1.
Queen's Privy Council for Canada
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Those in the council are accorded the use of an honorific style and post-nominal letters, as well as various signifiers of precedence. The quorum for Privy Council meetings is four, as its function is to provide the vehicle for advising the Crown, the members of the QPC are predominantly all living current and former ministers of the Crown. In addition, the justices of Canada and former governors general are appointed. To date, only Prime Minister Paul Martin advised that Parliamentary Secretaries be admitted to the QPC, I will in all things to be treated, debated and resolved in Privy Council, faithfully, honestly and truly declare my mind and my opinion. I shall keep secret all matters committed and revealed to me in this capacity, generally, in all things I shall do as a faithful and true servant ought to do for Her Majesty. Harper, on 15 October 2007, also advised Governor General Michaëlle Jean to appoint Jim Abbott, on occasion, a non-Canadian has been appointed to the QPC. For example, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was inducted during a visit to Canada on 29 December 1941. Privy councillors are entitled to the style The Honourable or, for the minister, chief justice, or certain other eminent individuals, The Right Honourable. These appointments ended under Lester Pearson, though the style remained in use, limited to only prime ministers. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King had the Privy Council convene in 1947 to consent to the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Philip Mountbatten, as per the Royal Marriages Act 1772. The council has assembled in the presence of the sovereign on two occasions, First, at 10,00 am on Thanksgiving Monday of 1957, at the residence in Ottawa. Two years later, the QPC again met before the Queen in Halifax, Nova Scotia, the last formal meeting of the Privy Council was held in 1981 to give formal consent to the marriage of the Prince of Wales to Lady Diana Spencer. There, all gathered were informed of the Princes engagement, nodded their approval, Prince Charles was himself appointed to the council on 18 May 2014
2.
Order of Canada
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The Order of Canada is a Canadian national order, admission into which is the second highest honour for merit in the system of orders, decorations, and medals of Canada. It comes second only to membership in the Order of Merit, membership is accorded to those who exemplify the orders Latin motto, desiderantes meliorem patriam, meaning they desire a better country, a phrase taken from Hebrews 11,16. Appointees to the order are recommended by a board and formally inducted by the governor general or the sovereign. As of October 2016,6,699 people have been appointed to the Order of Canada, including scientists, musicians, politicians, artists, athletes, business people, and film stars, benefactors, and others. Some have resigned or have been removed from the order, while other appointments have been controversial, appointees are presented with insignia and receive the right to armorial bearings. Pearson, who was assisted with the establishment of the order by John Matheson. Laurent, Hugh MacLennan, David Bauer, Gabrielle Roy, Donald Creighton, Thérèse Casgrain, Wilder Penfield, Arthur Lismer, M. J. Coldwell, Edwin Baker, Alex Colville, and Maurice Richard. From the Order of Canada grew a Canadian honours system, thereby reducing the use of British honours, by the 1980s, Canadas provinces began to develop their own distinct honours and decorations. The Canadian monarch, seen as the fount of honour, is at the apex of the Order of Canada as its Sovereign, followed by the governor general, who serves as the fellowships Chancellor. Thereafter follow three grades, which are, in order of precedence, Companion, Officer, and Member, each incumbent governor general is also installed as the Principal Companion for the duration of his or her time in the viceregal post and continues as an extraordinary Companion thereafter. As of March 2016, there have twenty one honorary appointments. There were originally, in effect, only two ranks to the Order of Canada, Companion and the Medal of Service, there was, however, also a third award, the Medal of Courage, meant to recognize acts of gallantry. This latter decoration fell in rank between the two levels, but was anomalous within the Order of Canada, being a separate award of a different nature rather than a middle grade of the order. Lester Pearsons vision of a structure to the order was thus fulfilled. Companions of the Order of Canada have demonstrated the highest degree of merit to Canada and humanity, up to 15 Companions are appointed annually, with an imposed limit of 165 living Companions at any given time, not including those appointed as extraordinary Companions or in an honorary capacity. As of October 2015, there are 143 living Companions, none being honorary, since 1994, substantive members are the only regular citizens who are empowered to administer the Canadian Oath of Citizenship. As of October 2015, there were 1,123 living Officers, Members of the Order of Canada have made an exceptional contribution to Canada or Canadians at a local or regional level, group, field or activity. As many as 136 Members may be appointed annually, not including extraordinary Members and those inducted on an honorary basis, as of October 2015, there were 2,225 living Members, none being honorary
3.
Queen's Counsel
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A Queens Counsel, or Kings Counsel during the reign of a king, is an eminent lawyer who is appointed by the Queen to be one of Her Majestys Counsel learned in the law. The term is recognised as an honorific. Queens Counsel is a status, conferred by the Crown, that is recognised by courts, members have the privilege of sitting within the Bar of court. As members wear silk gowns of a design, the award of Queens Counsel is known informally as taking silk. Appointments are made from within the profession on the basis of merit rather than a particular level of experience. However, successful applicants tend to be barristers, or advocates with 15 years of experience or more, the Attorney-General, Solicitor-General, and Kings Serjeants were Kings Counsel in Ordinary in the Kingdom of England. The first Queens Counsel Extraordinary was Sir Francis Bacon, who was given a patent giving him precedence at the Bar in 1597, the new rank of Kings Counsel contributed to the gradual obsolescence of the formerly more senior serjeant-at-law by superseding it. The Attorney-General and Solicitor-General had similarly succeeded the Kings Serjeants as leaders of the Bar in Tudor times, but the Kings Counsel emerged into eminence only in the early 1830s, prior to when they were relatively few in number. It became the means to recognise a barrister as a senior member of the profession. It became of greater importance to become a KC. The KCs inherited the prestige of the serjeants and their priority before the courts, the earliest English law list, published in 1775, lists 165 members of the Bar, of whom 14 were Kings Counsel, a proportion of about 8. 5%. As of 2010 roughly the same proportion existed, though the number of barristers had increased to about 12,250 in independent practice, in 1839 the number of Queens Counsel was seventy. In 1882, the number of Queens Counsel was 187, the list of Queens Counsel in the Law List of 1897 gave the names of 238, of whom hardly one-third appeared to be in actual practice. In 1959, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 181, in each of the five years up to 1970, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 208,209,221,236 and 262, respectively. In each of the years 1973 to 1978, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 329,345,370,372,384 and 404, in 1989, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 601. In each of the years 1991 to 2000, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 736,760,797,845,891,925,974,1006,1043, the title traditionally depends on the sex of the sovereign. The current Queen, Elizabeth II has had a long reign and it can be assumed that, should the Queen die and the title pass to a descendant, the title will again become KC, as the next three in line to the throne are male heirs. Queens Counsel and serjeants were prohibited, at least from the century, from drafting pleadings alone
4.
Prime Minister of Canada
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Canadian prime ministers are styled as The Right Honourable, a privilege maintained for life. The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions, the prime minister, along with the other ministers in cabinet, is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch. There are no age or citizenship restrictions on the position of prime minister itself, while there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member of parliament, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly. However, in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister, two former prime ministers—Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell—served in the 1890s while members of the Senate. Both, in their roles as Government Leader in the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office—John A. Macdonald in 1891 and that convention has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the commons in such a scenario. Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment have since been expected to seek election to the commons as soon as possible. For example, William Lyon Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election, Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a commons seat. The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majestys pleasure, meaning the post does not have a fixed term, once appointed and sworn in by the governor general, the prime minister remains in office until he or she resigns, is dismissed, or dies. Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the House of Commons. Should the prime ministers party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons, if, however, an opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general. This option was last entertained in 1925, however, the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power. Caucuses may choose to follow rules, though the decision would be made by recorded vote. Either the sovereign or his or her viceroy may therefore oppose the prime ministers will in extreme, for transportation, the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared use of two official aircraft—a CC-150 Polaris for international flights and a Challenger 601 for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister, all of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen-in-Council through budgets approved by parliament, as is the prime ministers annual salary of CAD$170,400. Should a serving or former prime minister die, he or she is accorded a state funeral, John Thompson also died outside Canada, at Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria permitted his lying-in-state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax. In earlier years, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried the prefix Sir before their name, of the first eight premiers of Canada, the Canadian Heraldic Authority has granted former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued them. To date, former prime ministers Joe Clark, Pierre Trudeau, John Turner, Brian Mulroney, the written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title, The Right Honourable, Prime Minister of Canada
5.
George VI
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George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
6.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
7.
Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis
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He then commanded the 15th Army Group for the capture of Sicily and again in Italy before receiving his field marshals baton and being made Supreme Allied Commander Mediterranean. Alexander proved to be enthusiastic about the Canadian wilderness and was a governor general with Canadians. He was the last non-Canadian-born governor general before the appointment of Adrienne Clarkson in 1999, Alexander retired in 1954 and died in 1969. Alexander was born in London into a family from County Tyrone of Ulster-Scots descent. He was the son of The Earl and Countess of Caledon. Alexander was educated at Hawtreys and Harrow School, there participating as the 11th batsman in the sensational Fowlers Match against Eton College in 1910, though Alexander toyed with the notion of becoming an artist, he went instead on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In September 1911, Alexander entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the British Armys Irish Guards. He was promoted to lieutenant in December 1912, Alexander spent most of the First World War on the Western Front. As a 22-year-old platoon commander in the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards and he took part in the retreat from Mons and was wounded at First Ypres and invalided home. He was promoted to captain on 15 November 1914 and permanent captain in the newly raised 2nd Battalion on 7 February the following year. He then returned to the 2nd Battalion as a officer and, in January 1916. For service in the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916, he was, in October, appointed to the Distinguished Service Order, the citation for which read, For conspicuous gallantry in action. He was the life and soul of the attack, and throughout the day led forward not only his own men but men of all regiments and he held the trenches gained in spite of heavy machine gun fire. In the same month, Alexander was further honoured with induction into the French Légion dhonneur, on 10 December 1916, his twenty-fifth birthday, Alexander became second-in-command of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards as an acting major. By May, he was briefly acting CO of the 1st Battalion, as a lieutenant colonel. He became a permanent major on 1 August 1917 and was promoted acting lieutenant colonel. Alexander commanded his battalion at Third Ypres, where he was wounded, then at Bourlon Wood. Alexander, between 23 and 30 March 1918, had to command of the 4th Guards Brigade
8.
Vincent Massey
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Charles Vincent Massey PC CH CC CD FRSC was a Canadian lawyer and diplomat who served as the first Canadian-born Governor General of Canada, the 18th since Canadian Confederation. On September 16,1925, Massey was sworn into the Kings Privy Council for Canada, however, Massey was later, as a former Governor General of Canada, entitled to be styled for life with the superior form of The Right Honourable. He subsequently continued his work and founded Massey College at the University of Toronto. Massey was born in Toronto, Ontario, as the son of Anna and Chester Daniel Massey, the owner of the Massey-Harris Co. and the patriarch of one of the citys wealthiest families. But, he was not with his new bride long before, at the end of 1914, the United Kingdom, and thus Canada along with it, had declared war on Germany. Massey was commissioned as an officer for Military District No.2 and was called to work for the Cabinet war committee before being discharged at the cessation of hostilities in 1918. By the next year, UofTs social and athletic facility was complete and dedicated in memory of Masseys grandfather, Hart Massey, as Hart House, there, Massey participated as an amateur actor and director in the buildings theatre. It was desired that Massey, as a minister, hold a seat in the House of Commons, yet he failed to win his riding of Durham in the 1925 federal election, held on October 29. But, merely five days after Massey relinquished his posting to Washington, Mackenzie Kings Liberal Party was defeated in the federal election, three years later, the Liberals were again returned to a majority in the commons and Mackenzie King was once more installed as prime minister. Throughout his time as commissioner, Massey used his connections to bring to Canada House a litany of personalities from the highest quarters. Seven decades later, these accusations against Massey resulted in a campaign in Windsor, Ontario, to rename a high school that had originally been named in his honour. Though Massey was honoured for all work by being inducted in 1946 by King George VI into the Order of the Companions of Honour. He sat as chair of the National Gallery of Canada from 1948 to 1952 and was selected as Chancellor of the University of Toronto between 1948 and 1953, all this Massey continued despite the death of his wife in July 1950. As a widower, he was also the only unmarried person ever to reside at Rideau Hall, typically, the governor generals wife would be the viceregal consort and act as the hostess and chatelaine of the household. In Masseys case, however, his daughter-in-law, Lilias Massey, fulfilled the role, though she was not accorded the style of Her Excellency, laurents choice of Massey to succeed the Viscount Alexander of Tunis as the Kings representative. Within five days, however, the King was dead and Massey, upon his swearing-in, would thus be the first Canadian-born representative of Georges daughter, Queen Elizabeth II. As he was a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, in Canada, there was some commentary about the soon-to-be representative of the new queen. The notion of a Canadian-born governor general, and one also not elevated to the peerage, was viewed as controversial by traditionalists
9.
William Lyon Mackenzie King
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William Lyon Mackenzie King OM, CMG, PC, also commonly known as Mackenzie King, was the dominant Canadian political leader from the 1920s through the 1940s. He served as the tenth Prime Minister of Canada in 1921–1926, 1926–1930, a Liberal with 21 years and 154 days in office, he was the longest-serving prime minister in Canadian history. Trained in law and social work, he was interested in the human condition. King acceded to the leadership of the Liberal Party in 1919, taking the helm of a party bitterly torn apart during the First World War, he reconciled factions, unifying the Liberal Party and leading it to victory in the 1921 election. His party was out of office during the harshest days of the Great Depression in Canada, 1930–35 and he personally handled complex relations with the Prairie Provinces, while his top aides Ernest Lapointe and Louis St. Laurent skillfully met the demands of French Canadians. During the Second World War, he avoided the battles over conscription, patriotism. Though few major policy innovations took place during his premiership, he was able to synthesize, scholars attribute Kings long tenure as party leader to his wide range of skills that were appropriate to Canadas needs. He understood the workings of capital and labour, keenly sensitive to the nuances of public policy, he was a workaholic with a shrewd and penetrating intelligence and a profound understanding of the complexities of Canadian society. A modernizing technocrat who regarded managerial mediation as essential to an industrial society, King worked to bring compromise and harmony to many competing and feuding elements, using politics and government action as his instrument. He led his party for 29 years, and established Canadas international reputation as a middle power fully committed to world order, Kings biographers agree on the personal characteristics that made him distinctive. He lacked the charisma of such contemporaries as Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and he lacked a commanding presence or oratorical skill, his best writing was academic, and did not resonate with the electorate. Cold and tactless in human relations, he had allies but very few personal friends. He never married and lacked a hostess whose charm could substitute for his chill, a survey of scholars in 1997 by Macleans magazine ranked King first among all Canadas prime ministers, ahead of Sir John A. Macdonald and Sir Wilfrid Laurier. As historian Jack Granatstein notes, the scholars expressed little admiration for King the man but offered unbounded admiration for his political skills, on the other hand, political scientist Ian Stewart in 2007 found that even Liberal activists have but a dim memory of him. King was born in Berlin, Ontario, to John King and his maternal grandfather was William Lyon Mackenzie, first mayor of Toronto and leader of the Upper Canada Rebellion in 1837. His father was a lawyer, and later a professor at Osgoode Hall Law School and he attended Berlin Central School and Berlin High School. Tutors were hired to teach him more politics, science, math, English and his father was a lawyer with a struggling practice in a small city, and never enjoyed financial security. King became a lifelong practising Presbyterian with a dedication to applying Christian virtues to social issues in the style of the Social Gospel and he obtained three degrees from the University of Toronto, B. A.1895, LL. B
10.
John Diefenbaker
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John George Diefenbaker, PC, CH, QC was the 13th Prime Minister of Canada, serving from June 21,1957 to April 22,1963. Diefenbaker was born in southwestern Ontario in 1895, in 1903, his family migrated west to the portion of the North-West Territories which would shortly thereafter become the province of Saskatchewan. He grew up in the province, and was interested in politics from a young age, after brief service in World War I, Diefenbaker became a noted criminal defence lawyer. He contested elections through the 1920s and 1930s with little success until he was elected to the House of Commons in 1940. Diefenbaker was repeatedly a candidate for the PC leadership and he gained that party position in 1956, on his third attempt. In 1957, he led the Tories to their first electoral victory in 27 years, Diefenbaker appointed the first female minister in Canadian history to his Cabinet, as well as the first aboriginal member of the Senate. During his six years as Prime Minister, his government obtained passage of the Canadian Bill of Rights and granted the vote to the First Nations, Diefenbaker is also remembered for his role in the 1959 cancellation of the Avro Arrow project. Diefenbaker stood for re-election as party leader at the last moment and he remained an MP until his death in 1979, two months after Joe Clark became the first Tory Prime Minister since Diefenbaker. Diefenbaker was born on September 18,1895, in Neustadt, Ontario, to William Thomas Diefenbaker and his father was the son of German immigrants from Adersbach in Baden, Mary Diefenbaker was of Scottish descent and Diefenbaker was Baptist. The family moved to locations in Ontario in Johns early years. William Diefenbaker was a teacher, and had interests in history and politics. He had remarkable success doing so, of the 28 students at his school near Toronto in 1903, four, including his son, John, the Diefenbaker family moved west in 1903, for William Diefenbaker to accept a position near Fort Carlton, then in the Northwest Territories. In 1906, William claimed a quarter-section,160 acres of undeveloped land near Borden, in February 1910, the Diefenbaker family moved to Saskatoon, the site of the University of Saskatchewan. William and Mary Diefenbaker felt that John and his brother Elmer would have greater opportunities in Saskatoon. John Diefenbaker had been interested in politics from an early age and she told him that it was an impossible ambition, especially for a boy living on the prairies. She would live to be proved wrong, Johns first contact with politics came in 1910, when he sold a newspaper to Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier, in Saskatoon to lay the cornerstone for the Universitys first building. I must get about my work, after graduating from high school in Saskatoon, in 1912, Diefenbaker entered the University of Saskatchewan. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1915, and his Master of Arts the following year, Diefenbaker was commissioned a lieutenant into the 196th Battalion, CEF in May 1916
11.
Quebec City
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Quebec City, French, Ville de Québec, officially Québec) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, Quebec City is one of the oldest cities in North America. The citys landmarks include the Château Frontenac, a hotel which dominates the skyline, and La Citadelle, the National Assembly of Quebec, the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, and the Musée de la civilisation are found within or near Vieux-Québec. Thus, Québec is officially spelled with an accented é in both Canadian English and French, although the accent is not used in common English usage. Quebec City is one of the oldest European settlements in North America, while many of the major cities in Latin America date from the sixteenth century, among cities in Canada and the U. S. few were created earlier than Quebec City. Also, Quebecs Old Town is the only North American fortified city north of Mexico whose walls still exist, French explorer Jacques Cartier built a fort at the site in 1535, where he stayed for the winter before going back to France in spring 1536. He came back in 1541 with the goal of building a permanent settlement, Quebec was founded by Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer and diplomat on 3 July 1608, and at the site of a long abandoned St. Lawrence Iroquoian settlement called Stadacona. Champlain, also called The Father of New France, served as its administrator for the rest of his life, the name Canada refers to this settlement. Although called the cradle of the Francophone population in North America, the place seemed favourable to the establishment of a permanent colony. In 1629 there was the surrender of Quebec, without battle, however, Samuel de Champlain argued that the English seizing of the lands was illegal as the war had already ended, he worked to have the lands returned to France. As part of the negotiations of their exit from the Anglo-French War. These terms were signed into law with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the lands in Quebec and Acadia were returned to the French Company of One Hundred Associates. In 1665, there were 550 people in 70 houses living in the city, one-quarter of the people were members of religious orders, secular priests, Jesuits, Ursulines nuns and the order running the local hospital, Hotel-Dieu. Quebec City was the headquarters of many raids against New England during the four French, in the last war, the French and Indian War, Quebec City was captured by the British in 1759 and held until the end of the war in 1763. France ceded New France, including the city, to Britain in 1763, at the end of French rule in 1763, forests, villages, fields and pastures surrounded the town of 8,000 inhabitants. The town distinguished itself by its architecture, fortifications, affluent homes of masonry and shacks in the suburbs of Saint-Jean. Despite its urbanity and its status as capital, Quebec City remained a small city with close ties to its rural surroundings. Nearby inhabitants traded their farm surpluses and firewood for imported goods from France at the two city markets, during the American Revolution revolutionary troops from the southern colonies assaulted the British garrison in an attempt to liberate Quebec City, in a conflict now known as the Battle of Quebec
12.
Liberal Party of Canada
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The Liberal Party of Canada, colloquially known as the Grits, is the oldest federal political party in Canada. The party espouses the principles of liberalism, and generally sits at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum, the Liberal Party is traditionally positioned to the left of the Conservative Party of Canada and to the right of the New Democratic Party. During the beginning of the 21st century, the party lost a significant amount of support, in the present times, the Liberal party has favoured a variety of big tent policies from both right and left of the political spectrum. It also legalized same-sex marriage and allowed the use of cannabis for medical purposes, during the 2015 election, the Liberal partys proposed policies included, Cut the middle class tax bracket from 22% to 20.88 per $100 to $1. In the 29 years after Canadian confederation, the Liberals were consigned to opposition, with the exception of one stint in government. Alexander Mackenzie was able to lead the party to power for the first time in 1873, Mackenzie subsequently won the 1874 election, and served as Prime Minister for an additional four years. However the party was able to build a solid support base in Ontario. The Liberals would spend the next 18 years in opposition, in their early history, the Liberals were the party of continentalism and opposition to imperialism. The Liberals also became identified with the aspirations of Quebecers as a result of the hostility of French Canadians to the Conservatives. It was not until Wilfrid Laurier became leader that the Liberal Party emerged as a modern party, Laurier was able to capitalize on the Tories alienation of French Canada by offering the Liberals as a credible alternative. Laurier was able to overcome the reputation for anti-clericalism that offended the still-powerful Quebec Roman Catholic Church. In English-speaking Canada, the Liberal Partys support for reciprocity made it popular among farmers, Laurier led the Liberals to power in the 1896 election, and oversaw a government that increased immigration in order to settle Western Canada. Lauriers government created the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta out of the North-West Territories, there was no national membership of the party, an individual became a member by joining a provincial Liberal party. The new organization allowed individuals to join the national Liberal Party for the first time. No national convention was held, however, until 1948, the Liberal Party held only three national conventions prior to the 1950s – in 1893,1919 and 1948). Over time, provincial Liberal parties in most provinces were separated from provincial wings of the federal party, by the 1980s, the National Liberal Federation was officially known as the Liberal Party of Canada. Under Laurier, and his successor William Lyon Mackenzie King, the Liberals promoted Canadian sovereignty, after the King–Byng Affair of 1926, the Liberals argued that the Governor General of Canada should no longer be appointed on the recommendation of the British government. The decisions of the Imperial Conferences were formalized in the Statute of Westminster, which was passed in 1931
13.
Jeanne St. Laurent
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Jeanne Saint-Laurent was the wife of Louis St. Laurent, the 12th Prime Minister of Canada. She was born in Beauceville, Quebec and her parents were Pierre-Ferdinand Renault and Amanda Montminy. Pierre-Ferdinand Renault was a Beauceville businessman and changed his name from Renaud. Renault met Louis St. Laurent at a party in Quebec City in 1906 while he was working as a lawyer, jeanne Renault and Louis St. Laurent married in 1908. They had five children together, two sons and three daughters, in 1951, she moved the family permanently to Ottawa, after Louis purchased an official prime-ministerial residence at 24 Sussex Drive. She would tour with her husband, but she refused to fly, spouses of the Prime Ministers of Canada
14.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
15.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
16.
Eastern Townships
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Its northern boundary roughly followed Logans Line —the geologic boundary between the St. Lawrence Lowlands and the Appalachian Mountains. The region comprises counties that were divided into townships after the traditional method of land grants of the original New England. Earlier French settlement along the Saint Lawrence River had divided the landscape into parishes and Seigneuries, the tourist region now covers most of the region. The administrative region, officially called Estrie, is slightly smaller, the principal cities are Sherbrooke, Granby, Magog, and Cowansville. The towns of Drummondville, Victoriaville, and Thetford Mines are part of the historical region, the region has summer colonies used by vacationing Montrealers and several ski resorts, including Mount Orford, Ski Bromont, Mount Sutton, and Owls Head. The area contains a population of about 330,000, most of whom are French-speaking and it also contains about 41,000 native English-speaking inhabitants, forming a significant minority in the community. The area has been described as populated by well-heeled cottagers and gentlemen farmers, the first inhabitants of the region were the Abenaki First Nations. The names of towns, lakes and rivers of the area are of Abenaki origin. The Abenakis allied themselves with the French during the Seven Years War to fight the British, the region was part of New France until the 1763 Treaty of Paris which granted the region to the British. Shortly after the American Revolution, a few United Empire Loyalists, the early loyalists settled in and around Missisquoi Bay. A popular misconception is that there was an influx of Loyalists to the Eastern Townships. In fact most of the immigration from New England happened in the nineteenth century. Most were farmers seeking new lands, something the townships had to offer, some Loyalists had moved to the area during the Revolutionary War. When it ended Sir Frederick Haldimand, the governor of Quebec and he cut off the rations the government had been providing. However, they resisted efforts to be moved by force and were permitted to stay by Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton after Haldimands return to England. The status of the Eastern Townships Loyalists was resolved when the agreed to permit them to stay on their land for a nominal fee. The exact number cannot be ascertained, but a petition sent to the governor included 378 names. Allowing for a family of five, this could suggest a population of about 1600 or so
17.
French Canadians
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French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
18.
Irish Canadians
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Irish Canadians are Canadian citizens who have full or partial Irish heritage including descendants who trace their ancestry to immigrants who originated in Ireland. 1.2 million Irish immigrants arrived from 1825 to 1970, by 1867, they were the second largest ethnic group, and comprised 24% of Canadas population. The 1931 national census counted 1,230,000 Canadians of Irish descent, about one-third were Catholic in 1931 and two-thirds Protestant. The Irish immigrants were overwhelmingly Protestant before the years of the late 1840s. Even larger numbers of Catholics headed to the United States, others went to England and this was a large and significant increase of 531,495 since the 2001 census, which counted 3,823,000 respondents quoting Irish ethnicity. According to the National Household Survey 2011, the population of Irish ancestry has increased since 2006 to 4,544,870, the first recorded Irish presence in the area of present-day Canada dates from 1536, when Irish fishermen from Cork traveled to Newfoundland. Between 1825 and 1845, 60% of all immigrants to Canada were Irish, in 1831 alone, during this period much smaller numbers arrived in Newfoundland. Besides Upper Canada, Lower Canada Quebec, the Maritime colonies of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, Not all remained, many out-migrated to the United States or to Western Canada in the decades that followed. Seldom few ever returned to Ireland, during the Great Famine, Canada received the most destitute Irish Catholics, who left Ireland in grave circumstances. Land estate owners in Ireland would either evict landholder tenants to board on returning empty lumber ships, others left on ships from the overcrowded docks in Liverpool and Cork. Most of the Irish immigrants who came to Canada and the United States in the century and before were Irish speakers. The great majority of Irish Catholics arrived in Grosse Isle, an island in Quebec in the St. Lawrence River, from Grosse-Ile, most survivors were sent to Quebec City and Montreal, where the existing Irish community mushroomed. The orphaned children were adopted into Quebec families and accordingly became Québécois, at the same time, ships with the starving also docked at Partridge Island, New Brunswick in similarly desperate circumstances. In comparison with the Irish who went to the United States or Britain, many Irish arrivals in Canada settled in rural areas, the Catholic Irish and Protestant Irish were often in conflict from the 1840s. In Ontario, the Irish fought with the French for control of the Catholic Church, in that instance, the Irish sided with the Protestants to oppose the demand for French language Catholic schools. Thomas DArcy McGee, an Irish-Montreal journalist, became a Father of Confederation in 1867, an Irish Republican in his early years, he would moderate his view in later years and become a passionate advocate of Confederation. He was instrumental in enshrining educational rights for Catholics as a minority group in the Canadian Constitution, in 1868, he was assassinated in Ottawa. Historians are not sure who the murderer was, or what were his motivations, one theory is that a Fenian, Gaylord ONeiel Whelan, was the assassin, attacking McGee for his recent anti-Raid statements
19.
Bilingual
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Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the worlds population, more than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one other language in addition to their mother tongue. Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of globalization, people who speak several languages are also called polyglots. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the first language is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals, even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates the other. People who know more than one language have been reported to be adept at language learning compared to monolinguals. Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization, the definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the very same way as the definition of language fluency. On one end of a sort of continuum, one may define multilingualism as complete competence. The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the language so as to sound native, on the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions, in addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or a dialect of English. Many small independent nations schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions, for example, in, all children are required to learn at least two foreign languages, the other national language and one alien language. Many Finnish schoolchildren also select further languages, such as German or Russian, in some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, school children may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In major metropolitan areas of Central, South and East India, thus a child of Telugu parents living in Bangalore will end up speaking his or her mother tongue at home and the state language, Hindi and English in school and his or her surroundings. Many myths and much prejudice has grown around the notions of bi- and these are all harmful convictions which have long been debunked, yet still persist among many parents. A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language, more specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved. A multilingual person is referred to as a polyglot. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the first language is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed
20.
Rhodes Scholarship
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The Rhodes Scholarship, named for the British mining magnate and South African politician Cecil John Rhodes, is an international postgraduate award for students to study at the University of Oxford. It is widely considered to be one of the worlds most prestigious scholarships, established in 1902, it was the first large-scale programme of international scholarships, inspiring the creation of a great many other awards in other countries. With the scholarships, he aimed at making Oxford University the educational centre of the English-speaking race, since its creation, controversy has surrounded both its former exclusion of women, and Rhodes Anglo-supremacist beliefs and legacy of colonialism. As of 2016, there have been 7,776 scholars since the programmes inception, more than 4,700 are still living. The Rhodes Scholarships are administered and awarded by the Rhodes Trust, which was established in 1902 under the terms and conditions of the will of Cecil John Rhodes, Rhodes motivation in establishing the scholarship is reflected in his will. Stead noted that it him to the world as the first distinguished British statesman whose Imperialism was that of Race, with the scholarships, he aimed at making Oxford University the educational centre of the English-speaking race. With this motivation in mind, the legacy originally provided for scholarships for the British colonies and these three were chosen because it was thought that a good understanding between England, Germany and the United States of America will secure the peace of the world. In 1925, the Commonwealth Fund Fellowships were established to reciprocate the Rhodes Scholarships by enabling British graduates to study in the United States and it also cooperates with universities in China, BLCC for example. BLCC offers high-level scholarships for students who aim to study Chinese in Beijing. In 1953, the Parliament of the United Kingdom created the Marshall Scholarship as an alternative to the Rhodes Scholarship that would serve as a living gift to the United States. For at least its first 75 years, Rhodes Scholars usually studied for a second Bachelor of Arts degree, while that remains an option, more recent scholars usually study for an advanced degree. In recognition of the centenary of the foundation of the Rhodes Trust in 2003 and these were John Brademas, Bob Hawke, Rex Nettleford and David R. Woods. During the centenary celebrations, the foundation of the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was also marked, Cecil Rhodes wished current scholars and Rhodes alumni to have opportunities of meeting and discussing their experiences and prospects. Each countrys scholarship varies in its selectivity, in the United States, in 2014, there were 857 university-endorsed applicants for the Americans Rhodes scholarship, of whom 3. 7% were ultimately elected. In Canada between 1997-2002, there were an average of 234 university-endorsed applicants annually for 11 scholarships, for a rate of 4. 7%. An early change was the elimination of the scholarships for Germany during the First, no German scholars were chosen from 1914 to 1929, nor from 1940 to 1969. Rhodess bequest was whittled down considerably in the first decades after his death, a change occurred in 1929, when an Act of Parliament established a fund separate from the original proceeds of Rhodess will and made it possible to expand the number of scholarships. Between 1993 and 1995, scholarships were extended to countries in the European Community
21.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
22.
Canadian Bar Association
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The Canadian Bar Association represents over 37,000 lawyers, judges, notaries, law teachers, and law students from across Canada. The Associations first Annual Meeting was held in Montreal in 1896, however, the CBA has been in continuous existence in its present form since 1914. The Association was incorporated in 1921, the Association advances its objectives through the work of its sections, committees, conferences and task forces at both the national and branch levels. It has branches in each of the provinces and three territories, membership is voluntary in all but New Brunswick, where by agreement with the law society, lawyers in the province belong to the national association. Approximately half of all practising lawyers in Canada belong to the Canadian Bar Association, the national office of the Canadian Bar Association is located in Ottawa. The Association’s website and databanks are administered by the national office, policy decisions are made by Council which meets twice a year and includes approximately 225 voting members representing the membership across Canada. The members of national Council elect the treasurer and the vice president. The 32 national sections of the Canadian Bar Association provide a forum for development of individual specialties and these sections provide information to Association members on specific areas of law. The Association also maintains a liaison with the American Bar Association. Membership in these groups provides the Association with input on recent developments in the profession on a broad scale. Official website of Canadian Bar Association Ontario Bar Association
23.
Wilfrid Laurier
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Sir Henri Charles Wilfrid Laurier GCMG, PC, KC, known as Wilfrid Laurier, was the seventh Prime Minister of Canada, in office from 11 July 1896 to 6 October 1911. Canadas first francophone prime minister, Laurier is often considered one of the countrys greatest statesmen and he is well known for his policies of conciliation, expanding Confederation, and compromise between French and English Canada. His vision for Canada was a land of liberty and decentralized federalism. He also argued for an English-French partnership in Canada, I have had before me as a pillar of fire, he said, a policy of true Canadianism, of moderation, of reconciliation. He passionately defended individual liberty, Canada is free and freedom is its nationality, a 2011 Macleans historical ranking of the Prime Ministers placed Laurier first. Laurier holds a number of records, he holds the record for the most consecutive federal elections won, in addition, his nearly 45 years of service in the House of Commons is a record for that house. At 31 years,8 months, Laurier was the leader of a major Canadian political party. Finally, he is the fourth-longest serving Prime Minister of Canada, behind King, John A. Macdonald, Lauriers portrait is displayed on the Canadian five-dollar bill. The second child of Carolus Laurier and Marcelle Martineau, Wilfrid Laurier was born in Saint-Lin, Canada East, Laurier was among the seventh generation of his family in Canada. His ancestor François Cottineau, dit Champlaurier, came to Canada from Saint-Claud and he grew up in a family where politics was a staple of talk and debate. His father, a man having liberal ideas, enjoyed a certain degree of prestige about town. In addition to being a farmer and surveyor, he also occupied such sought-after positions as mayor, justice of the peace, militia lieutenant, at the age of 11, Wilfrid left home to study in New Glasgow, a neighbouring village largely inhabited by immigrants from Scotland. Over the next two years, he familiarized himself with the mentality, language and culture of British people, Laurier attended the Collège de LAssomption and graduated in law from McGill University in 1864. He was first elected to the Canadian House of Commons in the 1874 election, chosen as leader of the federal Liberal Party in 1887, he gradually built up his partys strength through his personal following both in Quebec and elsewhere in Canada. The growing alienation of French-Canadians from the Conservative Party due to its links with anti-French and these factors, combined with the collapse of the Conservative Party of Quebec, gave Laurier an opportunity to build a stronghold in French Canada and among Catholics across Canada. Catholic priests in Quebec repeatedly warned their parishioners not to vote for Liberals and their slogan was le ciel est bleu, lenfer est rouge. Laurier led Canada during a period of growth, industrialization and immigration. His long career straddles a period of political and economic change
24.
Canadian federal election, 1896
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The Canadian federal election of 1896 was held on June 23,1896, to elect members of the Canadian House of Commons of the 8th Parliament of Canada. Though the Conservative Party won a plurality of the popular vote, the governing Conservative Party, since the death of John A. Macdonald in 1891, was disorganized, going through four leaders in five years. The party was viewed as corrupt and wasteful of public funds. Issues like the Manitoba Schools Question had cost the party support in both French and English Canada, entering the election, the Tories were led by Sir Charles Tupper, a Father of Confederation and former Premier of Nova Scotia. This filibuster resulted in Tupper abandoning the bill and asking for a dissolution, Tupper argued that the real issue of the election was the future of Canadian industry, and he insisted that Conservatives needed to unite to defeat the Patrons of Industry. The election saw a change in the Liberal Party. While the Liberals had traditionally been the party for radical change and free trade, in the 1896 election and that helped many of the traditional supporters of the Conservative Party move to the Liberals. The most important change was Lauriers support of the National Policy, the Liberal campaign was directed by an ex-Conservative, Joseph Israël Tarte. Ending up, the Conservatives won the most votes in the 1896 election, however, they captured only about half of the seats in English Canada, but Lauriers Liberals won a landslide victory in Quebec, where Tuppers reputation as an ardent imperialist was a major handicap. Tuppers inability to persuade Joseph-Adolphe Chapleau to return to politics, as his Quebec lieutenant. However, when Tupper attempted to make appointments as prime minister, Governor General Lord Aberdeen intervened, dismissing Tupper, Tupper maintained that Lord Aberdeens actions were unconstitutional. The voter turnout was 72. 9% Note, * Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election, acclamations, The following Members of Parliament were elected by acclamation, Ontario,1 Patron of Industry Quebec,1 Conservative,2 Liberals Argyle, Ray
25.
Arthur Meighen
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Arthur Meighen PC, QC was a Canadian lawyer and politician. He served two terms as the ninth Prime Minister of Canada, from 10 July 1920 to 29 December 1921 and he was the first Prime Minister born after Confederation, and the only one to represent a riding in Manitoba. Meighen later served for a decade in the Senate of Canada, Arthur Meighen was born on a farm near Anderson, Perth County, Ontario, to Joseph Meighen and Mary Jane Bell. He attended primary school at Blanshard public school in Anderson, where, in addition to being the grandson of the villages first schoolmaster and he took first class honours in mathematics, English, and Latin. He then attended University College at the University of Toronto, where he earned a B. A. in mathematics in 1896, with first-class standing. While there, he met and became a rival of William Lyon Mackenzie King, Meighen then graduated from Osgoode Hall Law School. In 1904 he married Isabel J. Cox, with whom he had two sons and one daughter and he moved to Manitoba shortly after finishing law school. In public, Meighen was a debater, said to have honed his oratory by delivering lectures to empty desks after class. He was renowned for his sharp wit, Meighen was first elected to the Canadian House of Commons in 1908, at the age of 34, defeating incumbent John Crawford when he captured the Manitoba riding of Portage la Prairie. In 1911, Meighen won re-election, this time as a member of the new governing party and he won election again in 1913, after being appointed to Prime Minister Robert Bordens Cabinet as Solicitor General. Meighens fiery, sarcastic, and partisan speeches gained him a following on the Conservative party backbench, who saw him as logical, informed and he gained a following among those in the party who felt Bordens government was aimless. Meighen served as Solicitor General from 26 June 1913 until 25 August 1917, in 1917, he was mainly responsible for implementing mandatory military service as a result of the Conscription Crisis of 1917. Noteworthy was the decision to give votes to conscription supporters. Meighens portfolios were again shifted on 12 October 1917, this time to the positions of Minister of the Interior and he was re-elected in the December 1917 federal election, in which Bordens Unionist government defeated the opposition Laurier Liberals over the conscription issue. In 1919, as acting Minister of Justice and senior Manitoban in the government of Sir Robert Borden, Meighen helped to subdue the Winnipeg General Strike, shortly after the strike ended, he enacted the Section 98 amendments to the Criminal Code to ban association with organizations deemed seditious. It took the return to Ottawa in late July 1919 of Charles Doherty, Minister of Justice, Meighen was re-appointed Minister of Mines on the last day of 1920. During this first term, he was Prime Minister for about a year, Meighen fought the 1921 election under the banner of the National Liberal and Conservative Party in an attempt to keep the allegiance of Liberals who had supported the wartime Unionist government. However, his actions in implementing conscription hurt his partys support in Quebec, while the Winnipeg General Strike and farm tariffs made him unpopular among labour
26.
Supreme Court of Canada
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The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court of Canada, the final court of appeals in the Canadian justice system. The court grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants each year to appeal decisions rendered by provincial, territorial and federal appellate courts, the creation of the court was provided for by the British North America Act,1867, renamed in 1982 the Constitution Act,1867. The first bills for the creation of a supreme court, introduced in the Parliament of Canada in 1869. It was not until 8 April 1875 that a bill was passed providing for the creation of a Supreme Court of Canada. Prior to 1949, however, the Supreme Court did not constitute the court of last resort, as well, some cases could bypass the court and go directly to the Judicial Committee from the provincial courts of appeal. The Supreme Court of Canada formally became the Court of last resort for criminal appeals in 1933, the last decisions of the Judicial Committee on cases from Canada were made in the mid-1950s, as a result of their being heard in a court of first instance prior to 1949. The increase in the importance of the court was mirrored by the numbers of its members, the court was established first with six judges, and these were augmented by an additional member in 1927. It was in 1949 that the bench reached its current composition, prior to 1949, most of the appointees to the Supreme Court of Canada owed their position to political patronage. Each judge had strong ties to the party in power at the time of their appointment, in 1973, the appointment of a constitutional law professor, Bora Laskin, as chief justice represented a major turning point for the court. Increasingly in this period, appointees either came from backgrounds or were well-respected practitioners with several years experience in appellate courts. Laskins federalist and liberal views were shared by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, the evolution from the Dickson court through to the Lamer court witnessed a continuing vigour in the protection of civil liberties. Lamers criminal law background proved an influence on the number of cases heard by the court during his time as chief justice. Nonetheless, the Lamer court was more conservative with charter rights, the appointment of Beverly McLachlin as chief justice in 2000 has resulted in a more centrist and unified court. Dissenting and concurring opinions are fewer than during the Dickson and Lamer Courts, with the 2005 appointments of Justices Louise Charron and Rosalie Abella, the court became the worlds most gender-balanced national high court, four of its nine members being female. Justice Marie Deschamps retirement on 7 August 2012 caused the number to fall to three, the appointment of Suzanne Côté on 1 December 2014 restored the number of female justices to four. At the next level are the provinces and territories superior courts, judgments from the superior courts may be appealed to a still higher level, the provincial or territorial courts of appeal. Several federal courts also exist, the Tax Court of Canada, the Federal Court, the Federal Court of Appeal, unlike the provincial superior courts, which exercise inherent or general jurisdiction, the federal courts jurisdiction is limited by statute. In all there are over 1,000 federally appointed judges at various levels across Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada rests at the apex of the judicial pyramid
27.
Ernest Lapointe
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Ernest Lapointe, PC was a Canadian lawyer and politician. A member of Parliament from Quebec City, he was a top adviser to Liberal party leader William Mackenzie King, especially on issues relating to legal affairs, Quebec, Lapointe earned his law degree from Laval University. He was a lawyer in Quebec City, and was appointed Crown Prosecutor for Kamouraska before entering politics. He was first elected by acclamation to the Canadian House of Commons in the 1904 general election as the Liberal MP for Kamouraska and he resigned his seat in 1919 in order to run in the Quebec East seat vacated by the death of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, and won that. In 1921, Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King appointed Lapointe to his first Cabinet as Minister of Marine, during his term as minister of fisheries, he negotiated a treaty with the United States on west-coast fishing rights. This was the first time that a Canadian minister negotiated on foreign affairs without any assistance from Great Britain, in 1924 he became Minister of Justice, and served in that position in successive Liberal cabinets until his death in 1941. Lapointe served as Kings Quebec lieutenant and was one of the most important ministers in Cabinet, King did not speak French, and had little interest in Quebec issues, he relied on Lapointe to handle important matters in the province. Lapointe gave a Quebecker voice to the decision, something that had not existed since the defeat of Laurier in 1911. Lapointe shared Kings vision of Canadian autonomy from Britain, and chaired the Canadian delegation to the Imperial Conference of 1926. This led to the drafting of the subsequent Balfour Declaration that raised the status of dominions to one of equality with Britain, in the late 1930s, Lapointe disallowed several Acts passed by the Alberta Social Credit government of William Aberhart. However, he failed to disallow the Padlock Act passed by Maurice Duplessis, Lapointe helped draft Mackenzie Kings policy against conscription for overseas service in 1939, and his campaigning helped defeat the Duplessis provincial government in 1939. Lapointe died in office in 1941, leaving the cabinet without significant Quebec ministers, finally, the party decided to appoint the reluctant Louis Saint-Laurent to the cabinet as the new minister of justice, when King personally solicited his support. His son, Hugues Lapointe, was also a parliamentarian and Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, ernest Lapointe, Mackenzie Kings Great Quebec Lieutenant. Ernest Lapointe and Quebecs influence on Canadian foreign policy Neatby, H. Blair, journal of Canadian Studies/Revue dÉtudes Canadiennes 11.1, 3+ Conscription Crisis of 1944 Creighton, Donald. Ernest Lapointe – Parliament of Canada biography Biography from Library and Archives Canada
28.
Conscription Crisis of 1917
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The Conscription Crisis of 1917 was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War I. It was mainly caused by disagreement on whether men should be conscripted to fight in the war and it also brought out many issues regarding relations between French Canadians and English Canadians and motivated many revolutionary acts. Canada entered World War I on 4 August 1914, colonel Sam Hughes was the Canadian Minister of Militia and on 10 August he was permitted to create a militia of 25,000 men. Before the end of August 1914 Hughes had already created a camp at Valcartier, Quebec. The first contingent of 31,200 Canadians, dubbed Canadas Answer, Hughes moved with incredible speed to create Canadian battalions which allowed Canadian troops to be kept together as units for the first time. They had to be turned away, because the Minister of Militia, however, the government continued to raise its expectations for volunteers, aiming for 150,000 men by 1915. English Canadians did not believe that French Canada was providing a fair share to the war effort. Sam Hughes, in June 1917, informed the House of Commons that of the 432,000 Canadian volunteers fewer than 5% came from French Canada, indeed, Montreals La Presse editorialized that Quebec should create a contingent to fight as part of the French Army. When the government relented, the first new unit was the 22nd Battalion, as the war dragged on, soldiers and politicians soon realized there would be no quick end. Eventually, people learned of the conditions and number of casualties in Europe. There were over 300,000 recruits by 1916, but Prime Minister Robert Borden had promised 500,000 by the end of that year, even though Canadas population was only 8 million at the time. After the Battle of the Somme, Canada was in desperate need to replenish its supply of soldiers, however, the recruiting effort in Quebec had failed, and Canada turned to its only unused option, conscription. Almost all French Canadians opposed conscription, they felt that they had no loyalty to either Britain or France. Led by Henri Bourassa, they felt their only loyalty was to Canada, English Canadians generally supported the war effort as they felt stronger ties to the British Empire. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 caused a considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones, after visiting Britain for a meeting of First Ministers in May 1917, Borden announced that he would introduce the Military Service Act on August 29,1917. The Act was passed, allowing the government to conscript men across the country if the Prime Minister felt that it was necessary, for Borden, these votes had another advantage, as they could be distributed in any riding, regardless of the soldiers regular place of residence. On the other hand, conscientious objectors and recent immigrants from countries were denied the right to vote. In the election, Borden was opposed not only by Bourassa, Laurier had opposed conscription from the beginning of the war, arguing that an intense campaign for volunteers would produce enough troops
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Francophone
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Minister of Justice (Canada)
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The Minister of Justice is the Minister of the Crown in the Canadian Cabinet who is responsible for the Department of Justice, chief federal legal adviser and is also Attorney General of Canada. This cabinet position is reserved for someone holding a legal qualification. There have been exceptions, Joe Clark only studied the first year of law at University of British Columbia Faculty of Law before embarking on political life and this is the only Canadian Ministry which has not been reorganized since its creation in 1867. The Attorney General of Canada is the top prosecuting officer in Canada, the role is part of the cabinet post of the Minister of Justice. The role was created in 1867 replacing the Attorney General of Canada West, key, Attorney General of Upper Canada Attorney General of Lower Canada
32.
Conscription
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Conscription, or drafting, is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s. Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1–8 years on active duty and those conscripted may evade service, sometimes by leaving the country. As of the early 21st century, many no longer conscript soldiers. The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and the scope of hostilities, many states that have abolished conscription therefore still reserve the power to resume it during wartime or times of crisis. Around the reign of Hammurabi, the Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called Ilkum, under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war. During times of peace they were required to provide labour for other activities of the state. In return for service, people subject to it gained the right to hold land. It is possible that this right was not to hold land per se, various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi, the hiring of substitutes appears to have practiced both before and after the creation of the code. Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded, in other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service. Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them, with the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi. The levies raised in this way fought as infantry under local superiors, although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months. Most were subsistence farmers, and it was in everyones interest to send the men home for harvest-time, the bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour. Medieval levy in Poland was known as the pospolite ruszenie, the system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkish slave-soldiers by the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim in the 820s and 830s. In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, the new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme
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Conscription Crisis of 1944
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The Conscription Crisis of 1944 was a political and military crisis following the introduction of forced military service in Canada during World War II. It was similar to the Conscription Crisis of 1917, but was not as politically damaging, Canada declared war against Germany on September 10,1939, and sent one division to Europe, which did not have an opportunity to engage in combat before France was defeated by Germany. By electing Godbout as Premier on 25 October 1939, there was an understanding in Quebec that the reward for voting out Duplessis would be no overseas conscription, many Canadians supported Mackenzie Kings pledge, even as it became obvious the war would not end quickly. In the Infantry, barracks life and most training was in French and only the command, in the rest of the military, however, similar French-speaking units were not created. Among the justifications for this policy were the predominance of the radio, the 12th Armoured Regiment, originally mobilized by the francophone militia unit the Three Rivers Regiment, was reorganized and fought as an English-speaking unit. Many French-speaking soldiers were sidetracked in this process and these units were, however, distributed among the various English-speaking divisions of the Canadian Army overseas. Acceptance of French-speaking units was greater in Canada from the start of the Second World War in comparison to the first, by the late summer of 1944, the numbers of new recruits were insufficient to replace war casualties in Europe, particularly among the infantry. By 1941 there were enough volunteers for five overseas divisions, meanwhile, the Conservatives were pressuring King to advise that the Governor General introduce overseas conscription. The plebiscite was supported by most English Canadians as well as the banned Communist Party of Canada which established Tim Buck Yes Committees to campaign for a yes vote, across Canada,64. 5% of voters were in favour of conscription, with English Canadians voting 83% in favour. The proposal received hardly any support from French Canadians, especially in Quebec, the government then passed Bill 80, repealing the sections of the NRMA that did not allow for overseas conscription. However, many Canadians still did not support conscription, there were a few riots in Montreal. Even in Toronto, a strongly pro-conscription region, Conservative Arthur Meighen was defeated in a by-election after promising to introduce conscription. Following the plebiscite, Public Works minister Pierre Joseph Arthur Cardin quit the King cabinet to protest his plan to introduce conscription, after the campaigns in Italy in 1943 and the Normandy invasion in 1944, combined with a lack of volunteers, Canada faced a shortage of troops. A brigade from one of the three home defence divisions in Canada was sent to the Aleutian Islands Campaign in 1943 and these divisions were made up largely of conscripts, other than officers and NCOs, and desertions before embarkation were noted. McNaughton was unable to produce large numbers of volunteers for the army, although there were numerous volunteers for the navy, some members of Kings cabinet threatened to resign and bring down the government. King finally agreed to a levy of 17,000 NRMA conscripts for overseas service in November 1944. When word of the decision reached soldiers stationed in Terrace, British Columbia, few conscripts saw combat in Europe, only 2463 men reached units on the front lines. Out of these,69 lost their lives, politically, this was a successful gamble for King, as he avoided a drawn-out political crisis and remained in power until his retirement in 1948
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Igor Gouzenko
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Igor Sergeyevich Gouzenko was a cipher clerk for the Soviet Embassy to Canada in Ottawa, Ontario. He defected on September 5,1945 – just three days after the end of World War II – with 109 documents on Soviet espionage activities in the West and this forced Prime Minister Mackenzie King to call a Royal Commission to investigate espionage in Canada. Gouzenko exposed Joseph Stalins efforts to steal nuclear secrets, and the technique of planting sleeper agents, the New York Times described Gouzenkos actions as having awakened the people of North America to the magnitude and the danger of Soviet espionage. Gouzenko was born to a Ukrainian family on January 13,1919, in the village of Rogachovo near Dmitrov, at the start of World War II, he joined the military where he trained as a cipher clerk. In 1943, he was stationed in Ottawa, where for two years he enciphered outgoing messages and deciphered incoming messages for the GRU and his position gave him knowledge of Soviet espionage activities in the West. In September 1945, hearing that he and his family were to be sent home to the Soviet Union and dissatisfied with the quality of life, Gouzenko walked out of the embassy door carrying with him a briefcase with Soviet code books and deciphering materials. He initially went to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, but the RCMP officers on duty refused to believe his story. He then went to the Ottawa Journal newspaper, but the night editor was not interested. Terrified that the Soviets had discovered his duplicity, he went back to his apartment, Gouzenko, hidden by a neighbour, watched through the keyhole as a group of Soviet agents broke into his apartment. They began searching through his belongings, and only left when confronted by Ottawa police, the next day Gouzenko was able to find contacts in the RCMP who were willing to examine the evidence he had removed from the Soviet embassy. Gouzenko was transported by the RCMP to the secret World War II Camp X, while there, Gouzenko was interviewed by investigators from Britains internal security service, MI5 and by investigators from the US Federal Bureau of Investigation. It has been alleged that, though the RCMP expressed interest in Gouzenko, even with Gouzenko in hiding and under RCMP protection, King reportedly pushed for a diplomatic solution to avoid upsetting the Soviet Union, still a wartime ally and ostensible friend. Gouzenko and his wife Svetlana, they told him, had appeared at the office of Justice Minister Louis St. Laurent with documents unmasking Soviet perfidy on Canadian soil and it was like a bomb on top of everything else, King wrote. Kings diaries assembled after his death were missing a volume for November 10 to December 31,1945, according to Library. Robertson told the Prime Minister that Gouzenko was threatening suicide, but King was adamant that his government not get involved, robertson ignored the prime ministers wishes and authorized granting asylum to Gouzenko and his family, on the basis that their lives were in danger. In February 1946 word got out in the media that Soviets operated a spy network in Canada in which Canadians gave classified information to the Soviet government, Gouzenkos defection ushered in the modern era of Canadian security intelligence. Among those convicted were Fred Rose, who was the only Communist Member of Parliament in the Canadian House of Commons, Sam Carr, the Communist Partys national organizer, and scientist Raymond Boyer. Chapman was later acquitted, the judge in her case announced that No case has made out and, as far as this trial is concerned
35.
Espionage
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Espionage is the obtaining of information considered secret or confidential without the permission of the holder of the information. Espionage can be committed by an individual or a spy ring, in the service of a government or a company, the practice is inherently clandestine, as it is by definition unwelcome and in many cases illegal and punishable by law. Espionage is a subset of intelligence gathering, which includes espionage as well as information gathering from public sources, Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern. However, the term is associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies primarily for military purposes. Spying involving corporations is known as industrial espionage, one of the most effective ways to gather data and information about the enemy is by infiltrating the enemys ranks. This is the job of the spy, Spies can bring back all sorts of information concerning the size and strength of enemy forces. They can also find dissidents within the forces and influence them to defect. In times of crisis, spies can also be used to steal technology, counterintelligence operatives can feed false information to enemy spies, protecting important domestic secrets, and preventing attempts at subversion. Nearly every country has strict laws concerning espionage, and the penalty for being caught is often severe. However, the benefits that can be gained through espionage are generally great enough that most governments, events involving espionage are well documented throughout history. The Old Testament of the Christian Bible, which is based primarily on the Hebrew Bible, speaks about Joshua and Caleb, the ancient writings of Chinese and Indian military strategists such as Sun-Tzu and Chanakya contain information on deception and subversion. Chanakyas student Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya Empire in India, made use of assassinations, spies and secret agents, the ancient Egyptians had a thoroughly developed system for the acquisition of intelligence, and the Hebrews used spies as well, as in the story of Rahab. Spies were also prevalent in the Greek and Roman empires, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols relied heavily on espionage in their conquests in Asia and Europe. Feudal Japan often used ninjas to gather intelligence, aztecs used Pochtecas, people in charge of commerce, as spies and diplomats, and had diplomatic immunity. Many modern espionage methods were established by Francis Walsingham in Elizabethan England, in 1585, Mary, Queen of Scots was placed in the custody of Sir Amias Paulet, who was instructed to open and read all of Marys clandestine correspondence. In a successful attempt to expose her, Walsingham arranged a single exception, Mary was misled into thinking these secret letters were secure, while in reality they were deciphered and read by Walsinghams agents. He succeeded in intercepting letters that indicated a conspiracy to displace Elizabeth I with Mary, in foreign intelligence, Walsinghams extensive network of intelligencers, who passed on general news as well as secrets, spanned Europe and the Mediterranean. While foreign intelligence was a part of the principal secretarys activities, Walsingham brought to it flair and ambition
36.
Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canada)
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In addition to the Department, the Minister is also the lead in overseeing the International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development and the International Development Research Centre. From 1909 to 1993, the office was called Secretary of State for External Affairs, the first two Secretaries of State for External Affairs, from 1909 until 1912, concurrently served as Secretary of State for Canada. The two portfolios were permanently separated in 1912, and the External Affairs portfolio was held by the Prime Minister of Canada until 1946. Joe Clark led opposition to South Africas Apartheid system within the Commonwealth of Nations, lloyd Axworthy brought about the Ottawa Treaty, banning anti-personnel landmines in most countries of the world. As in Pearsons case, the portfolio can be a stepping stone to the Prime Ministers Office. Until 1946, it was customary for the office to be held by the sitting Prime Minister, john Diefenbaker would hold the portfolio on two subsequent occasions. Key, Lester Pearson is the minister to have been a diplomat prior to their appointment. Pearson entered the Canadian foreign service in 1927 and rose to become Canadian Ambassador to the United States from 1944 to 1946, paul Martin, Sr. served as Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom after his retirement from active politics. Unlike Pearson, none were career diplomats, Department of Foreign Affairs, History, Introduction Department of Foreign Affairs Canada
37.
Dumbarton Oaks Conference
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The conference was held at Dumbarton Oaks from August 21,1944, to October 7,1944. S. Under-Secretary of State Edward Reilly Stettinius, Jr. each of whom chaired his respective delegation, the conference itself was chaired by Stettinius, and U. S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull delivered the opening address. The conversations were held in two phases, since the Soviets were unwilling to meet directly with the Chinese, in the first phase, representatives of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States convened between August 21 and September 28. In the second, representatives of Republic of China, the United Kingdom, and the United States held discussions between September 29 and October 7. Already in June 1942, on behalf of the director, John S. Thacher, when in June 1944 the State Department found that Dumbarton Oaks could comfortably accommodate the delegates and that the environment ideal, the offer was renewed by James B. Conant, the president of Harvard University, in a letter of June 30,1944, on October 7,1944, the delegates agreed on a tentative set of proposals to meet these goals. Charles E. Apparently, it never occurred to anyone on the U. S. side to counter with a proposal that all 48 states be admitted to the General Assembly and it took the conference at Yalta, plus further negotiations with Moscow, before these issues were solved. Also at Yalta, a system was proposed to take the place of the League of Nations mandate system. List of World War II conferences Now — The Peace, a 1945 documentary film about the conference Hilderbrand, Dumbarton Oaks, The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta Proposals for the Establishment of a General International Organization 1945 NFB documentary on Dumbarton Oaks, Now - The Peace
