1.
Louis B. Kahn
–
Louis B. Kahn was an American computer scientist and statistician. Kahn was born in Chicago, Illinois to Hungarian and Latvian parents and he fought in World War II in the 9th Infantry Division in Germany as 1st Lieutenant and was honored the Purple Heart,2 Bronze Medals and 3 Battle Stars. Prof. Kahns Ph. D thesis was published as a book entitled A Study of Productivity, prof. Kahn co-authored a book entitled Logistics Papers with J. E. Hamilton in 1956. He also authored a paper entitled A Statistical Model for Evaluating the Reliability of Safety Systems for Plants Manufacturing Hazardous Products in 1959. In 1961, the Shell Development Company in Emeryville, California appointed Louis B. Kahn the editor of a new journal, The Logistics Review, the publication was the official journal of the Military Logistics Society. His doctors initially predicted that he would only live 10 days, yet later in 1962, Professor Kahn was able to start his own company in Berkeley, California called Technical Economics, Inc. As president of the company, Dr. Kahn was the computer application specialist, as president, he was also a consulting statistician at the Neurosurgery Department of the University of California Medical Center, San Francisco, California. He was the editor of The Logistics Review and Military Logistics Journal as well as the principal editor of The Journal of Biomedical Systems. He also was the founder and assistant editor of The Logistics, in addition, he was on the editorial advisory board of the publication entitled Current Contents, Life Sciences. Kahn received a Bachelor of Science degree in Applied Science and Economics from the Illinois Institute of Technology in 1940, WhosWho in the West, 15th edition, 1976-1977. Chicago, IL, Marquis WhosWho,1977 American Men and Women of Science, 13TH EDITION, VOLUME3 H–K,1976 Stock system minimizes risks by George Rhodes, examiner & Chronicle, January 20,1974. Prof. Kahn died on July 5,2012 at Chaparral Skilled Nursing in Berkeley, an obituary published on April 27,2013 in the Oakland Tribune is viewable here. Photo of Louis B. Kahn President of Technical Economics, Inc
2.
Governorate of Livonia
–
The Governorate of Livonia, was one of the Baltic governorates of the Russian Empire, now divided between the Republic of Latvia and the Republic of Estonia. Sweden formally ceded Swedish Livonia to Russia in 1721 with the Treaty of Nystad, in 1722 Tartu County was added to Riga Governorate. In 1726 Smolensk Governorate was separated from Governorate, which now had five provinces - Rīga, Cēsis, Tartu, Pärnu, in 1783 the Sloka County was added. On July 3,1783 Catherine the Great reorganized Governorate into Riga Lieutenancy, only in 1796, after the Third Partition of Poland this territory was renamed as the Governorate of Livonia. Until late 19th century the governorate was not ruled by Russian laws but was administered autonomously by the local German Baltic nobility through feudal Landtag, German nobles insisted on preserving their privileges and use of German language. After the Russian February Revolution in 1917, the part of the Governorate of Livonia was combined with the Governorate of Estonia to form a new Autonomous Governorate of Estonia. The Autonomous Governorate of Estonia issued the Estonian Declaration of Independence on 24 February 1918, the Governorate of Livonia was divided into 9 counties. However the new border between the Governments of Estonia and Livland was never properly demarcated, by the Imperial census of 1897. In bold are languages spoken by more people than the state language, administrative divisions of Russia in 1713-1714 Baltic governorates Courland Governorate Estonia Governorate Livonian Confederation
3.
Russian Empire
–
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
4.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
5.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
6.
Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban
–
Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban or National Parliament House, is the house of the Parliament of Bangladesh, located at Sher-e-Bangla Nagar in the Bangladeshi capital of Dhaka. Robert McCarter, author of Louis I, Kahn, described the National Parliament of Bangladesh as one of the twentieth centurys most significant buildings. Before its completion, the first and second Parliaments used the Old Sangsad Bhaban, construction was started in 1961 when Bangladesh was East Pakistan, led by Ayub Khan from the West Pakistan capital of Islamabad. As part of his efforts to decrease the disparity and secessionist tendencies of East Pakistan, Khan aimed to make Dhaka a second capital, Jatiya Sangsad was designed by Louis Kahn. The government sought assistance from South Asian activist and architect Muzharul Islam who recommended bringing in the top architects for the project. He initially attempted to bring Alvar Aalto and Le Corbusier, who were both were unavailable at the time, Islam then enlisted his former teacher at Yale, Louis Kahn. Construction was halted during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War and was completed on 28 January 1982, Kahn died when the project was approximately three-quarters completed and it continued under David Wisdom, who worked for Kahn. The architect’s key design philosophy was to represent Bangladeshi culture and heritage, the exterior of the building is striking in its simplicity, with huge walls deeply recessed by porticoes and large openings of regular geometric shapes. The main building, which is at the center of the complex, is divided into three parts – the Main Plaza, South Plaza and Presidential Plaza. An artificial lake surrounds three sides of the building of Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban, extending to the Members of Parliament hostel complex. This skillful use of water to portray the beauty of Bangladesh adds to the aesthetic value of the site. Kahns key design philosophy optimizes the use of space while representing Bangladeshi heritage, external lines are deeply recessed by porticoes with huge openings of regular geometric shapes on their exterior, shaping the buildings overall visual impact. In the architect Louis Kahns own words, In the assembly I have introduced an element to the interior of the plan. If you see a series of columns you can say that the choice of columns is a choice in light, the columns as solids frame the spaces of light. I am working to develop the element to such an extent that it becomes an entity which has its own beauty outside of its place in the composition. In this way it becomes analogous to the solid column I mentioned above as a giver of light and it was not belief, not design, not pattern, but the essence from which an institution could emerge. The lake on three sides of the Bhaban, extending up to the Members hostel adds to sites aesthetics, the assembly building received the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 1989. The Bhaban consists of nine blocks, the eight peripheral blocks rise to a height of 110 while the central octagonal block rises to a height of 155
7.
Yale University Art Gallery
–
The Yale University Art Gallery houses a significant and encyclopedic collection of art in several buildings on the campus of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. Although it embraces all cultures and periods, the gallery emphasizes early Italian painting, African sculpture, the Yale University Art Gallery is the oldest university art museum in the western hemisphere. The gallery was founded in 1832, when patriot-artist, John Trumbull, donated more than 100 paintings of the American Revolution to Yale College and this building, on the universitys Old Campus, was razed in 1901. The gallerys main building was built in 1953, and was among the first designed by Louis Kahn, a complete renovation, which returned many spaces to Kahns original vision, was completed in December 2006, by Polshek Partnership Architects. The older Tuscan romanesque portion was built in 1928, and was designed by Egerton Swartwout, the Gallery reopened on December 12,2012, after a 14-year renovation and expansion project at a cost of $135 million. The expanded space totals 69,975 sq ft, the museum is a member of the North American Reciprocal Museums program. On the second floor was a valuable collection of paintings by John Trumbull. Among them were his paintings of the Battle of Bunker Hill, Death of Montgomery before Quebec, Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, Declaration of Independence. Trumbull gave the paintings to Yale in consideration of an annuity of $1,000 and subject to the condition that he, the Gallery’s encyclopedic collections number more than 185,000 objects ranging in date from ancient times to the present day. The permanent collection includes, African Art, over 1000 objects in wood, metal, ivory, American Decorative Arts, about 18,000 objects in silver, glass, wood, porcelain, and textile with an emphasis on the colonial and early federal periods. Ancient Art, over 13,000 objects from the Near East, Egypt, Greece, Etruria, Art of the Ancient Americas, Mayan and Olmec figurines, vessels and sculptures. Prints, Drawings, and Photographs In 2005, the announced that it had acquired 1,465 gelatin silver prints by the influential American landscape photographer. In 2009, the museum mounted an exhibition of its collection of Picasso paintings and drawings. For the first time, portions of the Yale University Librarys, as an affiliate of Yale University, the gallery maintains a robust roster of education programs for university students, New Haven schools, and the general public. One such program is the Gallery Guide program, founded in 1998, the Yale Art Gallery charges no admission
8.
Salk Institute for Biological Studies
–
The Salk Institute for Biological Studies is an independent, non-profit, scientific research institute located in La Jolla, San Diego, California, United States. It was founded in 1960 by Jonas Salk, the developer of the vaccine, among the founding consultants were Jacob Bronowski. Building did not start until spring of 1962, the institute consistently ranks among the top institutions in the US in terms of research output and quality in the life sciences. The institute employs 850 researchers in 60 research groups and focuses its research in three areas, molecular biology and genetics, neurosciences, and plant biology. Research topics include cancer, diabetes, birth defects, Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons disease, AIDS, the March of Dimes provided the initial funding and continues to support the institute. Current research is funded by a variety of organizations, such as the NIH, the HHMI and private organizations such as Paris-based Ipsen, in addition, the internally administered Innovation Grants Program encourages cutting-edge high-risk research. In 2016 Ted Waitt, founder of computer manufacturer Gateway, Inc. became chair of the board of directors, replacing Qualcomm co-founder Irwin M. Jacobs, the institute appointed genome biologist Eric Lander and stem cell biologist Irving Weissman as non-resident fellows in November 2009. The campus was designed by Louis Kahn, Salk had sought to make a beautiful campus in order to draw the best researchers in the world. Salk and Kahn – having both descended from Russian Jewish parents that had immigrated to the United States – had a deeper connection than just mere partners on an architectural project, the results of their connection is seen in the design that resulted from their collaboration. The original buildings of the Salk Institute were designated as a landmark in 1991. The entire 27-acre site was deemed eligible by the California Historical Resources Commission in 2006 for listing on the National Register of Historic Places, the institute has three Nobel laureates on its faculty, Elizabeth Blackburn, Sydney Brenner, and Roger Guillemin. Three of Salks 11 Nobel laureates are now deceased, Francis Crick, Robert W. Holley, another five scientists trained at Salk have gone on to win Nobel prizes. The institute is organized into several units, each of which is further composed of several scientific groups. Irwin M. Jacobs is Chairman of the Board of Trustees, edward Callaway is the chair of the academic council. Six of these are members of the HHMI while more than a quarter are members of the NAS, in December 2009, the Time magazine ranked Joseph R. Eckers mapping of the human epigenome as the #2 biggest scientific achievement of 2009. In May 2008, California announced that it would provide 270 million US dollars for funding CIRM, the Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, a joint effort between Salk Institute, UCSD, Burnham Institute and TSRI, received $43 million from this funding. Salk and Kahn approached the city of San Diego in March 1960 about a gift of land on the Torrey Pines Mesa and were granted their request after a referendum in June 1960. The National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, known today as the March of Dimes, construction began in 1962 and a handful of researchers moved into the first laboratory in 1963
9.
Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
–
Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad is a public business school located in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. It was the second Indian Institute of Management to be established and it is the world’s toughest business school to get into, on the basis of its acceptance rate. It is consistently ranked as one of the business schools in India. Established in 1961, the institute offers Post Graduate Diploma Programmes in Management and Agri-Business Management, a Fellowship Programme, the institute is often referred to as WIMWI. The Institutes first Director was the Indian physicist Vikram Sarabhai, the Director as of 2016 is Ashish Nanda. IIM Ahmedabad was established on 11 December 1961 with the support of the Government of India, the Government of Gujarat, Harvard Business School. The physicist Vikram Sarabhai and businessman Kasturbhai Lalbhai, both natives of Ahmedabad, played roles in setting up the institute. The institutes Kasturbhai Lalbhai Management Development Centre and a Kasturbhai Lalbhai Chair in Entrepreneurship are named in his honour, the management educator Ravi J. Matthai and several other Ahmedabad-based industrialists also played a major role in its creation. The 1960s was a period when a course of management was not fully understood or appreciated by Indian industry, initially, the institute faced difficulties in getting quality students in large numbers and convincing companies to hire these candidates. However, with time, as the leadership of major business houses changed, the rise of IIMA graduates to top positions in businesses also improved the perception of IIMA. Today, it is one of the most difficult educational institutes in the world to get entry into, the IIMA campus is situated across 106 acres in Vastrapur, Ahmedabad. The campus houses the academic blocks, faculty offices, student and faculty accommodation, the Dr. Vikram Sarabhai Library, the R. J. Architecture In 1962, the IIMA board came to an agreement with the National Institute of Design for the latter to undertake the task of designing the IIM Ahmedabad campus. The National Institute for Design appointed American architect Louis Kahn and B. V. Doshi as architects for the project, Kahn worked on the IIMA project from 1962 until his death in 1974. Kahns architecture is characterized by the use of exposed red bricks, a number of tourists and architecture students visit the campus every year. The quadrangle between the academic building and the classroom complex in the Heritage Campus is an open-air assembly named after Kahn. IIMA announced a competition for the extension of its campus in 1999. This new campus was built on a plot across the road from the Heritage Campus, the two campuses are connected by an underpass, which houses an exhibition on Louis Kahn’s work
10.
Phillips Exeter Academy Library
–
The Phillips Exeter Academy Library in Exeter, New Hampshire, U. S. with 160,000 volumes on nine levels and a shelf capacity of 250,000 volumes, is the largest secondary school library in the world. It is part of the Phillips Exeter Academy, an independent boarding school, when it became clear in the 1950s that the library had outgrown its existing building, the school initially hired an architect who proposed a traditional design for the new building. Deciding instead to construct a library with a design, the school gave the commission to Louis Kahn in 1965. Kahn structured the library in three concentric square rings, the outer ring, which is built of load-bearing brick, includes all four exterior walls and the library carrel spaces immediately inside them. The middle ring, which is built of reinforced concrete, holds the book stacks. The inner ring is an atrium with enormous circular openings in its walls that reveal several floors of book stacks. The first library at Phillips Exeter Academy was a small room. A member of the class of 1833 remembered it as containing old sermons and some history, even as late as 1905 the library had only two rooms and 2,000 volumes. In 1912 the Davis Library was added to the campus space for 5,000 volumes. Although a major improvement, its atmosphere was inhospitable by the standards of later generations, stacks were locked to students, for example, and the librarians office was located at the entrance to the stacks to maximize control over entry. Decisions about book selections and the program were in the hands of an all-male faculty committee instead of the female librarian. In 1950 Rodney Armstrong became librarian, the first with a degree in library science. One of his first moves was to open the stacks to students and that solved one problem, but the real difficulty was the lack of space. The library contained 35,000 volumes at that point, many of them stored in boxes for lack of shelf room. After years of effort, Armstrong eventually succeeded in bringing a new library to the academy, architect Louis Kahn was chosen to design the new library in 1965, and it was ready for occupancy in 1971. Architectural historian Vincent Scully acknowledged its significance by using a photo of it as the frontispiece for his book Modern Architecture. On November 16,1971, classes were suspended for a day, and students, faculty, henry Bedford, who became librarian shortly after the new library was occupied, supervised the transition not only to the new building but also to a new way of operating a library. Staff librarians were encouraged to see themselves as co-instructors with the regular faculty, a piano was installed and the library began sponsoring lectures and concerts
11.
Kimbell Art Museum
–
The Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas, hosts an art collection as well as traveling art exhibitions, educational programs and an extensive research library. Its initial artwork came from the collection of Kay and Velma Kimbell. The building was designed by architect Louis I. Kahn and is recognized as one of the most significant works of architecture of recent times. It is especially noted for the wash of silvery natural light across its vaulted gallery ceilings, Kay Kimbell was a wealthy Fort Worth businessman who built an empire of over 70 companies in a variety of industries. He married Velma Fuller, who kindled his interest in art collecting by taking him to an art show in Fort Worth in 1931, where he bought a British painting. Kay left much of his estate to the Kimbell Art Foundation, upon accepting the post, Brown declared that the new building should itself be a work of art, as much a gem as one of the Rembrandts or Van Dycks housed within it. The proposed museum was given space in a 9, Brown discussed the goals of the institution and its new building with the trustees and summarized them in a four-page Policy Statement and a nineteen-page Pre-Architectural Program in June 1966. After interviewing a number of prominent architects, the museum hired Louis I. Kahn in October 1966, construction for the Kimbell Art Museum began in the summer of 1969. The new building opened in October 1972 and quickly achieved a reputation for architectural excellence. Brown also expanded the Kimbell collection by acquiring several works of significant quality by artists like Duccio, El Greco, Rubens, after Richard Fargo Browns death in 1979, Edmund Ted Pillsbury was appointed director of the museum. Previously he had been the director of the newly opened Yale Center for British Art and he had also been a curator at the Yale Art Gallery, Kahns first art museum. Pillsbury continued the art program in an aggressive but disciplined fashion. In 2007, the Kimbell solved that problem by announcing plans to construct an additional, designed by Renzo Piano, and relocated to the west lawn, the new structure opened to the public in November 2013. In 1966, before the museum even had a building, founding director Brown included this directive in his Policy Statement, The goal shall be definitive excellence, accordingly, the museums collection today consists of only about 350 works of art, but they are of notably high quality. Works from the period include antiquities from Ancient Egypt, Assyria, Greece. The Asian collection comprises sculptures, paintings, bronzes, ceramics, and works of art from China, Korea, Japan, India, Nepal, Tibet, Cambodia. Precolumbian art is represented by Maya works in ceramic, stone, shell, and jade, Olmec, Zapotec, the museum owns few pieces created after the mid-20th century or any American art. Browns Policy Statement set a clear architectural direction by calling for the new building to be a work of art, Brown called for a building of modest scale that would not overwhelm either the artwork or the viewer
12.
Philadelphia
–
In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
13.
Architect
–
An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
14.
Atelier
–
This was the standard vocational practice for European artists from the Middle Ages to the 19th century, and common elsewhere in the world. Apprentices usually began young, working on tasks, and after some years became journeymen. This very word has taken on other similar meanings, indicating a place of work and study of the haute couture fashion designer, hair stylist. Atelier schools can be found around the world, particularly in North America and they traditionally include sessions for drawing or painting nude art. Sight-Size is a method of drawing and painting an object exactly as it appears to the artist, the artist first sets a vantage point where the subject and the drawing surface appear to be the same size. When properly done, sight-size drawing can result in extremely accurate and it can also be used to draw the exact dimensions for a model in preparation for a painting. Using this method, students progress through a series of such as cast drawing, cast painting, drawing and painting from the live model. Students must complete each task to the instructors satisfaction before progressing to the next and this system is referred to as systematic progression or systematic teaching and learning. Atelier students often begin this progression by drawing plaster casts and these casts are usually faces, hands, or other parts of the human anatomy. Plaster casts provide some of the benefits of live, human models and they also have their own distinct advantages, they remain perfectly still and their white color allows the student to focus on the pure, grayscale tones of shadows. One goal for sight-size students is to gain enough skill to transfer an image to the paper or canvas without the aid of a mechanical device. Sight-size can be taught and applied in conjunction with a sensitivity to gesture to create life-like imagery, especially when applied to portraiture. Darren R. Rousar, former student of Richard Lack and Charles Cecil as well as the author of Cast Drawing Using the Sight-Size Approach and he says that a fully trained artist who uses Sight-size might never use a plumb line or even consciously think about literal measuring. He or she will strive toward achieving the same retinal impression in the painting as is seen in nature, Art school owner Charles H. Cecil writes, In reviving the atelier tradition, R. H. Ives Gammell adopted sight-size as the basis of his teaching method. He founded his studio on the precedent of private ateliers, such as those of Carolus-Duran and these French masters were accomplished sight-size portraitists who conveyed to their pupils a devotion to the art of Velázquez. It should be noted that Sargent was trained by painters and that, in turn, his use of sight-size had a major influence in Great Britain. Art from ateliers using the method is often reminiscent of Greek and Roman sculpture from classical antiquity. Paintings may favor the visual imagery of the Neoclassical art of the mid-18th to 19th century, the comparative measurement method requires proportional accuracy, but allows the artist to vary the size of the image created
15.
Yale School of Architecture
–
The Yale School of Architecture is one of the constituent professional schools of Yale University. Yales architecture programs are an outgrowth of a commitment to the teaching of the fine arts in the university. Art was first taught at an American college or university in 1869 when the Yale School of the Fine Arts was established. Yale alumnus and educator Andrew Dickson White was offered the post as the first dean of the school, even earlier, in 1832, Yale opened the Trumbull Art Gallery, the first college-affiliated gallery in the country. The Department of Architecture was established in the School of the Fine Arts in 1916, in 1959 the School of Art and Architecture, as it was then known, was made into a fully graduate professional school. In 1972 Yale designated the School of Architecture as its own professional school. The School is housed in the masterwork of its former Dean, the school also offers joint-degree programs with the School of Management and School of Forestry. Additionally, a course of study for undergraduates in Yale College leads to a Bachelor of Arts, Yales core program has always stressed design as a fundamental discipline. While initially associated with Beaux Arts pedagogy, the adopted a close affiliation with other modes of fine art, including sculpture, graphic design, painting. One of its most illustrious graduates, Eero Saarinen, produced a wide variety of student projects ranging from medals and currency to campus. When the Art and Architecture Building became its home, Paul Rudolphs design reflected this close integration between various fine art departments, the famed department of Graphic Design contributed consistently to architecture posters, publications and exhibits, particularly to Perspecta, Yales ground breaking student journal. Another distinguishing element in the Yale core program has been the Yale Building Project, in later years the program focused more on New Haven and Southern Connecticut. A recent book on the documents the extraordinary breadth and significance of the work produced by students, many of whom went on to become renowned architects. One of the first of its kind, made it possible for architects, only recently have the design professions embraced this wider field of study, spurred by the movement towards sustainability and inter-disciplinarity. Notable recipients of the degree included William J. Mitchell, later dean at MIT, and Steven Izenour, the Yale Urban Design Workshop is a community design center affiliated with the Yale School of Architecture. It was established in 1992 by School of Architecture professor Alan Plattus, as of 2016, the programs ten-year average ranking, places it 4th, overall, on DesignIntelligences ranking of programs accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board. Conversely, DesignIntelligences ten-year median ranking places the program 3rd, * denotes tie The school maintains an active publications program. It supports two student-edited journals, Perspecta and Retrospecta, a news magazine, Constructs, and publishes books
16.
University of Pennsylvania
–
The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees
17.
Estonia
–
Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia, across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, covering 45,339 km2 of land and water, and is influenced by a humid continental climate. The territory of Estonia has been inhabited since at least 6500 BC, in 1988, during the Singing Revolution, the Estonian Supreme Soviet issued the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in defiance of Soviet rule, and independence was restored on 20 August 1991. Estonia is a parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties. Its capital and largest city is Tallinn, with a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OECD and Schengen Area. Estonia is a country with an advanced, high-income economy that is among the fastest growing in the EU. Its Human Development Index ranks very highly, and it performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, the 2015 PISA test places Estonian high school students 3rd in the world, behind Singapore and Japan. Citizens of Estonia are provided with health care, free education. Since independence the country has developed its IT sector, becoming one of the worlds most digitally advanced societies. In 2005 Estonia became the first nation to hold elections over the Internet, in the Estonian language, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians was maarahvas, meaning country people or people of the land. The land inhabited by Estonians was called Maavald meaning Country Parish or Land Parish, one hypothesis regarding the modern name of Estonia is that it originated from the Aesti, a people described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania. The historic Aesti were allegedly Baltic people, whereas the modern Estonians are Finno-Ugric, the geographical areas between Aesti and Estonia do not match, with Aesti being further down south. Ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is called in Icelandic. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia, esthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921. Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000 to 11,000 years ago, the oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago, the earliest human inhabitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to Kunda culture, which is named after the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in communities near bodies of water
18.
Kuressaare
–
Kuressaare, also known as Arensburg, is a town and a municipality on Saaremaa island in Estonia. It is the capital of Saare County and the westernmost town in Estonia, the population, according to the 2011 census, was 13,166. The town is situated on the coast of the Gulf of Riga and is served by the Kuressaare Airport, Roomassaare Harbor and its historic name Arensburg renders the Latin denotation arx aquilae for the citys castle. The fortress and the eagle, tetramorph symbol of Saint John the Evangelist, are depicted on Kuressaares coat of arms. Eventually, the name shortened to Kuressaare and became official in 1918 after Estonia had declared its independence from Bolshevist Russia. Under the Soviet rule, the town was renamed Kingissepa in 1952, the name Kuressaare was restored in 1990. It is called in Finnish, Kuressaari and in German, Arensburg, the town first appeared on maps around 1154. The island of Saaremaa was conquered by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword under Volkwin of Naumburg in 1227, the first documentation of the castle was found in Latin texts written in 1381 and 1422. Over time, a town, which known as Arensburg or Kuressaarelinn, grew. It became the see of the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek established by Albert of Riga in 1228, johann von Münchhausen, bishop since 1542, converted to Protestantism. With the advance of the troops of Tsar Ivan IV of Russia in the course of the Livonian War, Münchhausen sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark in 1559, Frederick sent his younger brother Prince Magnus to Kuressaare where he was elected bishop the following year. It was through his influence that the city obtained its charter in 1563. The bishopric was secularised in 1572 and Kuressaare fell to the Danish Crown. In 1645, it passed to Swedish control through the Treaty of Brömsebro after the Danish defeat in the Torstenson War. Queen Christina of Sweden granted her favourite, Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie, the title of Count of Arensburg, the city was burnt to the ground by Russian troops in 1710 during the Great Northern War and suffered heavily from the plague. Abandoned by the Swedes it was incorporated into the Governorate of Livonia of the Russian Empire through the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, during the 19th century Kuressaare became a popular seaside resort on the Baltic coast. During World War I, between September and October 1917, German land and naval forces occupied Saaremaa with Operation Albion, during World War II, the Battle of Tehumardi took place. In October 1990, Kuressaare was the first town in Estonia to regain its self-governing status, the medieval episcopal Kuressaare Castle today houses the Saaremaa Regional Museum
19.
Saaremaa
–
Saaremaa is the largest island in Estonia, measuring 2,673 km2. The main island of Saare County, it is located in the Baltic Sea, south of Hiiumaa island, the capital of the island is Kuressaare, which has about 15,000 inhabitants, the whole island has over 30,966 inhabitants. The island is called Saaremaa in Estonian, and in Finnish Saarenmaa — literally isle land or island land. In old Scandinavian sagas, Saaremaa is called Eysysla and in the Icelandic Sagas Eysýsla, which exactly the same as the name of the island in Estonian. This is the origin of the name in Danish Øsel, German and Swedish, Ösel, Gutnish Oysl. The name Eysysla appears sometimes together with Adalsysla, the big land, perhaps Suuremaa or Suur Maa in Estonian, in Latvian, the island is called Sāmsala, which means the island of Saami. According to archaeological finds, the territory of Saaremaa has been inhabited from at least 5,000 years BCE, pre-Viking age Salme ships burial have been found in Sõrve Peninsula. Sagas talk about numerous skirmishes between islanders and Vikings, Saaremaa was the wealthiest county of ancient Estonia and the home of notorious Estonian pirates, sometimes called the Eastern Vikings. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia describes a fleet of sixteen ships, in 1206, King Valdemar II of Denmark built a fortress on the island but found no volunteers to man it. The Danes burned it themselves and left, probably around 1000, Gunnar Hámundarson from Iceland took part in a Viking raid at Eysýsla. There he obtained his famous atgeir, by taking it from a man named Hallgrímur, njáls saga tells the following, Thence they held on south to Denmark and thence east to Smálönd and had victory wherever they went. They did not come back in autumn, the next summer they held on to Rafala and fell in there with sea-rovers, and fought at once, and won the fight. After that they steered east to Eysýsla and lay there somewhile under a ness, there they saw a man coming down from the ness above them, Gunnar went on shore to meet the man, and they had a talk. Gunnar asked him his name, and he said it was Tófi, Gunnar asked again what he wanted. Thee I want to see, says the man, two warships lie on the other side under the ness, and I will tell thee who command them, two brothers are the captains — ones name is Hallgrímur, and the others Kolskeggur. I know them to be mighty men of war, and I know too that they have good weapons that the like are not to be had. Hallgrímur has an atgeir which he had made by seething-spells, and this is what the spells say, in 1227, Saaremaa was conquered by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword during the Livonian Crusade but remained a hotbed of Estonian resistance. The crusaders founded the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek there, when the Order was defeated by the Lithuanian army in the Battle of Saule in 1236, the Saaremaa islanders rebelled
20.
Russo-Japanese War
–
The Russo-Japanese War was fought between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden in Southern Manchuria and the seas around Korea, Japan, Russia sought a warm-water port on the Pacific Ocean for their navy and for maritime trade. Vladivostok was operational only during the summer, whereas Port Arthur, since the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, Japan feared Russian encroachment on its sphere of influence. Russia had demonstrated an expansionist policy in the Siberian Far East from the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century, through threat of Russian expansion, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of Korea as being within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded Korea north of the 39th parallel to be a buffer zone between Russia and Japan. The Japanese government perceived a Russian threat to its strategic interests, after negotiations broke down in 1904, the Japanese Navy opened hostilities by attacking the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur, China, in a surprise attack. The war concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by US President Theodore Roosevelt, the complete victory of the Japanese military surprised world observers. The consequences transformed the balance of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japans recent entry onto the world stage and it was the first major military victory in the modern era of an Asian power over a European one. Scholars continue to debate the historical significance of the war, after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government endeavored to assimilate Western ideas, technological advances and ways of warfare. By the late 19th century, Japan had transformed itself into an industrial state. The Japanese wanted to be recognized as equal with the Western powers, the Meiji restoration had always been intended to make Japan a modernized state, not a Westernized one, and Japan was always an imperialist power, looking towards overseas expansionism. By the 1890s it had extended its realm across Central Asia to Afghanistan, the Russian Empire stretched from Poland in the west to the Kamchatka Peninsula in the east. With its construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway to the port of Vladivostok, in the Tsushima incident of 1861 Russia had directly assaulted Japanese territory. Between the Meiji Restoration and its participation in World War I, the first war Japan fought was the First Sino-Japanese War, fought in 1894 and 1895. The war revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon dynasty, from the 1880s onward, there had been vigorous competition for influence in Korea between China and Japan. The Korean court was prone to factionalism, and was divided by a reformist faction that was pro-Japanese. In 1884, a coup attempt was put down by Chinese troops. A peasant rebellion led by the Tonghak religious movement led to a request by the Korean government for the Qing dynasty to send in troops to stabilize the country
21.
Naturalization
–
Naturalization is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen in a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done by a statute, without any effort on the part of the individual, or it may involve an application, an oath or pledge of allegiance is also sometimes required. In some rare cases, laws for mass naturalization were passed, since World War II, the increase in international migrations created a new category of refugees, most of them economic refugees. The Peoples Republic of China gives citizenship to persons with one or two parents with Chinese nationality who have not taken residence in other countries, the country also gives citizenship to people born on its territory to stateless people who have settled there. Furthermore, individuals may apply for nationality if they have a relative with Chinese nationality, if they have settled in China. In practice, only few people gain Chinese citizenship, as of 2010, the naturalization process starts with a written application. Applicants must also submit original copies of a passport, a residence permit, a permanent residence permit. The Indian citizenship and nationality law and the Constitution of India provides single citizenship for the entire country, the provisions relating to citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution are contained in Articles 5 to 11 in Part II of the Constitution of India. Relevant Indian legislation is the Citizenship Act 1955, which has been amended by the Citizenship Act 1986, the Citizenship Act 1992, the Citizenship Act 2003, and the Citizenship Ordinance 2005. The Citizenship Act 2003 received the assent of the President of India on 7 January 2004, the Citizenship Ordinance 2005 was promulgated by the President of India and came into force on 28 June 2005. Following these reforms, Indian nationality law largely follows the jus sanguinis as opposed to the jus soli, Indonesian nationality is regulated by Law No. The Indonesian nationality law is based on jus sanguinis and jus soli, the Indonesian nationality law does not recognize dual citizenship except for persons under the age of 18. After reaching 18 years of age individuals are forced to choose one citizenship, Israels Declaration of Independence was made on 14 May 1948, the day before the British Mandate was due to expire as a result of the United Nations Partition Plan. The Israeli parliament created two laws regarding immigration, citizenship and naturalization, the Law of Return and the Israeli nationality law, the Law of Return, enacted on July 15,1950, gives Jews living anywhere in the world the right to immigrate to Israel. This right to immigrate did not and still does not grant citizenship, in fact, for four years after Israel gained independence, there were no Israeli citizens. On July 14,1952, the Israeli parliament enacted the Israeli Nationality Law. The Nationality Law naturalized all citizens of Mandated Palestine, the inhabitants of Israel on July 15,1952, because of Israels relatively new and culturally mixed identity, Israel does not grant citizenship to persons born on Israeli soil. Instead, the government chose to enact a jus sanguinis system, there is currently no legislation on second-generation immigrants
22.
University of Pennsylvania School of Design
–
The University of Pennsylvania School of Design is the design school of the University of Pennsylvania. It is currently ranked 3rd in urban planning by The Best Colleges, 10th in urban planning by Planetizen, the School of Design is known for its distinguished faculty, which have included architects Louis Kahn and Robert Venturi and pioneer of landscape architecture Ian McHarg. Denise Scott Brown graduated from the School of Design in 1960, architectural courses were first offered by the University of Pennsylvania in 1868, making the school the second oldest architectural program in the United States. In 1903, these architects were joined by Frenchman Paul Philippe Cret, the School of Fine Arts joined with the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and the Museum School to offer programs in painting and sculpture. In 1924, Landscape Architecture was made into an autonomous department, in the 1950s the school was under the leadership of G. Holmes Perkins, recruited from Harvard to reinvigorate the offerings. Perkins, founded the city planning department and focused the landscape architecture program on urban ecology, the Department of Architecture saw the arrival of structural engineers Robert LeRicolais and August Komendant, along with architects Romaldo Giurgola, Robert Venturi, Robert Geddes. He included 1924 Penn graduate Louis I. Kahn among the architecture faculty, a dedicated educator and philosopher, Kahn became the spiritual leader of the revived Philadelphia School at Penn. In 1958 the School was renamed the Graduate School of Fine Arts, and before long, a renewed Department of Landscape Architecture came under the dynamic leadership of Ian McHarg, while Peter Shepheard, architect, landscape architect and planner, succeeded Perkins as dean. A Civic Design Program later renamed Urban Design and led by David Crane was established as a joint offering by Architecture, the Fine Arts Department became a full-fledged professional program under the leadership of Piero Dorazio, Neil Welliver, and Robert Engman. And in the early 1980s, the added a program in Historic Preservation. The Graduate Program in Historic Preservation is headed by Randall F Mason, as Chair, John Moore brought internationally renowned artists and critics to the School of Design, including Robert Storr, Robert Hughes, Chuck Close and Eric Fischl. Other associated centers and institutes include the T. C. Chan Center for Building Simulation and Energy Studies, the Center for Redevelopment Excellence, and she has replaced outgoing Dean Gary Hack. A. /M. C. P. PDF archive available here Via Publications viaPublications is a student-edited and student-managed publishing entity based at the University of Pennsylvania School of Design, viaPublications includes VIA Journal, and viaBooks. WORK The WORK series of publications documents student work in architectural design studios and courses each year, as well as events, faculty news and it also includes abstracts of PhD dissertations defended that year. The building houses student works and studios for arts students. Duhring Wing Attached to the Fisher Fine Arts Library, anne and Jerome Fisher Fine Arts Library The historic library is the major masterpiece of Philadelphias most important Victorian architect, Frank Furness. Combining genius in planning and form, it is a seminal library design that expresses function while merging the imagery of cathedral, additions in 1916,1922, and 1931, Restored from 1986-91 by Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates. The 1931 McGoodwin addition, is home to the Arthur Ross Gallery, Meyerson Hall Meyerson Hall houses the University of Pennsylvanias School of Design
23.
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The style of instruction that produced Beaux-Arts architecture continued without interruption until 1968. The Beaux-Arts style heavily influenced the architecture of the United States in the period from 1880 to 1920, in contrast, many European architects of the period 1860–1914 outside France gravitated away from Beaux-Arts and towards their own national academic centers. American architects of the Beaux-Arts generation often returned to Greek models, for the first time, repertories of photographs supplemented meticulous scale drawings and on-site renderings of details. Beaux-Arts training emphasized the production of quick conceptual sketches, highly finished perspective presentation drawings, close attention to the program, site considerations tended toward social and urbane contexts. In the façade shown to the right, Diana grasps the cornice she sits on in an action typical of Beaux-Arts integration of sculpture with architecture. A sense of appropriate idiom at the craftsman level supported the teams of the first truly modern architectural offices. The prestige of the École gave the style Beaux-Arts a second wind in combining the new manner with the traditional training and they were followed by an entire generation. Henry Hobson Richardson absorbed Beaux-Arts lessons in massing and spatial planning and his Beaux-Arts training taught him to transcend slavish copying and recreate in the essential fully digested and idiomatic manner of his models. Richardson evolved a personal style freed of historicism that was influential in early Modernism. The White City of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago was a triumph of the movement, the Beaux-Arts curriculum was subsequently begun at Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. From 1916, the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design in New York City schooled architects, painters, bosworth, Carnegie Mellon University, designed by Henry Hornbostel, and the University of Texas, designed by Paul Philippe Cret. Beaux-Arts architecture also brought a civic face to the railroad, two of the best American examples of the Beaux-Arts tradition stand within a few blocks of each other, Grand Central Terminal and the New York Public Library. Another prominent U. S. example of the style is the largest academic dormitory in the world, in the late 1800s, during the years when Beaux-Arts architecture was at a peak in France, Americans were one of the largest groups of foreigners in Paris. Many of them were architects and students of architecture who brought this back to America. Beaux-Arts was very prominent in public buildings in Canada in the early 20th century, notably all three prairie provinces legislative buildings are in this style. Buenos Aires is a center of Beaux-Arts architecture which continued to be built as late as the 1950s, national Theatre, Melbourne General Post Office building, Forrest Place, Perth Argus Building. Beaux-Arts Architecture in New York, A Photographic Guide United States, sixteenth Street Architecture – profiles of Beaux-Arts architecture in Washington D. C
24.
Sesquicentennial Exposition
–
The honor of hosting this celebration was awarded to Philadelphia in 1921. Initial grand plans were scaled down tremendously by the time the fair opened, the original director of the exposition, Colonel David C. Collier, resigned in protest over these budget cuts, baker, retired due to illness days before the festival opened, leaving things in the hands of E. L. Austin. Baker died less than two weeks later, the fair opened on May 31,1926, and ran through November on grounds bounded by 10th Street, Packer Avenue, 23rd Street, and the U. S. Navy Yard in South Philadelphia. The senior draftsman for the design of the buildings was a young Louis Kahn, later a world-renowned architect. Sculptor Charles Tefft as chosen as the director of sculpture for the fair while noted Philadelphia sculptor, the fair drew a much smaller crowd than anticipated. It ended up unable to cover its debts and was placed into receivership in 1927, organizers constructed an 80-foot replica of the Expositions symbol, the Liberty Bell, covered in 26,000 light bulbs, at the gateway to the festival. Sesqui-Centennial Stadium was built in conjunction with the fair, also on display at the exposition was the Curtis Organ, still one of the largest pipe organs in the world. In 1926 the first bridge spanning the Delaware River between center city Philadelphia and Camden, New Jersey, was built in anticipation of the attending crowds, key speakers at the opening ceremonies were Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg, Secretary of Commerce and future President Herbert Hoover, the Exposition also included an amusement area, located within League Island Park. The area was designated as “Treasure Island. ”It occupied over five acres and was referred to as a children’s paradise, a variety of amusements and entertainment were available. Included were a replica of the Canadian Rockies, a railroad, mountain slide, Robinson Crusoe’s Beach. Naval Air Facility Mustin Field was dedicated at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on September 17,1926, Mustin, Navy Air Pilot No.3, and Naval Aviator No. 11, who recorded the first catapult launch from a vessel on November 5,1915 when he flew off of USS North Carolina in a Curtiss Model AB-2. The dedication took place toward the end of the six-month Philadelphia Sesquicentennial Exposition, thirty foreign nations attended the Sesqui, and all the planes from the exhibition flew in formation with aircraft of the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps to honor Mustin. Benito Mussolini commemorated the Sesquicentennial by donating an ornate fountain to Philadelphia, installed in Fairmount Park, it was neglected for many years before being restored in 2013. A Commemorative stamp, showing the Liberty Bell was printed, and these were a silver half dollar and a gold Quarter eagle. The fifty cent coin shows the heads of George Washington and Calvin Coolidge on the obverse, the $2 1/2 coin has on the obverse Liberty holding a torch and the Declaration of Independence while standing on a globe, the reverse depicts Independence Hall
25.
Carcassonne
–
Carcassonne is a fortified French town in the Aude department, of which it is the prefecture, in the Region of Occitanie. Inhabited since the Neolithic period, Carcassonne is located in the Aude plain between historic trade routes, linking the Atlantic to the Mediterranean sea and the Massif Central to the Pyrénées and its strategic location led successive rulers to expand its fortifications until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. The city is famous for the Cité de Carcassonne, a medieval fortress restored by the theorist and architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc in 1853, consequently, Carcassonne relies heavily on tourism but also counts manufacture and wine-making as some of its other key economic sectors. Carcassonne is located in the south of France, about 80 kilometres east from the city of Toulouse and its strategic location between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea has been known since the neolithic era. The towns area is about 65 km2, which is larger than the numerous small towns in the Aude department. The rivers Aude, Fresquel and the Canal du Midi flow through the town, the Volcae Tectosages fortified the oppidum. The folk etymology – involving a châtelaine named Carcas, a ruse ending a siege, Carcas on a column near the Narbonne Gate, is of modern invention. The name can be derived as an augmentative of the name Carcas, Carcassonne became strategically identified when Romans fortified the hilltop around 100 BC and eventually made the colonia of Julia Carsaco, later Carcasum. The main part of the courses of the northern ramparts dates from Gallo-Roman times. In 462 the Romans officially ceded Septimania to the Visigothic king Theodoric II who had held Carcassonne since 453 and he built more fortifications at Carcassonne, which was a frontier post on the northern marches, traces of them still stand. Theodoric is thought to have begun the predecessor of the basilica that is now dedicated to Saint Nazaire, in 508 the Visigoths successfully foiled attacks by the Frankish king Clovis. A medieval fiefdom, the county of Carcassonne, controlled the city and it was often united with the County of Razès. The origins of Carcassonne as a county probably lie in local representatives of the Visigoths, Bello founded a dynasty, the Bellonids, which would rule many honores in Septimania and Catalonia for three centuries. In 1067, Carcassonne became the property of Raimond-Bernard Trencavel, viscount of Albi and Nîmes, through his marriage with Ermengard, in the following centuries, the Trencavel family allied in succession either with the counts of Barcelona or of Toulouse. They built the Château Comtal and the Basilica of St. Nazaire, in 1096, Pope Urban II blessed the foundation stones of the new cathedral. Carcassonne became famous for its role in the Albigensian Crusades, when the city was a stronghold of Occitan Cathars, in August 1209 the crusading army of the Papal Legate, Abbot Arnaud Amalric, forced its citizens to surrender. Raymond-Roger de Trencavel was imprisoned whilst negotiating his citys surrender and died in mysterious circumstances three months later in his own dungeon, simon De Montfort was appointed the new viscount. In 1240, Trencavels son tried to reconquer his old domain, the city submitted to the rule of the kingdom of France in 1247
26.
Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
27.
Classicism
–
Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. Classicism is a genre of philosophy, expressing itself in literature, architecture, art, and music, which has Ancient Greek and Roman sources. It was particularly expressed in the Neoclassicism of the Age of Enlightenment, Classicism is a recurrent tendency in the Late Antique period, and had a major revival in Carolingian and Ottonian art. Until that time the identification with antiquity had been seen as a history of Christendom from the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I. Renaissance classicism introduced a host of elements into European culture, including the application of mathematics and empiricism into art, humanism, literary and depictive realism, importantly it also introduced Polytheism, or paganism, and the juxtaposition of ancient and modern. The classicism of the Renaissance led to, and gave way to and this period sought the revival of classical art forms, including Greek drama and music. Opera, in its modern European form, had its roots in attempts to recreate the combination of singing and dancing with theatre thought to be the Greek norm, examples of this appeal to classicism included Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre. Tudor drama, in particular, modeled itself after classical ideals, studying Ancient Greek became regarded as essential for a well-rounded education in the liberal arts. They also began reviving plastic arts such as bronze casting for sculpture, for example, the painting of Jacques-Louis David which was seen as an attempt to return to formal balance, clarity, manliness, and vigor in art. Various movements of the period saw themselves as classical revolts against a prevailing trend of emotionalism and irregularity. The 20th century saw a number of changes in the arts, thus, both pre-20th century disciplines were labelled classical and modern movements in art which saw themselves as aligned with light, space, sparseness of texture, and formal coherence. Examples of classicist playwrights are Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Moliere, the influence of these French rules on playwrights in other nations is debatable. In the English theatre, Restoration playwrights such as William Wycherly and those of Shakespeares plays that seem to display the unities, such as The Tempest, probably indicate a familiarity with actual models from classical antiquity. Classicism in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of Leon Battista Alberti and this style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. In the 16th century, Sebastiano Serlio helped codify the classical orders, building off of these influences, the 17th-century architects Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren firmly established classicism in England. For the development of classicism from the mid-18th-century onwards, see Neoclassical architecture, for Greek art of the 5th century B. C. E. See Classical art in ancient Greece and the Severe style Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture are marked by their renewal of classical forms, motifs and subjects. In the 15th century Leon Battista Alberti was important in theorizing many of the ideas for painting that came to a fully realised product with Raphaels School of Athens during the High Renaissance
28.
Modernism
–
Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
29.
Paul Philippe Cret
–
Paul Philippe Cret was a French-born Philadelphia architect and industrial designer. For more than thirty years, he taught a studio in the Department of Architecture at the University of Pennsylvania. Born in Lyon, France, Cret was educated at that citys École des Beaux-Arts, then in Paris and he came to the United States in 1903 to teach at the University of Pennsylvania. Although settled in America, he happened to be in France at the outbreak of World War I and he enlisted and remained in the French army for the duration, for which he was awarded the Croix de Guerre and made an officer in the Legion of Honor. Crets practice in America began in 1907, some of Crets work is remarkably streamlined and forward-thinking, and includes collaborations with sculptors such as Alfred Bottiau and Leon Hermant. In the late 1920s the architect was brought in as consultant on Fellheimer and Wagners Cincinnati Union Terminal. He became an American citizen in 1927, in 1931, the regents of The University of Texas at Austin commissioned Cret to design a master plan for the campus, and build the Beaux-Art Main Building, the universitys signature tower. Cret would go on to collaborate on about twenty buildings on the campus, in 1935, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1938. Crets contributions to the industry also included the design of the side fluting on the Burlingtons Pioneer Zephyr. Cret won the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects in 1938, ill health forced his resignation from teaching in 1937. Commission of Fine Arts from 1940 to 1945, after years of limited activity, Cret died in Philadelphia of heart disease. Crets work was displayed in the exhibit, From the Bastille to Broad Street, The Influence of France on Philadelphia Architecture, an exhibit of his train designs, All Aboard. Paul P. Crets Train Designs, was at the Athenaeum of Philadelphia from July 5,2012 to August 24,2012. With a collection of 17,000 drawings and more than 3,000 photographs, louis Kahn studied at the University of Pennsylvania under Cret, and worked in Crets architectural office in 1929 and 1930. Other notable architects who studied under Cret include Alfred Easton Poor, barber, William Ward Watkin, and Chinese architect Lin Huiyin. On the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated Crets Eternal Light Peace Memorial. Following Crets death in 1945, his four partners assumed the practice under the partnership Harbeson, Hough, Livingston & Larson, the firm officially adopted this nickname as its formal title in 1976. H2L2 celebrated 100 years in 2007, 1908–10 – Organization of American States Building, Washington, D. C. C
30.
Zantzinger, Borie & Medary
–
Zantzinger, Borie and Medary was American architecture firm that operated from 1905 to 1950 in Philadelphia. It specialized in institutional and civic projects, for most of its existence, the partners were Clarence C. Zantzinger, Charles Louis Borie Jr. and Milton Bennett Medary, the firm was a launching pad for numerous architects of note, including Dominique Berninger and Louis Kahn. The firm was established in 1905 as Zantzinger & Borie, Zantzinger and Borie were involved in years of preliminary design work on the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The 1911 commission was shared between Z&B and Horace Trumbauer, most of the credit for the final building, completed in 1928, is given to architects Howell Lewis Shay and Julian Abele, both from Trumbauers firm. After Medary joined in 1910, the firm was renamed Zantzinger, the firm collaborated with Paul Philippe Cret for the completed buildings listed below, and on proposals for the Nebraska State Capitol and the Liberty Memorial in Kansas City. When Medary died in 1929, the returned to its original name. The firm was the first recorded American employer of French-born American architect Dominique Berninger, during this time he served as job captain for their design project of the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, a project that cost around $1,250,000. As a young man in 1930 through 1932, Louis Kahn worked for both Cret and for Z&B, the firm also worked with former Bertram Goodhue collaborators sculptor Lee Lawrie and iconographer Hartley Burr Alexander, among others. 1916, Indianapolis Central Public Library, Indianapolis, with Paul Philippe Cret,1917, Washington Memorial Chapel, Valley Forge National Historical Park, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. 1918, Federal Ordnance Plant Housing, Neville Island, Ohio River, the $50,000,000 commission was for 15,000 homes to house 20-25,000 workers. 1921-24, Henry Hall and Foulke Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, 1926-27, Fidelity Mutual Life Insurance Company Building, Philadelphia. Now part of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1927-28, Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, with Paul Philippe Cret. 1927-29, Bok Singing Tower, Lake Wales, Florida, 1929-31, Burton-Judson Courts, Hyde Park, Chicago. 1931, Strathcona Hall, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut and this probably refers to the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, a project that cost around $1,250,000, on which Berninger served as job captain. 1932-35, Department of Justice Building, Washington, D. C
31.
Populism
–
Populism is a political doctrine that proposes that the common people are exploited by a privileged elite, and which seeks to resolve this. The underlying ideology of populists can be left, right, or center and its goal is uniting the uncorrupt and the unsophisticated little man against the corrupt dominant elites and their camp of followers. It is guided by the belief that political and social goals are best achieved by the actions of the masses. Political parties and politicians often use the terms populist and populism as pejoratives against their opponents, such a view sees populism as demagogy, merely appearing to empathize with the public through rhetoric or unrealistic proposals in order to increase appeal across the political spectrum. Populism is most common in democratic nations, historically, academic definitions of populism vary, and people have often used the term in loose and inconsistent ways to reference appeals to the people, demagogy, and catch-all politics. The term has also used as a label for new parties whose classifications are unclear. In recent years, academic scholars have produced definitions that facilitate populist identification and comparison, in the United States and Latin America, populism has generally been associated with the left, whereas in European countries, populism is more associated with the right. In both, the tenet of populism—that democracy should reflect the pure and undiluted will of the people—means it can sit easily with ideologies of both right and left. Cas Mudde says, Many observers have noted that populism is inherent to representative democracy, after all, most recently, many observers have categorized the rise of Donald Trump in the U. S. and Rodrigo Duterte in the Philippines as populist in nature. Populism has taken left-wing, right-wing, and even centrist forms, as well as forms of politics that bring together groups and individuals of diverse partisan views. The use of populist rhetoric in the United States has recently included references such as the trial lawyer lobby. Subsistence peasant movements, such as the Eastern European Green Rising militias, intellectuals who romanticize hard-working farmers and peasants and build radical agrarian movements like the Russian narodniki. Populist democracy, including calls for political participation through reforms such as the use of popular referenda. Politicians populism marked by non-ideological appeals for the people to build a unified coalition, reactionary populism, such as the white backlash harvested by George Wallace. Populist dictatorship, such as established by Getúlio Vargas in Brazil. Scholars have argued that populist elements have appeared in authoritarian movements. Conspiracist scapegoating employed by various populist movements can create a seedbed for fascism, National Socialist populism interacted with and facilitated fascism in interwar Germany. In this case, distressed middle–class populists mobilized their anger against the government, the Nazis parasitized the forms and themes of the populists and moved their constituencies far to the right through ideological appeals involving demagoguery, scapegoating, and conspiracism
32.
Aesthetics
–
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps
33.
Avant-garde
–
The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
34.
Public Works Administration
–
Public Works Administration, part of the New Deal of 1933 was a large-scale public works construction agency in the United States headed by Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes. It was created by the National Industrial Recovery Act in June 1933 in response to the Great Depression and it built large-scale public works such as dams, bridges, hospitals, and schools. Its goals were to spend $3.3 billion in the first year, and $6 billion in all, to employment, stabilize purchasing power. Most of the came in two waves in 1933-35, and again in 1938. Originally called the Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works, it was renamed the Public Works Administration in 1935, the PWA spent over $6 billion in contracts to private construction firms that did the actual work. It created an infrastructure that generated national and local pride in the 1930s, frances Perkins had first suggested a federally financed public works program, and the idea received considerable support from Harold L. Ickes, James Farley, and Henry Wallace. After having scaled back the initial cost of the PWA, Franklin Delano Roosevelt agreed to include the PWA as part of his New Deal proposals in the Hundred Days of spring 1933. The PWA headquarters in Washington planned projects, which were built by construction companies hiring workers on the open market. Unlike the WPA, it did not hire the unemployed directly. More than any other New Deal program, the PWA epitomized the progressive notion of priming the pump to encourage economic recovery. Streets and highways were the most common PWA projects, as 11,428 road projects, or 33% of all PWA projects, school buildings,7,488 in all, came in second at 14% of spending. PWA functioned chiefly by making allotments to the various Federal agencies, making loans and grants to state and other public bodies, for example, it provided funds for the Indian Division of the CCC to build roads, bridges and other public works on and near Indian reservations. The PWA became, with its multiplier-effect and first two-year budget of $3.3 billion, by June 1934, the agency had distributed its entire fund to 13,266 federal projects and 2,407 non-federal projects. For every worker on a PWA project, almost two additional workers were employed indirectly, the PWA also electrified the Pennsylvania Railroad between New York and Washington, DC. At the local level it built courthouses, schools, hospitals, however it did not create as much affordable housing as supporters would have hoped, building only 29,000 units in 4 1⁄2 years. The PWA spent over $6 billion, but did not succeed in returning the level of activity to pre-depression levels. Though successful in many aspects, it has acknowledged that the PWAs objective of constructing a substantial number of quality. Some have argued that because Roosevelt was opposed to deficit spending, Reeves argues that the competitive theory of administration used by Roosevelt proved to be inefficient and produced delays. The cautious and penurious Ickes won out over the more imaginative Hugh S. Johnson as chief of public works administration, Political competition between rival Democratic state organizations and between Democrats and Progressive Republicans led to delays in implementing PWA efforts on the local level
35.
Great Depression
–
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
36.
George Howe (architect)
–
George Howe was an American architect and educator, and an early convert to the International style. His personal residence, High Hollow, established the standard for design in the Philadelphia region through the early 20th century. His partnership with William Lescaze yielded the design of Philadelphias PSFS Building and he was born in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1886 to James and Helen Howe. He received his Bachelor of Architecture from Harvard in 1908, and he worked for the Philadelphia firm of Furness, Evans & Co. from 1913 to 1916. In 1916, he joined the partnership of Walter Mellor & Arthur Ingersoll Meigs and he served in the military from 1917 to 1919, during World War I. Mellor Meigs & Howes commissions were mostly residential and minor buildings, with Bryn Mawr Colleges Goodhart Hall. He left in 1928, and in 1929 formed a partnership with William Lescaze, a younger Swiss architect who had studied at ETH Zurich and their collaboration yielded the landmark PSFS Building in Philadelphia. The partnership was dissolved in 1932, after leaving Howe & Lescaze, Howe designed several private residences in the Philadelphia area. Howe was Architect in Residence at the American Academy in Rome from 1947 to 1949, in 1951 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician. He is buried in the Juniper Hill Cemetery in Bristol, RI High Hollow, Chestnut Hill, ropsley,8765 Montgomery Avenue, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania, Mellor, Meigs & Howe. Laverock, Willow Grove Avenue, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania, Mellor, won the Architectural League of New Yorks 1925 Gold Medal for Excellence in Design. Alterations to Glenays,926 Coopertown Road, Radnor Township, Pennsylvania, Mellor, oxmoor, Skippack Pike, Whitemarsh, Pennsylvania, Mellor, Meigs & Howe. McLean mansion, Sheaff Lane, Whitemarsh, Pennsylvania, Mellor, alterations to Riggs-Riley House,3038 N Street NW, Washington, D. C. Philadelphia Savings Fund Society Building, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with William Lescaze, square Shadows,6024 Butler Pike, Whitemarsh, Pennsylvania. Robert F. Welsh house,7802 Cobden Road, Cheltenham, alterations to Philadelphia Bulletin Building, NE corner Juniper & Filbert Streets, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with Louis Erhardt McAllister. Alterations and additions to Chapel Hill, Berryville, Virginia, houses of Philadelphia, Chestnut Hill and The Wissahickon Valley 1880-1930. 54 West 21st Street, New York, NY10010, Acanthus Press LLC. pp. 136–145
37.
Philadelphia Housing Authority
–
The Philadelphia Housing Authority is a municipal authority providing Public housing services in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is the fourth-largest housing authority in the United States and is the largest landlord in Pennsylvania, PHA houses over 76,000 people in the city of Philadelphia. It is governed by a Board of Commissioners
38.
Oscar Stonorov
–
Oscar Gregory Stonorov, was a modernist architect and architectural writer, historian and archivist who emigrated to the United States from Germany in 1929. His first name is often spelled Oskar, Stonorov was born in Frankfurt, Germany, and studied at the University of Florence, Italy and at the University of Zurich, Switzerland, and apprenticed with French sculptor Aristide Maillol. In 1928, he worked in the offices of André Lurçat in Paris, in 1940 Stonorov, along with George Howe, worked on the design of housing developments in Pennsylvania with Louis Kahn. A formal architectural office partnership between Stonorov and Louis Kahn began in February 1942 and ended in March 1947, produced fifty-four known projects, in 1943, Stonorov co-wrote with Kahn Why City Planning Is Your Responsibility and in 1944 again collaborated with Kahn to write You and Your Neighborhood. Between 1950 and 1954 Philadelphia architect and future Pritzker Prize winner Robert Venturi worked in the offices of Stonorov, in 1957 he established the partnership of Stonorov & Haws. Because Stonorov was not registered as an architect in the United States at the time, Stonorov died with Walter P. Reuther, president of the United Automobile Workers, when Reuthers Gates Learjet 23 crashed on approach to Emmet County Airport in Pellston, Michigan. Also killed were Reuthers wife, his bodyguard, and the pilot and copilot. Reuther and Stonorov were to have performed the inspection of a union recreation and education facility Stonorov had designed at Black Lake. The center was to open three weeks after the crash, with his wife, Elizabeth Foster Miss Betty Stonorov, Stonorov had daughters Katrina Daly, Tasha Stonorov Churchill and Andrea Stonorov Foster as well as a son Derek Stonorov and nine grandchildren. They lived at Avon Lea Farm in Charlestown Township, outside Philadelphia, the Eclipse of the New Deal, Buckminster Fuller, Philip Johnson and Louis Kahn 1934-64. New York, NY, Thames and Hudson, Inc. pp. 149–151, the Design of Public Housing in the New Deal, Oskar Stonorov and Carl Mackley Houses. Tucker & Howell and Oscar Stonorov, the Non-Environmentalists, the roots of international style architecture. West Cornwall, CT, Locust Hill Press, juniata Park Housing Corporation project in Philadelphia, Architectural Record,1958 Apr. v.77, p. 328-329 Preview, New York Worlds Fair 1964-1965, Architectural Record,1964 Feb. v.135, p. 137-144. 1964, Stonorov & Haws, architects Oscar Stonorov at the archINFORM database, Oscar Stonorov papers at the University of Wyoming - American Heritage Center The Walter & May Reuther UAW Family Education Center
39.
Pennsylvania
–
Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
40.
American Academy in Rome
–
The American Academy in Rome is a research and arts institution located on the Gianicolo in Rome. The academy is a member of the Council of American Overseas Research Centers, in 1893, a group of American architects, painters and sculptors met regularly while planning the fine arts section of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The group discussed the idea of forming an American school for artists in Europe as a place for American artists to study, the program began with institutions such as Columbia University and University of Pennsylvania, who would provide scholarships to artists to fund their travel to Rome. In October 1894 the American School of Architecture opened temporarily at the Palazzo Torlonia, directed by Austin W. Lord, in July 1895, the program moved into the larger Villa Aurora. Renting space out to the American School of Classical Studies and the British & American Archeological Society Library, in 1895, the American School of Architecture in Rome was incorporated in New York state and 10 shares of capital stock were issued. Despite fund-raising efforts and the American School of Classical Studies pulling out of Villa Aurora, McKim made up for the financial loss with his personal funds. These struggles would cause the American School of Architecture to restructure, in June 1897, the institution dissolved itself and formed the American Academy in Rome. Among its incorporators was Charles Moore, the Academy introduced bills to the U. S. Congress to make it a national institution, which was successful. In 1904, the Academy moved into Villa Mirafiore, which was purchased and renovated. They formed an endowment, which raised over a million dollars and these founders included, McKim, Harvard College, The Carnegie Foundation, J. P. Morgan, J. P. Morgan, Jr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. The Rockefeller Foundation, William K. Vanderbilt, Henry Walters, ever since, the American Academy has always been primarily privately financed. Today, financing comes from donations as well as grants from the National Endowment for the Arts. In 1912, the American School of Classical Studies in Rome merged with the Academy, women were a part of the School of Classical Studies, but were not permitted participation in the School of Fine Arts until after World War II. From 1970 to 1973, art historian Bartlett H. Hayes Jr. was director of the Academy, classicist John H. DArms was both the resident director of the American Academy and a professor in its School of Classical Studies from 1977 to 1980. Between 1980 and 1984, director Sophie Consagra strengthened the Academys ties with the Roman community, mark Robbins became president and CEO of the Academy in January 2014. The Academy serves as a home to visiting U. S. scholars, the Rome Prize includes terms that range from six months to two years fellowships at the academy, a stipend, and work and living space at the 11-acre campus. In addition to Rome Prize Fellows, visiting scholars and artists live and/or work at the Academy for varying periods, the Academy is housed in several buildings. The main building was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead, located under the floor of the basement of the main building lies a segment of the Aqua Traiana that was discovered in 1912-1913
41.
Madlener House
–
The Madlener House, also known as the Albert F. Madlener House, is a 20th-century mansion located in the Gold Coast neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois, USA. It is the work of architect Richard E. Schmidt and designer Hugh M. G, commissioned in 1901 and completed in 1902, the house was built as the residence for Albert Fridolin Madlener, a German-American brewery owner, and his wife, Elsa Seipp Madlener. Since 1963, it has been the headquarters of the Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts, the house was fully remodeled and renovated by architect Daniel Brenner in 1963-64. Albert Madlener was the son of prominent liquor distiller and merchant Fridolin Madlener, after attending the Latin School of Chicago and Yale University and serving a winery apprenticeship in Germany, Albert took over the family liquor business. He married Elsa Seipp, the daughter of another famous Chicago brewer, three years later, as Elsa was expecting their first child, Albert commissioned his brother-in-law, Richard E. Schmidt to design and construct a new house on west Burton Place in the Gold Coast. Schmidt was only thirty-five years old at the time, the architect and his collaborator, designer Hugh M. G. Garden, accepted the commission, and the home was completed one year later in 1902. ”This amalgamation refers to the usages of then-popular architectural styles in the Midwest and abroad. The high-ceiling, cubic foundation of the house is an influence of the German Neoclassical work of Karl Friedrich Schinkel and others in Berlin, however, many of the house’s details derive from Chicago’s own Prairie School movement, made famous by Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright. Past writings have compared the Madlener House to both Villa Shone in Berlin and Frank Lloyd’s Wright’s Winslow House in River Forest, Illinois. Other details of the house’s interior reflect the International Arts and Crafts movement, in keeping with the Prairie School’s appreciation of local building materials, the exterior of the Madlener House is constructed of Indiana Limestone. The architects gave special attention to the entryway, with an octagonal ornament designed by Gardner and delicate bronze grill work inspired by the designs of Wright. Circassion walnut from the Black Sea region clads the foyer and grand staircase and is used in a bookmatch treatment, the foyer fireplace is of Indiana limestone. Embedded in this fireplace is the most prominent tribute to the Arts and Crafts movement in the house, Albert Van Den Berghens bronze relief, the wooden inlay of this trim matches the simple yet intricate design found on the doorway grill work. The intricate dining room ceiling is painted cast plaster with a design of juxtaposed geometric and organic patterns, the most dramatic part of the house is the third floor ballroom, where the Madleners established their reputation for gracious and plentiful entertaining. Unusual traits of the house are its lack of chimney-tops and its large, russell Sturgis, in a review of the house for Architectural Record, criticized, “A window of ordinary height. Has a whole row of panes of glass at a higher level than the highest glass of these windows in the Chicago house. ”Thirty-four drawings of the Madlener House are archived with the Architecture. A relief sculpture by the Belgian architect Albert Van Den Berghen was commissioned by the Madlener family, the fragments are gifts from various Chicagoans, architects, and architecture enthusiasts and occupy the courtyard garden and certain walls of the library. Founded in 1956, the Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts makes project-based grants and produces programs about architecture and its role in the arts, culture
.jpg)
.jpg)
