrated west to the Ohio Country in the mid-18th century, primarily Seneca and Cayuga. Anglo-Americans called these migrants mingos, a corruption of mingwe, an Eastern Algonquian name for Iroquoian-language groups in general, Mingos have also been called Ohio Iroquois and Ohio Seneca. Most were forced to move to Indian Territory in the early 1830s under the Indian Removal program, in the 1930s Mingo descendants reorganized as a tribe and were recognized in 1937 by the federal government as the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma. The Mingo may have been an independent group in the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, the etymology of the name Mingo derives from the Delaware word, mingwe or Minque as transliterated from their Algonquian language, meaning treacherous or stealthy. In the 17th century, the terms Minqua or Minquaa were used interchangeably to refer to the Iroquois and to the Susquehannock, the Mingo were noted for having a bad reputation and were sometimes referred to as Blue Mingo or Black Mingo for their misdeeds. The Mingo dialect that dominated the Ohio valley from the late 17th to early 18th centuries is considered a variant most similar to the Seneca language. After the French and Indian War, many Cayuga people moved to Ohio and they were joined there by Shawnee of Ohio and the rest of the Mingo confederacy. Their villages were increasingly an amalgamation of Iroquoian Seneca, Wyandot and Susquehannock, although the Iroquois Confederacy had claimed hunting rights and sovereignty over much of the Ohio River Valley since the late 17th century, these people increasingly acted independently. When Pontiacs Rebellion broke out in 1763 at the end of the Seven Years War, at that time, most of the Iroquois nations based in New York were closely allied to the British. The Mingo-Seneca Chief Guyasuta was one of the leaders in Pontiacs War, another famous Mingo leader was Chief Logan, who had good relations with neighboring white settlers. Logan was not a war chief, but a village leader, in 1774, as tensions between whites and Indians were on the rise due to a series of violent conflicts, a band of white outlaws murdered Logans family. Local chiefs counseled restraint, but acknowledged Logans right to revenge, Logan exacted his vengeance in a series of raids with a dozen followers, not all of whom were Mingos. His vengeance satisfied, he did not participate in the resulting Lord Dunmores War and he was not likely to have been at the climactic Battle of Point Pleasant. Rather than take part in the conference, he expressed his thoughts in Logans Lament. His speech was printed and widely distributed and it is one of the most well-known examples of Native American oratory. By 1830, the Mingo were flourishing in western Ohio, where they had improved their farms and established schools, after the US passed the Indian Removal Act in that same year, the government pressured the Mingo to sell their lands and migrate to Kansas in 1832. In Kansas, the Mingo joined other Seneca and Cayuga bands, in 1869, after the American Civil War, the US government pressed for Indian removal to Indian Territory. The three tribes moved to present-day Ottawa County, Oklahoma, in 1881, a band of Cayuga from Canada joined the Seneca Tribe in Indian Territory
7.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
8.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
9.
Cornstalk
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Cornstalk was a prominent leader of the Shawnee nation just prior to the American Revolution. His name, Hokoleskwa, translates loosely into stalk of corn in English and he was also known as Keigh-tugh-qua and Wynepuechsika. Cornstalk opposed European settlement west of the Ohio River in his youth and his murder by American militiamen at Fort Randolph during a diplomatic visit in November 1777 outraged both American Indians and Virginians. Stories tell of Cornstalks participation in the French and Indian War and his alleged participation in Pontiacs Rebellion is also unverified, though he did take part in the peace negotiations. Cornstalk played a role in Dunmores War of 1774. After the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix, settlers and land speculators moved into the south of the Ohio River in present-day Kentucky. Although the Iroquois had agreed to cede the land, the Shawnee and they still claimed Kentucky as their hunting grounds. Clashes soon took place over this, Cornstalk tried unsuccessfully to prevent escalation of the hostilities. Attempting to block a Virginian invasion of the Ohio country, Cornstalk led a force of Shawnee and his attack, although ferociously made, was beaten back by the Virginians. Cornstalk retreated and would accept the Ohio River as the boundary of Shawnee lands in the Treaty of Camp Charlotte. Cornstalks commanding presence often impressed American colonials, with the American Revolution begun, Cornstalk worked to keep his people neutral. He represented the Shawnee at treaty councils at Fort Pitt in 1775 and 1776, many Shawnees nevertheless hoped to use British aid to reclaim their lands lost to the settlers. By the winter of 1776, the Shawnee were effectively divided into a faction led by Cornstalk. In the fall of 1777, Cornstalk made a visit to Fort Randolph. Cornstalk was detained by the commander, who had decided on his own initiative to take hostage any Shawnees who fell into his hands. When, on November 10, an American militiaman from the fort was killed nearby by unknown Indians, angry soldiers brutally executed Cornstalk, his son Elinipsico, and two other Shawnees. Private Jacob McNeil was one of the soldiers who participated in the capture of the Shawnee Chief Cornstalk, American political and military leaders were alarmed by the murder of Cornstalk, they believed he was their only hope of securing Shawnee neutrality. Cornstalk was originally buried at Fort Randolph, in 1840 Cornstalks grave was rediscovered and his remains were moved to the Mason County Courthouse grounds
10.
Logan (Iroquois leader)
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Logan the Orator was a Cayuga orator and war leader born of one of the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. After his 1760s move to the Ohio Country, he affiliated with the Mingo. He took revenge for family members killed by Virginian Long knives in 1774 in what is known as the Yellow Creek Massacre and his actions against settlers on the frontier helped spark Dunmores War later that year. Logan became known for a speech, later known as Logans Lament, scholars dispute important details about Logan, including his original name and whether the words of Logans Lament were his. Scholars agree that Logan Elrod was a son of Shikellamy, an important diplomat for the Iroquois Confederacy, but, as historian Anthony F. C. Wallace has written, Which of Shikellamys sons was Logan the orator has been a matter of dispute. Logan the orator has been identified as Tah-gah-jute, Tachnechdorus, Soyechtowa, Tocanioadorogon, the Great Mingo, James Logan. The name Tah-gah-jute was popularized in an 1851 book by Brantz Mayer entitled Tah-gah-jute, or Logan, however, historian Francis Jennings wrote that Mayers book was erroneous from the first word of the title. He identified Logan as James Logan, also known as Soyechtowa, historians who agree that Logan the orator was not named Tah-gah-jute sometimes identify him as Tachnechdorus. But Jennings identifies Tachnechdorus as Logan the orators older brother, Logans father Shikellamy, who was Oneida, worked closely with Pennsylvania official James Logan to maintain the Covenant Chain relationship with the colony of Pennsylvania. Following a prevailing Native American practice, the man who would become Logan the Mingo took the name James Logan out of admiration for his fathers friend. With the disruption of warfare, disease, and encroachment, some Seneca and Cayuga among the Iroquois migrated to the Ohio Country, joining together in a process of ethnogenesis, they became known as the Mingo tribe. Logan the Mingo is usually identified as a Mingo chief, kayashuta and White Mingo were the Mingo chiefs. Logan was merely a war leader, the Iroquois and other Native American tribes tended to have peace chiefs and war chiefs, or leaders. Logan’s friendly relations with white settlers changed after the Yellow Creek Massacre of April 30,1774 and her childrens father was John Gibson, a prominent trader in the region. These Mingo had been living near the mouth of Yellow Creek, and had lured to the cabin of Joshua Baker. The Mingo in Baker’s cabin were all murdered, except for the infant mixed-race child, at least two canoes were dispatched from the Yellow Creek village to aid their members, but they were repelled by Greathouse’s men concealed along the river. In all, approximately a dozen Mingo were murdered in the cabin, Logan was not present in the area when the massacre took place, and was summoned to return by runners. Several parties of mixed Mingo and Shawnee warriors soon struck the frontier and they attacked settlers in several frontier regions, both killing and taking captives
11.
Andrew Lewis (soldier)
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Andrew Lewis was an Irish-born American pioneer, surveyor, and soldier of Colonial Virginia. He also helped found Liberty Hall, when it was made into a college in 1776, Lewis was born in County Donegal, Ireland to Col. John Lewis and Margaret Lynn. In 1732 John Lewis, having killed his landlord in an altercation, fled to Virginia with his sons Andrew and they became among the first settlers in western Augusta County. Andrew Lewis received an education and learned the skills of a surveyor. He spent at least fifteen years farming and working as a surveyor in southwestern Virginia and he surveyed much of the Greenbrier District of Augusta County, which much later became later Greenbrier County, West Virginia. Lewis also served as county lieutenant and later captain in the Augusta County militia, early in the 1740s Andrew Lewis married Elizabeth Givens, daughter of Samuel and Sarah Givens, formerly of County Antrim, Ireland. They established their own home, called Richfield, in later became Roanoke County near Salem. They raised seven children, Samuel, John, Thomas, Andrew Jr. Anne, William, the Virginia frontier became a battleground in the French and Indian War, as did the frontiers of the more northerly colonies of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Virginia organized a militia to defend settlers subject to attacks by Indians upset at encroachments into their territories, however, after the loss at the Battle of Great Meadows in 1754, Washington was forced to surrender to the French. Lewis was then Fort Necessity and likewise retreated across the Appalachians, Washington proposed a series of frontier fortifications to protect settlers east of the Appalachians. Lewis initially served to build Fort Dinwiddie on the Jackson River of present-day Bath County and was relieved of his command September 21,1755, the Virginia assembly approved Lewis promotion to major and assigned him to oversee the region along the Greenbrier River. Lewis led several expeditions against both Indian settlements and French outposts, during the Forbes Expedition, Lewis was captured during Major James Grants attack on Fort Duquesne in September 1758. Taken to Quebec, Lewis remained a prisoner until late 1759, the Proclamation of 1763 officially restricted Virginias western expansion across the Appalachians, but Lewis continued his hunting and exploration trips into what later became West Virginia. When relative peace returned, Lewis entered politics, in 1774, Virginias Governor Dunmore led a force to Fort Pitt and into the Ohio Country, in what became known as Dunmores War. Lewis, now promoted to colonel, led a force by a more southern route. Shawnee Chief Cornstalk attacked Lewis force while it was camped at the Ohio River crossing at Point Pleasant, Lewis victory in the Battle of Point Pleasant on October 10,1774, secured his military reputation. In 1776 the academy was renamed in a burst of revolutionary fervor and relocated to Lexington, chartered in 1782 by the new Commonwealth of Virginia, Liberty Hall was again renamed, to Washington College. After the American Civil War it became Washington and Lee University, when the American Revolution began, Governor Dunmore suspended Virginias legislature
12.
Angus McDonald (Virginia militiaman)
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Angus McDonald was a prominent Scottish American military officer, frontiersman, sheriff and landowner in Virginia. During the Jacobite rising of 1745, McDonald fought as a lieutenant under the command of Charles Edward Stuart in the Battle of Culloden and he fled Scotland, departing from Inverness for the Colony of Virginia in 1746 at the age of 18. Following his arrival in Virginia, McDonald worked as a merchant in Falmouth for two or three years, McDonald moved west into Virginias interior and entered the military service of the colonial government under Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie, receiving the rank of captain. McDonald served in the French and Indian War under General John Forbes, following the war, McDonald retired with the rank of captain in 1763. In 1765, McDonald returned to service when he was commissioned by Thomas Fairfax. Lord Fairfax also appointed McDonald as an attorney and land agent for his Northern Neck Proprietary, McDonald completed the expedition, which met its goal of temporarily relieving western Virginia frontier settlements from attack. Despite his loyalty to the American Revolutionary cause, McDonald refused Washingtons appointment, McDonald was later appointed by Washington to serve as a lieutenant colonel in command of Virginia revolutionary militia forces during the American Revolutionary War. He also served on various committees throughout the war. Angus McDonald was born in 1727 in the Scottish Highlands and he was an immediate family member of a chief of the Clan MacDonell of Glengarry, whose clan seat was Invergarry Castle. McDonald was a descendant of a long line of military heroes of the Clan MacDonell of Glengarry and of Somerled. McDonald was raised and educated in Glasgow, during the Jacobite rising of 1745, McDonald fought as a lieutenant under the command of Charles Edward Stuart in the Battle of Culloden, after which he was attainted of treason. He fled Scotland, departing from Inverness for the Colony of Virginia in 1746 at the age of 18, McDonald arrived in Virginia at the port of Falmouth on the Rappahannock River. Among the belongings he brought with him were the sword, sash. Following his arrival, McDonald remained in Falmouth for two or three years where he worked as a merchant, McDonald moved west into Virginias interior and entered the military service of the colonial government under Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie, receiving the rank of captain. In return for his meritorious service in conflicts against Native Americans, around that same year, McDonald moved further west to the settlement of Winchester where he established the first Masonic Lodge in 1760. While in Winchester, McDonald served as a member of the Committee of Safety, McDonald served in the French and Indian War under General John Forbes in which he was in command of a company of Scottish Highlanders. McDonald and his company marched against Fort Duquesne in the autumn of 1758, following the war, McDonald retired with the rank of captain in 1763. Upon his retirement, Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore granted McDonald an additional 2,000 acres of land, which were surveyed by Hancock Taylor
13.
William Crawford (soldier)
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William Crawford was an American soldier and surveyor who worked as a western land agent for George Washington. Crawford fought in the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War and he was tortured and burned at the stake by American Indians in retaliation for the Gnadenhutten massacre, a notorious incident near the end of the American Revolution. In 1722, Crawford was born in Orange County, Virginia, at a location which is now in Berkeley County and he was a son of William Crawford and his wife Honora Grimes, who were Scots-Irish farmers. After his fathers death in 1736, his mother married Richard Stephenson, Crawford had a younger brother, Valentine Crawford, plus five half-brothers and one half-sister from his mothers second marriage. In 1742 Crawford married one Ann Stewart and she bore him one child, apparently she died in childbirth or soon after, and on 5 January 1744 he married Hannah Vance, said to have been born in Pennsylvania in 1723. She bore him a son named John and at least two daughters, Ophelia Effie, and Sarah Major William Harrison, and 2) Lt. Col Uriah Springer }. There may also have another daughter, Nancy, born in 1767. In 1749, Col. William Crawford became acquainted with George Washington and he accompanied Washington on surveying trips and learned the trade. In 1755, Crawford served in the Braddock expedition with the rank of ensign, like Washington, he survived the disastrous Battle of the Monongahela. During the French and Indian War, he served in Washingtons Virginia Regiment, in 1758, Crawford was a member of General John Forbess army which captured Fort Duquesne, where Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania now stands. He continued to serve in the military, taking part in Pontiacs War in 1763, in 1765 Crawford built a cabin on the Braddock Road along the Youghiogheny River in what is now Connellsville, Fayette County, Pennsylvania. His wife and three children joined him there the following year, Crawford supported himself as a farmer and fur trader. When the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix with the Iroquois opened up land for settlement, Crawford worked again as a surveyor. Governor Robert Dinwiddie had promised bounty land to the men of the Washingtons Virginia Regiment for their service in the French, in 1770 Crawford and Washington travelled down the Ohio River to choose the land to be given to the regiments veterans. The area selected was near what is now Point Pleasant, West Virginia, Crawford also made a western scouting trip in 1773 with Lord Dunmore, Governor of Virginia. Washington could not accompany them because of the death of his stepdaughter. At the outbreak of Dunmores War in 1774, Crawford received a commission from Lord Dunmore. He built Fort Fincastle at present Wheeling, West Virginia and he also led an expedition which destroyed two Mingo villages in retaliation for Chief Logans raids into Virginia
14.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
15.
House of Burgesses
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The Virginia House of Burgesses /ˈbɜːrdʒəsɪz/ was the first legislative assembly of elected representatives in North America. From 1619 to 1776, the branch of the legislature of Virginia was the House of Burgesses. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, when the government was moved to Williamsburg, in 1776 the colony became the independent Commonwealth of Virginia and the House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates. Originally a synonym of burgher or bourgeois, the word came to mean a borough representative in local or parliamentary government. The Colony of Virginia was founded by an English stock company, early governors provided the stern leadership and harsh judgments required for the colony to survive its early difficulties. To encourage settlers to come to Virginia, in 1618–1619, the Virginia Companys leaders drew up a great charter, emigrants who paid their own way to Virginia would receive fifty acres of land. They would not be mere tenants, civil authority would control the military. A council of burgesses, representatives chosen by the inhabitants of the colony for their government, the House of Assembly was created at the same time in Bermuda and held its first session in 1620. A handful of Polish craftsmen, brought to the colony to supply skill in the manufacture of pitch, tar, potash and they downed tools in protest, but returned to work after being declared free and enfranchised, apparently by agreement with the Virginia Company. On July 30,1619, the first European-style legislative assembly in the Americas convened for a meeting at the church on Jamestown Island. Together, the House of Burgesses and the Council would be the Virginia General Assembly, the Houses first session of July 30,1619, accomplished little, being cut short by an outbreak of malaria. By 1624, the government in London had heard enough about the problems of the colony. Virginia became a colony and the governor and council would be chosen by the king. Nonetheless, the form of government of the colony was retained. In 1634, the General Assembly divided the colony into eight shires for purposes of government, administration, by 1643, the expanding colony had 15 counties. All of the county offices, including a board of commissioners, judges, sheriff, constable, only the members of the House of Burgesses were elected by a vote of the people. Women had no right to vote, while all free men originally were given the right to vote, by 1670 only property owners were allowed to vote. In 1652, the forces of Oliver Cromwell forced the colony to submit to their takeover of the English government
16.
War
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War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
17.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
18.
West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States. The capital and largest city is Charleston, West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20,1863, and was a key Civil War border state. The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States, the unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Upland South, and the Southeastern United States. It is the state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills, its historically significant logging and coal mining industries and it is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world, making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research. The karst lands contribute to much of the states cool trout waters and it is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities, including skiing, whitewater rafting, fishing, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, and hunting. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies and they had a tribal trade system culture that crafted cold-worked copper pieces. The Iroquois drove out other American Indian tribes from the region to reserve the upper Ohio Valley as a ground in the 1670s. Siouan language tribes such as the Moneton had also recorded in the area previously. West Virginia was originally part of the British Virginia Colony from 1607 to 1776, residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government under Francis Pierpont in 1861, which they called the restored government. Most voted to separate from Virginia and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863, in 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolished slavery and temporarily disfranchised men who had held Confederate office or fought for the Confederacy, West Virginias history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, a 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BC. Some regional late-prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were involved in hunting and fishing, practicing the slash. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening, also continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic. Maize did not make a contribution to the diet until after 1150 BP
19.
Pittsburgh metropolitan area
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The Pittsburgh metropolitan area is the largest population center in both the Ohio River Valley and Appalachia. The metropolitan area consists of the City of Pittsburgh in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, by many definitions the area extends into the U. S. states of West Virginia and Ohio. The larger tri-state region is defined by the U. S. Census as the statistical area while definitions of the metropolitan statistical area are within Pennsylvania. The area is renowned for its industries including steel, glass and oil, its economy also thrives on healthcare, education, technology, robotics, financial services, the region is an emergent area for oil and natural gas companies Marcellus shale production. The city is headquarters to major financial institutions including PNC Financial Services, Federated Investors. The region is also the 21st largest port in the United States with almost 34 million short tons of cargo for 2011. The MSA definition includes the city proper and the Pennsylvania counties of Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Fayette, Washington, the CSA definition also adds the two Western Pennsylvania counties of Lawrence and Indiana, West Virginias Brooke and Hancock as well as Ohios Jefferson. The MSA had a 2012 population of 2,360,733 and has an area of 5,343 sq. miles. It is classified as Northeast by the U. S. Census with the West Virginia and Ohio components of the CSA being classified as South, the entire MSA and CSA are within the Congressional Appalachian Regional Commissions definition of Appalachia. The areas media market extends to 15 counties in Pennsylvania, Maryland, population Since the U. S. Census officially began metropolitan definitions in 1950, the original counties included were, Allegheny, Westmoreland, Washington and Beaver. In 1983 Fayette County was added, in 1993 Butler County was added,2013 saw the combined area grow as both Indiana County, Pennsylvania was added and the counties of Jefferson in Ohio and Brooke and Hancock in West Virginia were added. The Regional Industrial Development agency has worked across county lines as early as 1967, foreign Trade Zones #33 and #254 cover the area. With the RIDC managing the centrally located FTZ #33, note, All census-designated places are unincorporated. The racial makeup of the MSA was 89. 8% White,7. 9% African American,0. 1% Native American,1. 1% Asian, <0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 3% from other races, and 0. 9% from two or more races. 0. 7% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, the median income for a household in the MSA was $35,908, and the median income for a family was $44,709. Males had an income of $35,670 versus $23,993 for females. The per capita income for the MSA was $18,897, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,525,730 people,1,032,596 households, and 678,085 families residing within the CSA. The racial makeup of the CSA was 90. 0% White,7. 7% African American,0. 1% Native American,1. 1% Asian, <0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 3% from other races, and 0. 9% from two or more races
20.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
21.
Battle of Point Pleasant
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The Battle of Point Pleasant — known as the Battle of Kanawha in some older accounts — was the only major action of Dunmores War. It was fought on October 10,1774, primarily between Virginia militia and Indians from the Shawnee and Mingo tribes, after a long and furious battle, Cornstalk retreated. Colonel Andrew Lewis, in command of about 1,000 men, was part of a planned two-pronged Virginian invasion of the Ohio Valley. Dunmores plan was to march into the Ohio Valley and force the Indians to accept Ohio River boundary which had negotiated with the Iroquois in the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix. The Shawnees, however, had not been consulted in the treaty, officials of the British Indian Department, led by Sir William Johnson until his death in July 1774, worked to diplomatically isolate the Shawnees from other Indians. As a result, when the war began, the Shawnees had few allies other than some Mingos, Cornstalk, the Shawnee leader, moved to intercept Lewiss army, hoping to prevent the Virginians from joining forces. Estimates of the size of Cornstalks force have varied, but scholars now believe Cornstalk was probably outnumbered at least 2 to 1, future Shawnee leader Blue Jacket probably took part in this battle. Cornstalks forces attacked Lewiss camp where the Kanawha River joins the Ohio River, the battle lasted for hours and the fighting eventually became hand-to-hand. Cornstalks voice was heard over the din of the battle. Lewis sent several companies along the Kanawha and up a creek to attack the Indians from the rear. Captain George Mathews was credited with a maneuver that initiated Cornstalks retreat. At nightfall, the Shawnees quietly withdrew back across the Ohio, the Virginians had held their ground, and thus are considered to have won. The Virginians lost about 75 killed and 140 wounded, the Shawnees losses could not be determined, since they carried away their wounded and threw many of the dead into the river. The next morning, Colonel Christian, who had arrived shortly after the battle and they found twenty-one dead braves in the open, and twelve more were discovered hastily covered with brush and old logs. Among those killed was Pucksinwah, the father of Tecumseh, besides scalps, the Virginians reportedly captured 40 guns, many tomahawks and some plunder which was later sold at auction for 74£ 4s 6d. The Battle of Point Pleasant forced Cornstalk to make peace in the Treaty of Camp Charlotte, the Shawnee were also obligated in the Treaty of Camp Charlotte to return all white captives and stop attacking barges of immigrants traveling on the Ohio River. Colonel John Field, an ancestor of United States Presidents George H. W. Bush, in April 1775, before many of the Virginians had even returned home from Dunmores War, the Battles of Lexington and Concord took place in Massachusetts. The American Revolution had begun and Lord Dunmore led the British war effort in Virginia, by the end of that year, the same militiamen who had fought at Point Pleasant managed to drive Lord Dunmore and the British troops supporting him out of Virginia
22.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
23.
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
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Great Britain was one of the major participants in the Seven Years War which lasted between 1756 and 1763. The war started poorly for Britain, which suffered many deaths from the plague and scurvy, and at the hands of France in North America during 1754–55, and in the loss of Minorca in 1756. The same year Britains major ally Austria switched sides and aligned itself with France, for the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. In 1759 Britain enjoyed an Annus Mirabilis with success over the French on the continent, in North America, in 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of the Spanish Empire, by this time the Pitt-Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short of credit and the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted. Through the crown, Britain was allied to the Electorate of Hanover and Kingdom of Ireland and it also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world including British America. In India British possessions were administered by the East India Company, by the early 1750s many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retake Silesia from Prussia. The British Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle, had acceded to the premiership in 1754 following the death of his brother Henry Pelham. Newcastle had thirty years experience as a Secretary of State and was a figure on the diplomatic scene. Despite enjoying a majority in the House of Commons he was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such as William Pitt. Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the Old System, one of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the eighteenth century the British colonies in North America had become more populous, the territory most prized by the new settlers was the Ohio Country, which was also claimed by France. As well as having potential, it was considered strategically key. French control of territory would block British expansion westwards and eventually French territory would surround the British colonies. A number of delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute. The Ohio country located between Britains Thirteen Colonies and Frances New France saw France and Britain clash, in 1753 the French sent an expedition south from Montreal that began constructing forts in the upper reaches of the Ohio River. Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at the Battle of Jumonville Glen in late May 1754, in the skirmish the French envoy Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville was left dead, leading to a diplomatic incident. The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at the Battle of Fort Necessity, despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war
24.
Iroquois
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
25.
Ohio Country
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The Ohio Country was the name used in the 18th century for the regions of North America west of the Appalachian Mountains and in the region of the upper Ohio River south of Lake Erie. This area was disputed in the century by France and Great Britain. One of the first frontier regions of the United States, the area encompassed roughly all of present-day Ohio, northwestern West Virginia, western Pennsylvania, and eastern Indiana. After the Revolution and resolution of claims to the territory, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the boundaries of the Northwest Territory. The territory included all the land of the United States west of Pennsylvania and it covered all of the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the northeastern part of Minnesota. The area covered more than 260,000 square miles, in the 17th century, the area north of the Ohio River had been occupied by the Algonquian-speaking Shawnee and some Siouan language-speaking tribes. The Iroquois conquered and absorbed the Erie tribe, who were one of the Iroquoian language family, the Ohio Country remained largely uninhabited for decades, and was used primarily as a hunting ground by the Iroquois. In the 1720s, a number of Native American groups began to migrate to the Ohio Country from the East, by 1724, Delaware Indians had established the village of Kittanning on the Allegheny River in present-day western Pennsylvania. With them came those Shawnee who had settled in the east. Other bands of the scattered Shawnee tribe began to return to the Ohio Country in the decades that followed, a number of Seneca and other Iroquois also migrated to the Ohio Country, moving away from the French and British imperial rivalries south of Lake Ontario. The Seneca were the westernmost of the Iroquois nations based in New York, in the late 1740s and the second half of the 18th century, the British angled for control of the territory. In 1749, the British Crown, via the colonial government of Virginia, with the arrival of the Europeans, both Great Britain and France claimed the area and both sent fur traders into the area to do business with the Ohio Country Indians. The Iroquois League claimed the region by right of conquest, the rivalry between the two European nations, the Iroquois, and the Ohio natives for control of the region played an important part in the French and Indian War from 1754 through 1760. After initially remaining neutral, the Ohio Country Indians largely sided with the French, armed with supplies and guns from the French, they raided via the Kittanning Path against British settlers east of the Alleghenies. After they destroyed Fort Granville in the summer of 1756, the colonial governor John Penn ordered Lt. Colonel John Armstrong to destroy the Shawnee villages west of the Alleghenies, the British defeated the French and their allies. Meanwhile, other British and colonial forces drove the French from Fort Duquesne and building Fort Pitt, in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France ceded control of the entire Ohio region to Great Britain, without consulting its native allies, who still believed they had territorial claims. Colonies such as Pennsylvania and Virginia claimed some of the lands by their original charters. The British ordered the settlers to leave or get special permission to stay
26.
Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
27.
Treaty of Paris (1763)
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The signing of the treaty formally ended the Seven Years War, known as the French and Indian War in the North American theatre, and marked the beginning of an era of British dominance outside Europe. Great Britain and France each returned much of the territory that they had captured during the war, additionally, Great Britain agreed to protect Roman Catholicism in the New World. The treaty did not involve Prussia and Austria as they signed a separate agreement, France had captured Minorca and British trading posts in Sumatra, while Spain had captured the border fortress of Almeida in Portugal, and Colonia del Sacramento in South America. In the treaty, most of territories were restored to their original owners. France and Spain restored all their conquests to Britain and Portugal, Britain restored Manila and Havana to Spain, and Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Gorée, and the Indian factories to France. In return, France ceded Canada, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, France also ceded the eastern half of French Louisiana to Britain, that is, the area from the Mississippi River to the Appalachian Mountains. France had already secretly given Louisiana to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau, in addition, while France regained its factories in India, France recognized British clients as the rulers of key Indian native states, and pledged not to send troops to Bengal. Britain agreed to demolish its fortifications in British Honduras, but retained a logwood-cutting colony there, Britain confirmed the right of its new subjects to practise Catholicism. In turn France gained the return of its colony, Guadeloupe. Voltaire had notoriously dismissed Canada as Quelques arpents de neige, A few acres of snow, the Treaty of Paris is frequently noted as the point at which France gave Louisiana to Spain. The transfer, however, occurred with the Treaty of Fontainebleau but was not publicly announced until 1764, the Treaty of Paris was to give Britain the east side of the Mississippi. New Orleans on the east side remained in French hands, the Mississippi River corridor in what is modern day Louisiana was to be reunited following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819. The 1763 treaty states in Article VII, While the war was all over the world. While the war had weakened France, it was still a European power, British Prime Minister Lord Bute wanted a peace that would not aggravate France towards a second war. This explains why Great Britain agreed to return so much while being in such a strong position, though the Protestant British feared Roman Catholics, Great Britain did not want to antagonize France through expulsion or forced conversion. Also, it did not want French settlers to leave Canada to strengthen other French settlements in North America and this explains Great Britains willingness to protect Roman Catholics living in Canada. Unlike Lord Bute, the French Foreign Minister the Duke of Choiseul expected a return to war, however, France needed peace to rebuild. French diplomats believed that without France to keep the Americans in check, in Canada, France wanted open emigration for those, such as nobility, who would not swear allegiance to the British Crown
28.
Treaty of Fort Stanwix
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The Treaty of Fort Stanwix was a treaty between Native Americans and Great Britain, signed in 1768 at Fort Stanwix, in present-day Rome, New York. It was negotiated between Sir William Johnson, his deputy George Croghan, and representatives of the Six Nations. The treaty established a Line of Property following the Ohio River that ceded the Kentucky portion of the Colony of Virginia to the British, the treaty also settled land claims between the Six Nations and the Penn family. The lands thereby acquired by the British in Pennsylvania were known as the New Purchase, the purpose of the conference was to adjust the boundary line between Indian lands and British colonial settlements set forth in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The British government hoped a new line might bring an end to the rampant frontier violence which had become costly. Indians hoped a new, permanent line might hold back British colonial expansion, the Native American nations present received gifts and cash totaling £10,460 7s. Sterling, the highest payment ever made from colonists to American Indians, the treaty established a Line of Property which extended the earlier proclamation line of the Alleghenies, much farther to the west. The British had recently confirmed the lands south and west of the Kanawha to the Cherokee by the Treaty of Hard Labour, in addition, the Shawnee did not agree to this treaty, contesting colonial Virginian settlements between the Alleghenies and Ohio until the 1774 Treaty of Camp Charlotte. They had reserved this territory for decades as a hunting ground and they still considered the Tennessee their boundary with the Cherokee and other Southern tribes. The Iroquois hoped that by releasing Ohio lands, they could take pressure off their own home territories in the New York and Pennsylvania areas. The treaty also settled claims between the Six Nations and the Penn family, the proprietors of Pennsylvania, where the lands acquired in 1768 were called the New Purchase. Due to disputes about the boundaries of the settlement, however. The press of British colonial population growth and economic development turned the attention of investors, in response to demands by settlers and speculators, British authorities sought cessions by the Iroquois and Cherokee for land in Indian country. At one time, historians believed that the Treaty of Fort Stanwix was an example of Native Americans being forced to accept unreasonable cessions, the Fort Stanwix Treaty of 1768, New York History, 25#2 pp. 182-194 in JSTOR Halsey, Francis Whiting. The Old New York Frontier, New York, Charles Scribners Sons,1901 Marshall, Sir William Johnson and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix,1768. Journal of American Studies 1#2 pp 149-179, the Divided Ground, Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution. Complete Text of the Treaty of Fort Stanwix,1768 The Documentary History of the State of New York, oCallaghan, M. D. Albany, Weed, Parsons & Co.18501768 Boundary Line Treaty of Fort Stanwix
29.
Vandalia (colony)
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Vandalia was the name of a proposed British colony in North America. The colony would have been located south of the Ohio River, primarily in what are now West Virginia, Vandalia was never approved by the British Crown and had no colonial government, although some Virginians and Pennsylvanians had already settled there. After the American Revolutionary War, the Vandalia settlers sought unsuccessfully to be admitted as a state called Westsylvania, however, they had no legal title to the land and were opposed by the governments of Virginia and Pennsylvania, which both claimed the area as their own. The French and Indian War and Pontiacs Rebellion delayed settlement of the region, after Pontiacs Rebellion, merchants who had lost their trade items during the conflict formed a group known as the suffering traders, later to become the Indiana Company. In the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, the British required the Iroquois to give the suffering traders a grant of land and those who benefit the most were Samuel Wharton and William Trent. Known as the Indiana Grant, it was along the Ohio River, when Wharton and Trent sailed to England in 1769 seeking to have their grant confirmed, they joined forces the Ohio Company to form the Grand Ohio Company, also called the Walpole Company. The Grand Ohio Company eventually received an area than the Indiana Grant. The development companies planned a new colony, initially called Pittsylvania but later known as Vandalia, in honor of Queen Charlotte, opposition from rival interest groups and the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War prevented the development of Vandalia as a full colony. As both Virginia and Pennsylvania claimed the region, they blocked recognition of a new state, the Mississippi Valley in British Politics, vol. Lord Hillsborough, Samuel Wharton, and the Ohio Grant, 1769-1775, English Historical Review Vol.80, No.317 pp. 717–739 in JSTOR Steeley, radio piece Vandalia, The First West Virginia
30.
Allegheny River
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The Allegheny River /ælᵻˈɡeɪni/ is a principal tributary of the Ohio River, it is located in the Eastern United States. The Allegheny River joins with the Monongahela River to form the Ohio River at the Point of Point State Park in Downtown Pittsburgh, the Allegheny River is, by volume, the main headstream of the Ohio River. The river is approximately 325 miles long, running through the U. S. states of New York and it drains a rural dissected plateau of 11,580 square miles in the northern Allegheny Plateau, providing the northeastern most drainage in the watershed of the Mississippi River. Its tributaries reach to within 8 miles of Lake Erie in southwestern New York, the Allegheny Valley has been one of the most productive areas of fossil fuel extraction in U. S. history, with its extensive deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The name Allegheny probably comes from Lenape welhik hane or oolikhanna, there is a Lenape legend of a tribe called Allegewi who used to live along the river. The river itself, however, is called Alligewi Sipo, the whites have made Alleghene out of this, the Six Nations calling the river the Ohio. The Geographic Names Information System lists O-hee-yo and O-hi-o as variant names, the river is called Ohi, i, o in the Seneca language. In New York, areas around the river are named with the alternate spelling Allegany in reference to the river, for example. Port Allegany, located along the river in Pennsylvania near the border with New York, the Allegheny River rises in north central Pennsylvania, on Cobb Hill in central Potter County, approximately 10 miles south of the New York border. South of Franklin it turns southeast across Clarion County in a course, then turns again southwest across Armstrong County, flowing past Kittanning, Ford City, Clinton. The river enters both Allegheny and Westmoreland counties, the Pittsburgh suburbs, and the City of Pittsburgh from the northeast, the Allegheny joins with the Monongahela River at the Point in Downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to form the Ohio River. Water from the Allegheny River eventually flows into the Gulf of Mexico via the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. In its upper reaches, the Allegheny River is joined from the south by Potato Creek 1.7 miles downstream of Coryville, Pennsylvania and from the north by Olean Creek at Olean, many additional streams enter or join with the Allegheny River along its course. The Allegheny River has eight locks and dams, which form corresponding pools, the Seneca Pumped Storage Generating Station is associated with Kinzua Dam. Numerous bridges and tunnels span the river throughout its course, the Allegheny River Tunnel, utilized by Pittsburgh Light Rail, went into service in 2012. In the 16th century, control of the river valley passed back-and-forth between Algonquian-speaking Shawnee and the Iroquois, the conflict over the expansion of British settlement into the Allegheny Valley and the surrounding Ohio Country was a primary cause of the French and Indian War in the 1750s. During the war, the village of Kittanning – the principal Shawnee settlement on the river – was completely destroyed by British reprisal raids from Central Pennsylvania. Nevertheless, the British, after gaining control of the area in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, kept the area closed to settlement, in part to repair
31.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
32.
Daniel Boone
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Daniel Boone was an American pioneer, explorer, woodsman, and frontiersman, whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United States. Boone is most famous for his exploration and settlement of what is now Kentucky, as a young adult, Boone supplemented his farm income by hunting and trapping game, and selling their pelts in the fur market. Through this occupational interest, Boone first learned the easy routes to the area, there, he founded the village of Boonesborough, Kentucky, one of the first American settlements west of the Appalachians. Before the end of the 18th century, more than 200,000 Americans migrated to Kentucky/Virginia by following the route marked by Boone, Boone was a militia officer during the Revolutionary War, which, in Kentucky, was fought primarily between the American settlers and the British-aided Indians. Boone was captured by Shawnee warriors in 1778 and he escaped and alerted Boonesborough that the Shawnees were planning an attack. Although heavily outnumbered, Americans repelled the Shawnee warriors in the Siege of Boonesborough, Boone was elected to the first of his three terms in the Virginia General Assembly, during the Revolutionary War, and fought in the Battle of Blue Licks in 1782. Blue Licks, a Shawnee victory over the Patriots, was one of the last battles of the Revolutionary War, following the war, Boone worked as a surveyor and merchant, but fell deeply into debt through failed Kentucky land speculation. Frustrated with the problems resulting from his land claims, in 1799, Boone emigrated to eastern Missouri. Boone remains a figure in American history. He was a legend in his own lifetime, especially after an account of his adventures was published in 1784 by John Filson, an American edition made him equally famous across the United States. After his death, he was frequently the subject of heroic tall tales and his adventures—real and legendary—were influential in creating the archetypal Western hero of American folklore. In American popular culture, he is remembered as one of the foremost early frontiersmen, the epic Daniel Boone mythology often overshadows the historical details of his life. Daniel Boone was of English and Welsh ancestry, because the Gregorian calendar was adopted during his lifetime, Boones birth date is sometimes given as November 2,1734, although Boone used the October date. The Boone family belonged to the Religious Society of Friends, called Quakers, daniels father, Squire Boone emigrated from the small town of Bradninch, Devon to Pennsylvania in 1713, to join William Penns colony of dissenters. Squire Boones parents, George Boone III and Mary Maugridge, followed their son to Pennsylvania in 1717, in 1720, Squire Boone, who worked primarily as a weaver and a blacksmith, married Sarah Morgan. Sarahs family were Quakers from Wales, and had settled in 1708 in the area which became Towamencin Township of Montgomery County, in 1731, the Boones moved to the Oley Valley, near the modern city of Reading. There they built a log cabin, partially preserved today as the Daniel Boone Homestead, Daniel Boone was born there, the sixth of eleven children. Daniel Boone spent his years on what was then the edge of the frontier
33.
Lenape
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The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west —into the upper Ohio River basin, during the decades of the 18th century most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them farther west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. Lenape kinship system has matrilineal clans, that is, children belong to their mothers clan, from which they gain social status, the mothers eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the line, and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the needs of their extended families. Families were matrilocal, newlywed couples would live with the brides family, lenni-Lenape comes from their autonym, Lenni, which may mean genuine, pure, real, original, and Lenape, meaning Indian or man. Alternately, lënu may be translated as man, the tribes other name, Delaware, is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, the English then began to call the Lenape the Delaware Indians because of where they lived. Swedes also settled in the area, and early Swedish sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi, traditional Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle, a Lenâpé-English Dictionary, From An Anonymous In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem. David Zeisbergers History of Northern American Indians, grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. The Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, the Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2. Zeisberger’s Indian Dictionary, English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware, “The Delaware that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami. Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a history, Hope Farm Press Bierhorst. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape, ISBN 0-688-12900-5 Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds
34.
Cherokee
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The Cherokee language is part of the Iroquoian language group. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizens of the United States. The Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma has around 300,000 tribal members, in addition, numerous groups claiming Cherokee lineage, some of which are state-recognized, have members who are among those 819, 000-plus people claiming Cherokee ancestry on the US census. Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians have headquarters in Tahlequah, the UKB are mostly descendants of Old Settlers, Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817. They are related to the Cherokee who were relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina, the Cherokee refer to themselves as Ani-Yunwiya, which means Principal People. Many theories—though none proven—abound about the origin of the name Cherokee and it may have originally been derived from the Choctaw word Cha-la-kee, which means people who live in the mountains, or Choctaw Chi-luk-ik-bi, meaning people who live in the cave country. The earliest Spanish rendering of the name Cherokee, from 1755, is Tchalaquei, Another theory is that Cherokee derives from a Lower Creek word, Cvlakke. The Iroquois in New York have historically called the Cherokee Oyata’geronoñ, Tsalagi is sometimes misused as a name for the people, Tsalagi is actually the Cherokee word for the Cherokee language. There are two theories of Cherokee origins. Another theory is that the Cherokee had been in the Southeast for thousands of years, researchers in the 19th century recorded conversations with elders who recounted an oral tradition of the Cherokee peoples migrating south from the Great Lakes region in ancient times. They may have moved south into Muscogee Creek territory and settled at the sites of mounds built by the Mississippian culture, in the 19th century, European-American settlers mistakenly attributed several Mississippian culture sites to the Cherokee, including Moundville and Etowah Mounds. However, the Cherokee did not reach this part of Georgia until the late 18th century, pre-contact Cherokee are considered to be part of the later Pisgah Phase of Southern Appalachia, which lasted from circa 1000 to 1500. During the late Archaic and Woodland Period, Indians in the region began to cultivate plants such as elder, lambsquarters, pigweed, sunflowers. People created new art forms such as shell gorgets, adopted new technologies, during the Mississippian Culture-period, local women developed a new variety of maize called eastern flint corn. It closely resembled modern corn and produced larger crops, the successful cultivation of corn surpluses allowed the rise of larger, more complex chiefdoms with several villages and concentrated populations during this period. Corn became celebrated among numerous peoples in ceremonies, especially the Green Corn Ceremony. Much of what is known about pre-18th-century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions, the earliest ones of the mid-16th-century encountered people of the Mississippian culture, the ancestors to later tribes in the Southeast such as the Muscogee and Catawba
35.
Surveying
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Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them. A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor, Surveyors work with elements of geometry, trigonometry, regression analysis, physics, engineering, metrology, programming languages and the law. Surveying has been an element in the development of the environment since the beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it and it is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in other scientific disciplines. Basic surveyance has occurred since humans built the first large structures, the prehistoric monument at Stonehenge was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry. In ancient Egypt, a rope stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the floods of the Nile River. The almost perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c.2700 BC, the Groma instrument originated in Mesopotamia. The mathematician Liu Hui described ways of measuring distant objects in his work Haidao Suanjing or The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, the Romans recognized land surveyors as a profession. They established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, Roman surveyors were known as Gromatici. In medieval Europe, beating the bounds maintained the boundaries of a village or parish and this was the practice of gathering a group of residents and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal memory of the boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the memory lasted as long as possible, in England, William the Conqueror commissioned the Domesday Book in 1086. It recorded the names of all the owners, the area of land they owned, the quality of the land. It did not include maps showing exact locations, abel Foullon described a plane table in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use earlier as his description is of a developed instrument. Gunters chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter and it enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes. Leonard Digges described a Theodolite that measured horizontal angles in his book A geometric practice named Pantometria, joshua Habermel created a theodolite with a compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a theodolite in 1725, in the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. Jesse Ramsden introduced the first precision theodolite in 1787 and it was an instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes
36.
William Preston (Virginia)
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He served in the Virginia House of Burgesses, and was a Colonel in the militia during the American Revolutionary War. He was one of the thirteen signers of the Fincastle Resolutions and he was a founding trustee of Liberty Hall, when it was made into a college in 1776. William Preston was born on Christmas Day,1729, in Limavady, Ireland, to Col. John Preston, the family immigrated to Augusta Co. Virginia, in 1738 on Jamess ship, subsequent French and Indian resistance and reversal of British policy limited the impact of the familys grants, but Prestonsburg, Kentucky, was named in Johns honor by its later founders. In 1755, he survived an Indian attack against a settlement that was part of a property that he inherited from his uncle, remaining in Virginia, William married Susanna Smith on January 17,1761, and together they had 12 children. He and his moved to Smithfield Plantation, in present-day Blacksburg, Virginia, in 1774. He previously resided at Greenfield Plantation at Fincastle, Botetourt County, Colonel Preston was elected to the Virginia colonys House of Burgesses in 1765 to represent Augusta County and served until the county was divided around 1770. In 1775, Preston was one of the thirteen signers of the Fincastle Resolutions, Colonel Preston served in both the French and Indian War and American Revolutionary War. During the French and Indian War, William Preston saved George Washingtons life from an impending Indian attack, during Lord Dunmores War of 1773-1774 against the Shawnee Indians, he urged Virginians to join the militia to enact revenge on the Indians and plunder their stock of horses. He also helped aid in the fight against Lord Cornwallis and the British in the Carolinas and he served as a founding trustee of Liberty Hall, formerly the Augusta Academy, when in 1776 it was renamed in a burst of revolutionary fervor and relocated to Lexington, Virginia. Other founding trustees along with Preston were prominent men including Andrew Lewis, Thomas Lewis, Samuel McDowell, Sampson Mathews, George Moffett, finally chartered in 1782, Liberty Hall was again renamed, to Washington College and finally Washington and Lee University. It is the ninth oldest institution of education in the country. Colonel Preston died during a military muster near Prices Fork, Va. in 1783, the cause of death is unknown but it is believed to be either a heat stroke or a heart attack. He is buried in the cemetery located on Virginia Techs campus in Blacksburg. His final home, Smithfield Plantation, has restored and is listed on the U. S. Historical Registry, and is open for tours April through the first week in December, many other prominent Americans descended from Colonel William Preston and his wife Susanna, for whom the plantation is named. They were parents or grandparents to governors, senators, presidential cabinet members, university founders and presidents, the legacy of leadership and patriotism left by William Preston is very long and storied and makes him a true American hero. Colonel Preston was memorialized on July 27,2011 with the Colonel William Preston highway in Blacksburg, the city of Prestonville, Kentucky, was erected on one of his land grants and named in his honor
37.
Coal River (West Virginia)
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The Coal River is a tributary of the Kanawha River in southern West Virginia. Since humans first arrived in the region the three rivers make up the Coal River Watershed have served as a vital transportation link to the Kanawha River. The Indians used the rivers as favorite hunting and fishing sites, early settlers in the region discovered that outcrops of Coal along the Big Coal River could be utilized as an excellent source of heat and light. The abundant timber reserves found in the region also could be transported to the Kanawha Valley during floods, the availability of large seams of Cannel Coal, which could be used to produce a very desirable coal oil, brought investors to the region in the mid-19th century. The coal could be utilized to produce an oil which was in high demand in the urban areas of the US. The oil was used to replace whale oil for lighting, Cannel Coal oil burned bright and produced very little smoke. The utilization of the rivers for navigation was enhanced in the mid 1851 by the construction of a 34-mile lock, the Coal River Navigation Company was formed and invested approximately $208,000 to complete the system. The lock and dam system was repeatedly washed out by floods, the system operated successfully from 1855 through 1861. In 1860 over 850,000 bushels of coal were shipped, the outbreak of the Civil War stopped operations of the system but in 1867 a new company was formed and the lock and dams returned to service until 1881. Altogether the lock and dams operated for 16 years, the log booms helped to channel cut timber into Sawmill locations along the Coal River near St. Albans, WV. The Coal River from St. Albans to Upper Falls remains a government of the United States-designated navigable waterway. Beginning around 1800, flax mills and gristmills were built and operated along the river, yielding fiber for the production of textiles in addition to such as flour. After failed attempts by others, the Coal River and Western Railway Company established scheduled rail service along the river at the dawn of the 20th century and this finally provided a reliable source of transportation for the coal and timber industries, sparking an economic boom in the region. Environmental concerns are based on underground and surface mining operations in the Coal River watershed, Coal slurry impoundments are a byproduct of coal mining and preparation and contain toxic waste including heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury. A repeat of the nearby Buffalo Creek disaster is a concern, local volunteer watershed groups are working to restore the river and improve fish habitat and recreational opportunities. Also, the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection is implementing program to restore the Little Coal River, a series of river structures are being built to move accumulated silt in order to improve fish habitat. Marshall University was hired to conduct a comprehensive water quality study. The Big Coal River rises in Raleigh County as two streams, the Clear Fork and the Marsh Fork, which join near Whitesville, the river then flows generally northwest through Boone County, past the towns of Sylvester, Seth and Racine
38.
Levisa Fork
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The Levisa Fork is a tributary of the Big Sandy River, approximately 164 miles long, in southwestern Virginia and eastern Kentucky in the United States. It rises in the Appalachian Mountains of southwestern Virginia, in eastern Buchanan County and it flows west into Pike County, Kentucky, where it receives the Russell Fork and is impounded to form Fishtrap Lake reservoir, then northwest past Pikeville and Prestonsburg. The natural course of the river formed a loop surrounding downtown Pikeville, at Paintsville it turns to the north-northeast, flowing through Johnson and Lawrence counties. It joins the Tug Fork from the southwest at Louisa on the West Virginia state line to form the Big Sandy, the Levisa Fork was historically an important river for log driving. The river is navigable for commercial purposes through a series of locks. In the early 1900s the river was navigable as far as Pikeville, variant names, according to the USGS, include Louisa River, Louisa Fork, Lavisa Fork, and West Fork, in addition to Levisa Fork River and Levisa Fork of the Big Sandy River. The official name according to the USGS is Levisa Fork, according to George R. Stewart, frontiersmen forgot who it was named for and it changed over time to Levisa. On February 28,1958, a Floyd County school bus tumbled into the Levisa Fork after a collision with a wrecker truck, List of rivers of Kentucky List of rivers of Virginia Stewart, George R. A History of the Daniel Boone National Forest
39.
Cumberland River
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The Cumberland River is a major waterway of the Southern United States. The 688-mile-long river drains almost 18,000 square miles of southern Kentucky, the river flows generally west from a source in the Appalachian Mountains to its confluence with the Ohio River near Paducah, Kentucky, and the mouth of the Tennessee River. Major tributaries include the Obey, Caney Fork, Stones, although the Cumberland River basin is predominantly rural, there are also some large cities on the river, including Nashville and Clarksville, both in Tennessee. In addition, the system has been extensively developed for flood control. Its headwaters are three separate forks that begin in Kentucky and converge in its Harlan County, Martins Fork starts in Hensley Settlement on Brush Mountain in Bell County and snakes its way north through the mountains to Baxter. Clover Fork starts on Black Mountain in Holmes Mill, near the Virginia border, poor Fork begins as a small stream on Pine Mountain in Letcher County near Flat Gap, Virginia. It flows southwest in parallel with Pine Mountain until it merges with the two forks in Baxter. From there, the river continues flowing west through the mountains of Kentucky. The 68-foot falls is one of the largest waterfalls in the southeastern United States and is one of the few places in the Western Hemisphere where a moonbow can be seen. Beyond Cumberland Falls, the river turns abruptly west once again and continues to grow as it converges with other creeks and it receives the Laurel and Rockcastle Rivers from the northeast and then the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River from the south. From here it flows into the man-made Lake Cumberland, formed by Wolf Creek Dam, the more than 100-mile reservoir is one of the largest artificial lakes in the eastern US. Near Celina, the river crosses south into Tennessee, where it is joined by the Obey River, northeast of Nashville, the river is dammed twice more, forming Cordell Hull Lake and Old Hickory Lake. After flowing through Nashville and picking up the Stones River, the river is dammed to form Cheatham Lake, finally, the river flows north and merges with the Ohio River at Smithland, northeast of Paducah. The explorer Thomas Walker of Virginia in 1758 named the river, the Cumberland River was called Wasioto by the Shawnee Native Americans, who lived in this area. French traders called it the Riviere des Chaouanons, or river of the Shawnee for this association, the river was also known as the Shawnee River for years after Walkers trip. Important first as a passage for hunters and settlers, the Cumberland River also supported later riverboat trade, villages, towns, and cities were located at landing points along its banks. Through the middle of the 19th century, settlers depended on rivers as the transportation routes for trading. In more recent history, a number of floods have struck various regions that the river flows through
40.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
41.
Fort Stanwix
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The star fort was built to guard a portage known as the Oneida Carrying Place during the French and Indian War. Fort Stanwix National Monument, a structure built by the National Park Service. In 1768, Fort Stanwix was the site of an important treaty conference between the British and the Iroquois, arranged by William Johnson, by the time of this treaty, the fort had become dilapidated and inactive. The purpose of the conference was to renegotiate the boundary line between Indian lands and white settlements set forth in the Proclamation of 1763, the British government hoped a new boundary line might bring an end to the rampant frontier violence, which had become costly and troublesome. Indians hoped a new, permanent line might hold back white colonial expansion, the final treaty was signed on November 5 and extended the earlier proclamation which happened much further west. The Iroquois had effectively ceded Kentucky to the whites, however, the Indians who actually used the Kentucky lands, primarily Shawnee, Delaware, and Cherokee, had no role in the negotiations. Rather than secure peace, the Fort Stanwix treaty helped set the stage for the round of hostilities. Fort Stanwix was abandoned in 1768 and allowed to go to ruin, the fort was reoccupied by Colonial troops under the command of Colonel Elias Dayton on July 12,1776. They began reconstruction and renamed it Fort Schuyler, although continued to call it Fort Stanwix. Colonel Peter Gansevoort took over command of the fort on May 3,1777, Gansevoort refused the terms of surrender offered by the British, and the siege commenced. According to local folklore, when the Colonial troops raised the flag over the fort on August 3,1777, it was the first time that the Flag of the United States was flown in battle. It is more likely that the flag flown at Fort Schuyler was one that consisted only of thirteen stripes, the Battle of Oriskany was fought a few miles away when an American relief column, led by General Nicholas Herkimer, was ambushed by Tories and their Indian allies. While many of the besiegers were attending to that battle, the defenders of the fort sallied forth and attacked the enemy camp, demoralized and reduced in strength, the British withdrew when they heard reports of the approach of yet another relief column, led by General Benedict Arnold. The British forces withdrew through Canada and joined Burgoynes campaign at Fort Ticonderoga, the British failure to capture the fort and proceed down the Mohawk Valley was a severe setback and helped lead to the defeat of General John Burgoyne at the Battle of Saratoga. In April 1779, an expedition from Fort Schuyler against the Onondaga people was begun by the Continental Army led by Col. Goose Van Schaick, the fort burned to the ground on May 13,1781 and was not rebuilt. It was abandoned and the took up quarters at Fort Herkimer. The second Treaty of Fort Stanwix was conducted at the fort between the Americans and the Indians in 1784, during the War of 1812 a blockhouse was built on the parade ground. Beginning in 1828 the fortifications were dismantled, the fort was designated a National Monument on August 21,1935
42.
Michael Cresap
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Captain Michael Cresap was a noted frontiersman born in Maryland. Cresap was the son of the pioneer Colonel Thomas Cresap and he spent part of his adult years in the Ohio Country as a trader and land developer. He led several raids against Indians whom he believed were hostile to white settlement, the war leader Logan, of the Mingo Indians, accused Cresap of murdering his family. As a result of the murders, Logan waged war on the settlements along the Ohio and in western Pennsylvania, killing, perhaps, Lord John Murray Dunmore, the British Royal Governor of Virginia, raised an army and appointed Cresap to the rank of Captain. The decisive battle of Lord Dunmores War was the Battle of Point Pleasant in Virginia, here Dunmores forces defeated a band of Shawnee Indians led by Cornstalk. After Lord Dunmores War, Cresap returned to Maryland and subsequently raised a company of riflemen for the Continental Army during the American Revolution and he died from illness in New York City while in the service of the army, he is interred there in Trinity Church Cemetery. The Michael Cresap House — Cresaps stone and brick house in western Maryland — was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972
43.
Redstone Old Fort
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The site is unlikely to be the same as an earlier fort the French document as Hangard dated to 1754 and which was confusedly, likely located on the nearby stream called Redstone Creek. Red sandstones predominate the deposited rock column of the entire region and its strategic importance had long been recognized and used by the Indians, and it was a target terminus of Braddocks Road during the French and Indian War. Redstone Old Fort was the terminus of an Indian trail which settlers improved around the 1750 and they afterward called it Nemacolins Trail, named after the Indian chief who assisted the improvement through the mountain pass. From this area, travelers could travel by water downstream on the Monongahela river to what is now Pittsburgh, or overland, col. James Burd ordered construction of the fort in 1759 on an earthwork mound left behind by prehistoric Indians, known as the Mound Builders. The American colonists called these mounds old forts, and this one had large red sandstone blocks that had placed at the top. It was also, after the area was settled, the site of the settlement of the Religious Society of Friends. Redstone Old Fort proved significant in the Colony of Virginias war against the Mingo and Shawnee tribes and it was occupied by Capt. Michael Cresap, owner of a trading post, to prevent the local Shawnee from controlling it. Under authority of the government of Virginia, Cresap had taken up extensive tracts of land at. He had gone there in the spring of 1774 with a party of men to settle his holdings. A group under the command of James Harrod left the fort 25 May 1774 going down river to settle lands in Kentucky, a third and larger group that included George Rogers Clark, had gathered at the mouth of the Little Kanawha River. They were waiting there for the arrival of other Virginians who were expected to join them at that point before moving downriver to settle lands in Kentucky, in 1789, historic Nemacolin Castle, trading post, and tavern was built up on the bluff about 0. The early settlement around the fort came to be called Redstone. The use of Redstone devolved to apply to just one of its neighborhoods and it was the first illegal meeting of that insurrection. In 1803 Meriwether Lewis mentioned Redstone Old Fort in a letter to President Thomas Jefferson, william Trent established the Hangard in January–February 1754 before moving on to join the construction crew working to build a fort on the Forks of the Ohio Fort Gaddis - Built ca. 1770, this is the oldest surviving building in Fayette County and it served as both a homestead and frontier fort. Report of the Commission to Locate the Site of the Frontier Forts of Pennsylvania, cS1 maint, Uses authors parameter Brownsville Nemacolin-Bowman Castle museum A Map of the Land about Red Stone and Fort Pitt, Used by George Washington from the World Digital Library
44.
Brownsville, Pennsylvania
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This keeps Brownsville at the nexus of the transportation infrastructure which grew up during its history. While no longer a passenger depot, the town and cross-River West Brownsville share an important Railway bridge creating a loop allowing the turning of complete coal trains. Newest is the limited access toll road PA Route 43, which connects the town to strategic points, Brownsville became a major center for building steamboats through the 19th century, producing 3,000 boats by 1888. The borough developed in the late 19th century as a yard and coking center. It reached a peak of population of more than 8,000 in 1940, postwar development occurred in suburbs, as was typical of the time. The restructuring of the railroad and steel caused a severe loss of jobs and population in Brownsville. The borough had a population of 2,331 as of the 2010 census, Brownsville is located on the banks of the Monongahela River, a major tributary of the Ohio River, one of North Americas most important waterways. The Monongahela is fully navigable at Brownsville, and offers inexpensive barge transportation to Chicago, New Orleans, marks in Florida, Minneapolis, Tulsa, Kansas City, Houston, and Brownsville, Texas, on the border with Mexico. The shipyards of Brownsville, Pennsylvania, provided Captain Richard King of Brownsville, Texas, Brownsville is connected to the satellite community of West Brownsville by the Brownsville Bridge completed in 1914, which spans the Monongahela River. In 1960, the Lane Bane Bridge was constructed just downstream, when in the 17th century, the occasional Englishman, as provincial Virginian or Marylanders generated their observations the emptiness of the region was confirmed. Before the 1750s, the area was colonized by weakened remnant tribes such as the Delaware, the few Erie, during the Revolution, the Iroquois were divided whether to back the Colonies or the mother country, and mostly did neither, attempting to stay neutral. As a river crossing, the closest to the pass that reached the Monongahela, the fort was constructed during the French and Indian War on the bluff above the river near a prehistoric earthwork mound that was also the site of historic Native American burial grounds. In 1774, a force from the Colony of Virginia garrisoned and occupied the stockade during Lord Dunmores War against the Mingo and it commanded the important strategic river ford of Nemacolins Trail, the western path to the summit, this was later improved and called Burds Road. It was a route down to the Monongahela River valley from Braddocks Road. Entrepreneur Thomas Brown acquired the lands in what became Fayette County, Pennsylvania. Many travelers used the Ohio River and its tributary, the Monongahela, eventually the settlement became known as Brownsville after him. In the 1780s, Jacob Bowman bought the land on which he built Nemacolin Castle, he had a trading post and it was the first meeting of that illegal frontier insurrection. S. Route 40, one of the federal highways
45.
Monongahela River
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The Monongahela joins the Allegheny River to form the Ohio River at Pittsburgh. The Native American word Monongahela means falling banks, in reference to the instability of the rivers banks. The Lenape Language Project renders the word as Mënaonkihëla, translated where banks cave in or erode, from the verbs mënaonkihële the dirt caves off and mënaonke, it has a loose bank. Monongalia County and the town of Monongah, both in West Virginia, are named for the river, as is Monongahela in Pennsylvania, the river is navigable its entire length with a series of locks and dams that maintain a minimum depth of 9 feet to accommodate coal-laden barges. In Pennsylvania, the Monongahela is met by two tributaries, the Cheat River, which joins at Point Marion, and the Youghiogheny River. The upper drainage area of the basin is renowned for its whitewater kayaking opportunities. The land here is of a rugged plateau type which allows streams to gather sufficient water volume before they fall off the plateau. An ice dam created a vast lake—known as Lake Monongahela—stretching from its outlet at present-day Beaver, Pennsylvania for 200 miles south to at least Weston, West Virginia. It was as much as 100 miles wide at its maximum, hundreds of feet deep in places, its western and southern overflow gradually created the present-day upper Ohio River Valley. The Monongahela River valley was the site of a famous, if small, battle that was one of the first in the French and it resulted in a sharp defeat for British and Colonial forces against those of the French and their Native American allies. Originally planned to run as far south as the Cheat River, the system was extended to Fairmont, in 1897, the federal government took possession of the Monongahela Navigation through condemnation proceedings. Later, the combinations were increased in size and reduced in number. In 2006, the system, operated by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, had nine dam-locks along 128.7 miles of waterway. The locks overcame a change in elevation of about 147 feet, briefly linked to the Monongahela Navigation was the Youghiogheny Navigation, a slack water system of 18.5 miles between McKeesport and West Newton. It had two dam-locks overcoming a change in elevation of about 27 feet, opening in 1850, it was destroyed by a flood in 1865. During the 19th century, the Monongahela was heavily used by industry, three ships in the United States Navy have been named Monongahela after the river. In the 1930s, severe drought caused the river to run dry, the river was the site of a famous airplane crash that has become the subject of numerous urban legends and conspiracy theories. All six crewmen survived the crash, but two later succumbed to exposure and drowned, despite the relative shallowness of the water, the aircraft was never recovered
46.
Middle Island Creek
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Middle Island Creek is a river,77 miles long, in northwestern West Virginia in the United States. It is a tributary of the Ohio River, draining an area of 565 square miles on the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau and it was named by late 18th century pioneering travelers on the Ohio River, who noted the location of the Creeks mouth opposite Middle Island in the larger river. In an artifact of nomenclature, it is pointed out that Middle Island Creek is the longest stream in West Virginia bearing the name of creek. Middle Island Creek is formed at the community of Smithburg in Doddridge County by the confluence of Meathouse Fork, the lowermost 12 square miles of the creek are inundated by backup from the Willow Island Locks and Dam downstream on the Ohio River. Middle Island Creeks most extreme meander forms a peninsula known as the Jug, the creek rounds a 7-mile bend only to return to within 100 feet of itself. Sometime prior to 1800, a settler named George Gregg had a mill race carved across the point of the peninsula. These were destroyed by a flood in 1852, while later mills were subsequently built, in 1947 the West Virginia Conservation Commission constructed a low water bridge which substantially dammed the cut-through and restored a steady flow to the bend of the creek. The land encircled by the loop is operated as a Wildlife Management Area by the state of West Virginia. An oil boom began in the region in the 1860s and it peaked in Middlebourne in the 1890s, and an oil refinery operated in St. Marys between 1914 and 1987. Glass- and carbon-manufacturing facilities were built in West Union and Smithburg in the early 20th century, throughout its course Middle Island Creek is a slow-moving, low-gradient stream. Other fish commonly found in the creek include spotted bass, smallmouth bass, rock bass, various species of sunfish, freshwater drum, channel catfish, list of West Virginia rivers West Union Covered Bridge
47.
Sistersville, West Virginia
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Sistersville is a city in Tyler County, West Virginia, United States, along the Ohio River. The population was 1,396 at the 2010 census, the Sistersville Ferry crosses the Ohio River to the unincorporated community of Fly in Monroe County, Ohio. Sistersville was named from the two sisters were the original owners of the town site. The town was incorporated in 1839, the Sistersville City Hall is a historic city hall building listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The City Hall is contributing property of the Sistersville Historic District, other listed historic properties in Sistersville include the E. A. Durham House, the Wells Inn, the Wells-Schaff House and the Wells-Twyford House. Sistersville is located at 39°33′42″N 80°59′52″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.53 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,396 people,593 households, the population density was 2,634.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 726 housing units at a density of 1,369.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 98. 9% White,0. 3% African American,0. 2% Native American,0. 1% Asian,0. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 6% of the population. 35. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.88. The median age in the city was 44.5 years. 21. 8% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 4% were between the ages of 18 and 24,21. 7% were from 25 to 44,27. 9% were from 45 to 64, and 21. 2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46. 2% male and 53. 8% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,588 people,694 households, and 460 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,028.3 people per square mile, there were 779 housing units at an average density of 1,485.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 99. 50% White,0. 06% African American,0. 06% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 31% of the population. In 2008, the U. S. Census Bureau estimated the population at 1,413. 31. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.85. In the city, the population was out with 24. 2% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,25. 6% from 25 to 44,23. 6% from 45 to 64
Colony of Virginia
