1.
Germans
–
Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
Germans
Germans
–
Germanic Kingdoms in Europe c. 500 AD
Germans
–
Extent of
Holy Roman Empire in 972 (red line) and 1035 (red dots) with
Kingdom of Germany marked in blue
Germans
–
18 January 1871: The proclamation of the
German Empire in the
Hall of Mirrors of the
Palace of Versailles.
Bismarck appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later
Friedrich III, stands on his father's right.
2.
Poet
–
POET LLC is a U. S. biofuel company that specializes in the creation of bioethanol. The privately held corporation, which was originally called Broin Companies, is headquartered in Sioux Falls, in 2007, the Renewable Fuels Association named POET the largest U. S. ethanol producer, creating 1.1 billion US gallons of fuel per year. Currently, POET produces 1.7 billion gallons of ethanol per year, POET operates 27 ethanol plants spread across Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Minnesota, and South Dakota. In 2007, the received a US$80 million grant from the U. S. Department of Energy for the creation of a cellulosic ethanol production facility in Emmetsburg. A grand opening was held for the facility on September 3rd,2014 and it is expected to produce 25 million gallons of ethanol per year from corncobs, leaves and husks provided by farmers in and around the area. POET has also collaborated with companies, including Deere & Co. and Vermeer Company. Among its products in the process are distillers grains branded Dakota Gold, Inviz, the company traces its history to the family farm in Wanamingo, Minnesota where the Broins began producing ethanol in 1983. In 1986 it became commercial launching its flagship plant in Scotland, in 2007, it was renamed POET. Then company president Jeff Broin said the new name is not an acronym, bush in Wentworth, South Dakota in April 2002 and by Barack Obama in Macon, Missouri in April 2010. POET has constructed an $8 million pilot plant to produce cellulosic ethanol made from corn cobs, a commercial scale project, based on the pilot plant, was undertaken as a joint venture with Royal DSM under the name POET-DSM Advanced Biofuels, LLC. A federal loan guarantee was obtained in July,2011 for a plant to be built in Emmetsburg. This loan guarantee was later declined when the joint venture with Royal DSM was announced. Originally scheduled to open in 2013, the facility opened a year late in September,2014
Poet
3.
Philologist
–
Philology is the study of language in written historical sources, it is a combination of literary criticism, history, and linguistics. It is more defined as the study of literary texts and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist, in older usage, especially British, philology is more general, covering comparative and historical linguistics. Indo-European studies involves the comparative philology of all Indo-European languages, Philology, with its focus on historical development, is contrasted with linguistics due to Ferdinand de Saussures insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis. The contrast continued with the emergence of structuralism and Chomskyan linguistics alongside its emphasis on syntax, the term changed little with the Latin philologia, and later entered the English language in the 16th century, from the Middle French philologie, in the sense of love of literature. The adjective φιλόλογος meant fond of discussion or argument, talkative, in Hellenistic Greek also implying an excessive preference of argument over the love of true wisdom, as an allegory of literary erudition, Philologia appears in 5th-century post-classical literature, an idea revived in Late Medieval literature. The meaning of love of learning and literature was narrowed to the study of the development of languages in 19th-century usage of the term. Most continental European countries still maintain the term to designate departments, colleges, position titles, J. R. R. Tolkien opposed the nationalist reaction against philological practices, claiming that the philological instinct was universal as is the use of language. Based on the critique of Friedrich Nietzsche, US scholars since the 1980s have viewed philology as responsible for a narrowly scientistic study of language. The comparative linguistics branch of philology studies the relationship between languages, similarities between Sanskrit and European languages were first noted in the early 16th century and led to speculation of a common ancestor language from which all these descended. Philology also includes the study of texts and their history and it includes elements of textual criticism, trying to reconstruct an authors original text based on variant copies of manuscripts. Since that time, the principles of textual criticism have been improved and applied to other widely distributed texts such as the Bible. Scholars have tried to reconstruct the original readings of the Bible from the manuscript variants and this method was applied to Classical Studies and to medieval texts as a way to reconstruct the authors original work. A related study method known as higher criticism studies the authorship, date, as these philological issues are often inseparable from issues of interpretation, there is no clear-cut boundary between philology and hermeneutics. When text has a significant political or religious influence, scholars have difficulty reaching objective conclusions, some scholars avoid all critical methods of textual philology, especially in historical linguistics, where it is important to study the actual recorded materials. Supporters of New Philology insist on a diplomatic approach, a faithful rendering of the text exactly as found in the manuscript. Another branch of philology, cognitive philology, studies written and oral texts and this science compares the results of textual science with the results of experimental research of both psychology and artificial intelligence production systems. In the case of Bronze Age literature, philology includes the prior decipherment of the language under study and this has notably been the case with the Egyptian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Hittite, Ugaritic and Luwian languages
Philologist
–
Cover of Indo-European philology historical and comparative by
William Burley Lockwood
4.
Literary historian
–
Some recorded materials, such as compilations of data are not considered literature, and this article relates only to the evolution of the works defined above. Literature and writing, though connected, are not synonymous, scholars have often disagreed concerning when written record-keeping became more like literature than anything else, the definition is largely subjective. Moreover, given the significance of distance as a cultural isolator in earlier centuries, the historical development of literature did not occur at an even pace across the world. Much has been written, for example, about the destruction of the Library of Alexandria in the 1st century BC, the deliberate suppression of texts by organisations of either a spiritual or a temporal nature further shrouds the subject. Certain primary texts, however, may be isolated which have a role as literatures first stirrings. Many texts handed down by oral tradition over several centuries before they were fixed in form are difficult or impossible to date. The core of the Rigveda may date to the mid 2nd millennium BC, the Pentateuch is traditionally dated to the 15th century, although modern scholarship estimates its oldest part to date to the 10th century BC at the earliest. Homers Iliad and Odyssey date to the 8th century BC and mark the beginning of Classical Antiquity and they also stand in an oral tradition that stretches back to the late Bronze Age. The great Hindu epics were also transmitted orally, likely predating the Maurya period, the Classic of Poetry is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, comprising 305 works by anonymous authors dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BC. The Chu Ci anthology is a volume of poems attributed to or considered to be inspired by Qu Yuans verse writing. Qu Yuan is the first author of verse in China to have his name associated to his work and is regarded as one of the most prominent figures of Romanticism in Chinese classical literature. The first great author on military tactics and strategy was Sun Tzu, among the earliest Chinese works of narrative history, Zuo Zhuan is a gem of classical Chinese prose. This work and the Shiji or Records of the Grand Historian, were regarded as the models by many generations of prose stylists in ancient China. The books that constitute the Hebrew Bible developed over roughly a millennium, the oldest texts seem to come from the eleventh or tenth centuries BCE, whilst most of the other texts are somewhat later. They are edited works, being collections of various sources intricately and carefully woven together, the Old Testament was compiled and edited by various men over a period of centuries, with many scholars concluding that the Hebrew canon was solidified by about the 3rd century BC. The works have been subject to various literary evaluations, friedrich Nietzsche wrote, “In the Jewish Old Testament, there are men, things and speeches in so grand a style that Greek and Indian literature have nothing to compare to it. One stands with awe and reverence before these tremendous remnants of what man once was, the taste for the Old Testament is a touchstone of greatness and smallness. ”Ancient Greek society placed considerable emphasis upon literature. Notable among later Greek poets was Sappho, who defined, in many ways, a playwright named Aeschylus changed Western literature forever when he introduced the ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting
Literary historian
–
A stone tablet containing part of the
Epic of Gilgamesh
Literary historian
–
Literature
Literary historian
–
"Ali Baba" by
Maxfield Parrish.
Literary historian
–
Arabic manuscript of the
One Thousand and One Nights.
5.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
6.
Stuttgart
–
Stuttgart is the capital and largest city of the German state of Baden-Württemberg. It is located on the Neckar river in a fertile valley known as the Stuttgart Cauldron an hour from the Swabian Jura. Stuttgarts urban area has a population of 623,738, making it the sixth largest city in Germany. 2.7 million people live in the administrative region and another 5.3 million people in its metropolitan area. Since the 6th millennium BC, the Stuttgart area has been an important agricultural area and has been host to a number of cultures seeking to utilize the rich soil of the Neckar valley. The Roman Empire conquered the area in 83 AD and built a massive Castrum near Bad Cannstatt, Stuttgarts roots were truly laid in the 10th century with its founding by Liudolf, Duke of Swabia as a stud farm for his warhorses. Overshadowed by nearby Cannstatt, the town grew steadily and was granted a charter in 1320, the fortunes of Stuttgart turned with those of the House of Württemberg, and they made it the capital of their County, Duchy, and Kingdom from the 15th Century to 1918. Stuttgart prospered despite setbacks in the forms of the Thirty Years War and devastating air raids by the Allies on the city, however, by 1952, the city had bounced back and became the major economic, industrial, tourism and publishing center it is today. Stuttgart is also an important transport junction, and possesses the sixth largest airport in Germany. Such companies as Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, Daimler AG, Dinkelacker, Stuttgart is unusual in the scheme of German cities. It is spread across a variety of hills, valleys and parks and this is often a source of surprise to visitors who associate the city with its reputation as the Cradle of the Automobile. The citys tourism slogan is Stuttgart offers more, under current plans to improve transport links to the international infrastructure, the city unveiled a new logo and slogan in March 2008 describing itself as Das neue Herz Europas. For business, it describes itself as Where business meets the future, in July 2010, Stuttgart unveiled a new city logo, designed to entice more business people to stay in the city and enjoy breaks in the area. Stuttgart is a city of mostly immigrants, according to Dorling Kindersley Publishings Eyewitness Travel Guide to Germany, In the city of Stuttgart, every third inhabitant is a foreigner. 40% of Stuttgarts residents, and 64% of the population below the age of five are of immigrant background, the reason for this being that the city was founded in 950 AD by Duke Liudolf of Swabia to breed warhorses. Originally, the most important location in the Neckar river valley as the rim of the Stuttgart basin at what is today Bad Cannstatt. As with many military installations, a settlement sprang up nearby, when they did, the town was left in the capable hands of a local brickworks that produced sophisticated architectural ceramics and pottery. When the Romans were driven back past the Rhine and Danube rivers in the 3rd Century by the Alamanni, in 700, Duke Gotfrid mentions a Chan Stada in a document regarding property
Stuttgart
–
Clockwise from top left:
Staatstheater,
Cannstatter Volksfest in Bad Cannstatt, fountain at
Schlossplatz, Fruchtkasten façade and the statue of
Friedrich Schiller at
Schillerplatz,
New Palace, and
Old Castle at Schillerplatz.
Stuttgart
–
Panorama of Stuttgart looking southeast. From the
Neckar valley on the left the city rises to the city center, backdropped by high woods to the south (
television tower). Stuttgart South and Stuttgart West are to the right.
Stuttgart
–
Stuttgart at night, looking northwest
Stuttgart
–
Schlossplatz
7.
Justinus Andreas Christian Kerner
–
Justinus Andreas Christian Kerner was a German poet, practicing physician, and medical writer. He was born at Ludwigsburg in Württemberg and he studied medicine but also had time for literary pursuits in the company of Ludwig Uhland, Gustav Schwab and others. He took his doctors degree in 1808, spent some time travelling, here he completed his Reiseschatten von dem Schattenspieler Luchs, in which his own experiences are described with caustic humour. He next collaborated with Uhland and Schwab in the Poetischer Almanach for 1812, which was followed by the Deutscher Dichterwald, Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden came with a knapsack on his back. In 1826 he published a collection of Gedichte which were supplemented by Der letzte Blütenstrauß. Among others of his poems are the charming ballad Der reichste Fürst, a drinking song, Wohlauf, noch getrunken. In 1851 he was compelled, owing to increasing blindness, to retire from his medical practice, in Bilderbuch aus meiner Knabenzeit, Kerner recalls George Rapps visits to his father, the Oberamtmann at Maulbronn. Kerners father had helped shield Rapp from religious prosecution by the authorities in Germany, George Rapp and his followers eventually left Germany in 1803, settled in the United States, and started the Harmony Society. Kerner was one of the most inspired poets of the Swabian school, —1911 Encyclopædia Britannica The poems and dramatic scenes of his Reiseschatten are characterized by a dreamy fancy and a peculiar fantastic humor. — New International Encyclopedia He was at times morbid, fanciful, dreamy, sensitive and poetic and endowed with a strange, —1920 Encyclopedia Americana The Saw was translated by William Cullen Bryant and was included in Grahams Magazine in 1848. In yonder mill I rested, And sat me down to look Upon the wheels quick glimmer, as in a dream, before me, The saw, with restless play, Was cleaving through a fir-tree Its long and steady way. The tree through all its fibres With living motion stirred, And, in a murmur, These solemn words I heard— Oh, thou. For thee this cruel engine Is passing through my heart, when soon, in earths still bosom, Thy hours of rest begin, This wood shall form the chamber Whose walls shall close thee in. Four planks—I saw and shuddered— Dropped in that mill, Then, as I tried to answer. Robert Schumann set Kerners poems in his Opus 35,12 Gedichte von Justinus Kerner, composed in 1840 and dedicated to “Dr. Friedrich Weber in London. ”Schumann called the set a Liederreihe, or row of songs. The poet Thomas Medwin stayed with him during 1848 to 1849 and later wrote a poem in his honour, To Justinus Kerner, With a Painted Wreath of Bay-Leaves, the grape variety Kerner, bred in 1929, was named in his honour. To me the phenomenon seemed to be the most confusing, almost Punch-and-Judy, disorder, the one would begin a sentence which the other would finish, and no one could be sure who was speaking. ”July 11, 1837Journals 2539 “Justinus Kerner has interested me so much just now because, although he is far more gifted, I see in him the same artistic barrenness I see in myself. While his own Dichtungen are full of excellent imaginative ideas, his reports aus dem Nachtgebiete der Natur are so dry that we could almost take that to be proof of their truth. ”July 13, 1837Journals 5240 Attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Kerner
Justinus Andreas Christian Kerner
–
Justinus Kerner in old age
8.
Romanticism
–
Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
Romanticism
–
Caspar David Friedrich,
Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, 1818
Romanticism
–
Eugène Delacroix,
Death of Sardanapalus, 1827, taking its
Orientalist subject from a play by
Lord Byron
Romanticism
–
Philipp Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808
Romanticism
–
William Blake,
The Little Girl Found, from
Songs of Innocence and Experience, 1794
9.
German Confederation
–
Most historians have judged the Confederation to have been weak and ineffective, as well as an obstacle to the creation of a German nation-state. It collapsed due to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria, warfare, the 1848 revolution, and the inability of the members to compromise. In 1848, revolutions by liberals and nationalists were an attempt to establish a unified German state. Talks between the German states failed in 1848, and the Confederation briefly dissolved, but was re-established shortly after and it decidedly fell apart only after the Prussian victory in the Seven Weeks War of 1866. This led to the creation of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership in 1867, a number of South German states remained independent until they joined the North German Confederation, which was renamed the German Empire. The War of the Third Coalition lasted from about 1803 to 1806, following defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz by the French under Napoleon in December 1805, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II abdicated, and the Empire was dissolved on 6 August 1806. The resulting Treaty of Pressburg established the Confederation of the Rhine in July 1806, after the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt of October 1806 in the War of the Fourth Coalition, various other German states, including Saxony and Westphalia, also joined the Confederation. Only Austria, Prussia, Danish Holstein, Swedish Pomerania and the French-occupied Principality of Erfurt stayed outside the Confederation of the Rhine and these nations would later join in the War of the Sixth Coalition from 1812 to 1814. The German Confederation was created by the 9th Act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris, ending the War of the Sixth Coalition. The Confederation was formally created by a treaty, the Final Act of the Ministerial Conference to Complete and Consolidate the Organization of the German Confederation. This treaty was not concluded and signed by the parties until 15 May 1820, States joined the German Confederation by becoming parties to the second treaty. The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia and its allies on the other. In the Prague peace treaty, on 23 August 1866, Austria had to accept that the Confederation was considered to be dissolved, the following day, the remaining member states confirmed the dissolution. The treaty allowed Prussia to create a new Bundesverhältnis in the North of Germany, the South German states were proposed to create a South German Confederation but this did not come into existence. Prussia and its allies created the North German Confederation in 1867, because of French intervention it had to exclude, besides Austria, the South German states Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. During November 1870 the four states joined the North German Confederation by treaty. The North German Confederation Reichstag and Bundesrat accepted to rename the North German Confederation as the German Empire, the new constitution of the state, the Constitution of the German Confederation, introduced the new name and title on 1 January 1871. The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the largest, Austria and Prussia each had one vote in the Federal Assembly
German Confederation
–
The monarchs of the member states of the German Confederation meet at Frankfurt in 1863.
German Confederation
German Confederation
–
Austrian chancellor
Klemens Wenzel von Metternich dominated the German Confederation from 1815 until 1848
German Confederation
–
The University of Berlin in 1850
10.
German literature
–
German literature comprises those literary texts written in the German language. This includes literature written in Germany, Austria, the German parts of Belgium and Switzerland, Liechtenstein, South Tyrol in Italy and to a lesser extent works of the German diaspora. German literature of the period is mostly in Standard German. The Old High German period is reckoned to run until about the mid-11th century, the most famous works are the Hildebrandslied, Middle High German starts in the 12th century, the key works include The Ring and the poems of Oswald von Wolkenstein and Johannes von Tepl. The Baroque period was one of the most fertile times in German literature, modern literature in German begins with the authors of the Enlightenment. The Sensibility movement of the 1750s-1770s ended with Goethes best-selling Die Leiden des jungen Werther, the Sturm und Drang and Weimar Classicism movements were led by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller. German Romanticism was the dominant movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Biedermeier refers to the literature, music, the visual arts, under the Nazi regime, some authors went into exile and others submitted to censorship. Periodization is not a science but the following list contains movements or time periods typically used in discussing German literature. The closer one nears the present, the more debated the periodizations become, the Old High German period is reckoned to run until about the mid-11th century, though the boundary to Early Middle High German is not clear-cut. The most famous work in OHG is the Hildebrandslied, a piece of Germanic alliterative heroic verse which besides the Muspilli is the sole survivor of what must have been a vast oral tradition. Another important work, in the dialect of Old Saxon, is a life of Christ in the style of a heroic epic known as the Heliand. This was the period of the blossoming of MHG lyric poetry, one of the most important of these poets was Walther von der Vogelweide. The same sixty years saw the composition of the most important courtly romances and these are written in rhyming couplets, and again draw on French models such as Chrétien de Troyes, many of them relating Arthurian material, for example, Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach. These high medieval heroic epics are written in rhymed strophes, not the verse of Germanic prehistory. Therefore, the literature of the late 14th and the early 15th century falls, as it were, the Volksbuch tradition which would flourish in the 16th century also finds its origin in the second half of the 15th century. Sebastian Brant Thomas Murner Philipp Melanchthon Sebastian Franck The Baroque period was one of the most fertile times in German literature, many writers reflected the horrible experiences of the Thirty Years War, in poetry and prose. Grimmelshausens adventures of the young and naïve Simplicissimus, in the eponymous book Simplicius Simplicissimus, martin Opitz established rules for the purity of language, style, verse and rhyme
German literature
–
The
Frankfurt Book Fair
German literature
–
Thomas Mann (1875–1955)
German literature
11.
Frankfurt Parliament
–
The Frankfurt Parliament was the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany, elected on 1 May 1848. The session was held from 18 May 1848 to 31 May 1849 and its existence was both part of and the result of the March Revolution in the states of the German Confederation. After long and controversial debates, the assembly produced the so-called Frankfurt Constitution which proclaimed a German Empire based on the principles of parliamentary democracy, the parliament also proposed a constitutional monarchy headed by a hereditary emperor. In the 20th century, however, major elements of the Frankfurt constitution became models for the Weimar Constitution of 1919, in 1806, the Emperor, Francis II had relinquished the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and dissolved the Empire. This was the result of the Napoleonic Wars and of military pressure from Napoléon Bonaparte. After the victory of Prussia, the United Kingdom, Russia and other states over Napoléon in 1816, Austria dominated this system of loosely connected, independent states, but the system failed to account for the rising influence of Prussia. After the so-called Wars of Liberation, many contemporaries had expected a nation-state solution, apart from this nationalist component, calls for civic rights influenced political discourse. The Napoleonic Code Civil had led to the introduction of civic rights in some German states in the early 19th century, furthermore, some German states had adopted constitutions after the foundation of the German Confederacy. Between 1819 and 1830, the Carlsbad Decrees and other instances of Restoration politics limited such developments, the mid-1840s saw an increase of the frequency of internal crises. Additionally, a series of bad harvests in parts of Germany, notably the southwest, the changes caused by the beginnings of industrialisation exacerbated social and economic tensions considerably. Meanwhile, in the states, such as Baden, the development of a lively scene of Vereine provided an organisational framework for democratic, or popular. Especially in south west Germany, censorship could not effectively suppress the press, at such rallies by as the Offenburg Popular Assembly of September 1847, radical democrats called to overthrow the status quo. At the same time, the opposition had increased its networking activities. Thus, at the Heppenheim Conference on 10 October 1847, eighteen members from a variety of German states met to discuss common motions for a German nation-state. In 1847 and 1848, broader European developments aggravated this tension, in France, revolutionary workers and students deposed the Citizen King Louis-Philippe in the February Revolution, their action resulted in the declaration of the Second Republic. In many European states, the resistance against Restoration policies increased and led to revolutionary unrest, Friedrich Daniel Bassermann, a liberal deputy in the second chamber of the parliament of Baden, helped to trigger the final impulse for the election of a pan-German assembly. The Bundestag, made up of representatives of the princes, was the only institution representing the whole confederation. Two weeks later, news of the coup in France fanned the flames of the revolutionary mood
Frankfurt Parliament
–
Germania, by
Philipp Veit. The painting hung inside the Paulskirche above where the Frankfurt Parliament assembled, covering the organ.
Frankfurt Parliament
–
Memorial plaque on the Paulskirche, Frankfurt
Frankfurt Parliament
–
Contemporary depiction of the parliamentarians entering the Paulskirche
Frankfurt Parliament
–
Lithograph "Club des Casino" by Friedrich Pecht, 1849.
12.
The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states
–
They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire. They demonstrated the desire for the Zollverein movement. The middle-class elements were committed to principles, while the working class sought radical improvements to their working and living conditions. As the middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, liberals were forced into exile to escape political persecution, where they became known as Forty-Eighters. Many immigrated to the United States, settling from Wisconsin to Texas, the groundwork of the 1848 uprising in Germany was laid long beforehand. The Hambacher Fest of 1832, for instance, reflected growing unrest in the face of heavy taxation, the Hambacher Fest is noteworthy for the republicans adopting the black-red-gold colours as a symbol of the republican movement and of unity among the German-speaking people. Activism for liberal reform spread through many of the German states, in France the revolution of 1848 became known as the February Revolution. The revolutions spread across Europe, they erupted in Austria and Germany, beginning with the demonstrations on March 13,1848. This resulted in the resignation of Prince von Metternich as chief minister to Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, because of the date of the Vienna demonstrations, the revolutions in Germany are usually called the March Revolution. Fearing the fate of Louis-Philippe of France, some monarchs in Germany accepted some of the demands of the revolutionaries, in the south and west, large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations took place. They demanded freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, written constitutions, arming of the people, in 1848, Austria was the predominant German state. It was considered the successor to the Holy Roman Empire, which had dissolved by Napoleon in 1806. German Austrian chancellor Metternich had dominated Austrian politics from 1815 until 1848, on March 13,1848 university students mounted a large street demonstration in Vienna, and it was covered by the press across the German-speaking states. Following the important, but relatively minor, demonstrations against Lola Montez in Bavaria on February 9,1848, the first major revolt of 1848 in German lands occurred in Vienna on March 13,1848. The demonstrating students in Vienna had been restive and were encouraged by a sermon of Anton Füster, the student demonstrators demanded a constitution and a constituent assembly elected by universal male suffrage. Emperor Ferdinand and his chief advisor Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration, when demonstrators moved to the streets near the palace, the troops fired on the students, killing several. The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection, the Diet of Lower Austria demanded Metternichs resignation. With no forces rallying to Metternichs defense, Ferdinand reluctantly complied and dismissed him, the former chancellor went into exile in London
The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states
–
Germania, by
Philipp Veit, 1848
The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states
–
Origin of the
Flag of Germany: Cheering revolutionaries in
Berlin, on March 19, 1848
The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states
–
Barricades at Alexander Platz, Berlin
The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states
–
The May uprising in Dresden
13.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
–
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was an American poet and educator whose works include Paul Reveres Ride, The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieris Divine Comedy, Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine, which was then a part of Massachusetts. After spending time in Europe he became a professor at Bowdoin and, later and his first major poetry collections were Voices of the Night and Ballads and Other Poems. Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854, to focus on his writing, living the remainder of his life in Cambridge, Massachusetts and his first wife Mary Potter died in 1835, after a miscarriage. His second wife Frances Appleton died in 1861, after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire, after her death, Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time and focused on translating works from foreign languages. Longfellow wrote many lyric poems known for their musicality and often presenting stories of mythology and he became the most popular American poet of his day and also had success overseas. He has been criticized, however, for imitating European styles and his father was a lawyer, and his maternal grandfather, Peleg Wadsworth, was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a Member of Congress. He was named after his mothers brother Henry Wadsworth, a Navy lieutenant who had died three years earlier at the Battle of Tripoli, Longfellow was the second of eight children, his siblings were Stephen, Elizabeth, Anne, Alexander, Mary, Ellen and Samuel. Longfellow was of entirely English ancestry, all of which had been in New England since the early 1600s, Longfellow attended a dame school at the age of three and by age six was enrolled at the private Portland Academy. In his years there he earned a reputation as being very studious and his mother encouraged his enthusiasm for reading and learning, introducing him to Robinson Crusoe and Don Quixote. He published his first poem, a patriotic and historical four-stanza poem called The Battle of Lovells Pond and he stayed at the Portland Academy until the age of fourteen. He spent much of his summers as a child at his grandfather Pelegs farm in the western Maine town of Hiram, in the fall of 1822, the 15-year-old Longfellow enrolled at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, along with his brother Stephen. His grandfather was a founder of the college and his father was a trustee, there Longfellow met Nathaniel Hawthorne, who would later become his lifelong friend. He boarded with a clergyman for a time before rooming in 1823 on the floor of what is now known as Winthrop Hall. He joined the Peucinian Society, a group of students with Federalist leanings, in his senior year, Longfellow wrote to his father about his aspirations, I will not disguise it in the least. The fact is, I most eagerly aspire after future eminence in literature, my whole soul burns most ardently after it, and every earthly thought centres in it. I am almost confident in believing, that if I can ever rise in the world it must be by the exercise of my talents in the field of literature. He pursued his goals by submitting poetry and prose to various newspapers and magazines
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
–
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, photographed by
Julia Margaret Cameron in 1868
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
–
Birthplace of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Portland, Maine, c. 1910. The house was demolished in 1955.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
–
Mary Storer Potter became Longfellow's first wife in 1831 and died four years later.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
–
After a seven-year courtship, Longfellow married Frances Appleton in 1843.
14.
W. W. Skeat
–
Walter William Skeat, FBA, was the pre-eminent English philologist of his time, and was instrumental in developing English as a higher education subject in the United Kingdom. Skeat was born in London and educated at Kings College School, Highgate School, in 1860 Skeat was ordained an Anglican deacon, married, and became a curate in December 1860 at East Dereham, where he served during the year 1861 and most of 1862. In 1862–1863 he was a curate at Godalming, in October 1864 he returned to Cambridge as a mathematical lecturer, remaining in this capacity until 1871. In 1878 he was elected Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge, Skeat was the founder and only president of the English Dialect Society from 1873 to 1896. The societys purpose was to collect materials for the publication of the English Dialect Dictionary and his son was the anthropologist Walter William Skeat. His grandsons include the noted palaeographer T. C, Skeat and the stained glass painter Francis Skeat. In pure philology, Skeats principal achievement is his Etymological English Dictionary, while preparing the dictionary he wrote hundreds of short articles on word origins for the London-based journal Notes and Queries. He also coined the term ghost word and was an expert in this treacherous. Skeat was also a pioneer of place-name studies, major publications in this field include, A Concise Dictionary of Middle English, in conjunction with A. L. Mayhew A Glossary of Tudor and Stuart Words with A. L. He published an edition of The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer in 1894–97, Skeat edited numerous other works for the Early English Text Society, including the Bruce of John Barbour, Pierce the Ploughmans Crede, and the romances of Havelok the Dane and William of Palerne. For the Scottish Text Society he edited The Kingis Quair, and he published an edition of Chatterton, Skeat also issued an edition of Chaucer in one volume for general readers, and a separate edition of his Treatise on the Astrolabe, with a learned commentary. According to A. J. Wyatt, Skeat was not a great teacher and he left the teaching to those who had learned from him---i. e. Wyatt himself and Israel Gollancz---his teaching was episodic. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Skeat. Works by Walter William Skeat at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Walter William Skeat at Internet Archive A Moeso-Gothic glossary Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection, Walter William Skeat at Find a Grave
W. W. Skeat
–
Walter William Skeat.
15.
Military funeral
–
A military funeral may feature guards of honor, the firing of volley shots as a salute, drumming and other military elements, with a flag draping over the coffin. Canadian military funerals involve many rituals seen in parts of the world. The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery use a 25-pounder gun and limber as the funeral vehicle, muffled drums accompany the graveside processional. The deceaseds headdress, insignia and medals are borne on a cushion into the funeral service. Volleys are fired over the grave when the body is interred, countries in the Commonwealth duplicate the British military drill and ceremony. The Canadian funeral described above typifies the funerary service, the bugle tune Last Post is played as the body is interred. In Chilean military funerals, due to its Prussian military tradition, the casket may or may not be horse-drawn on a caisson. A bugler sounds the final honors during interment, in Germany, Ludwig Uhlands song Ich hatt einen Kameraden is an integral part of a military funeral. It is played when the coffin is lowered into the grave, in Indonesia, military funerals are generally given only military members or former guerrillas, Konfrontasi and Trikora Operation Soldiers, especially those holding the Bintang Gerilya. Exceptional politicians and Ministers have the option for such a funeral, music is not performed as it is not part of Indonesian military tradition, save only during the final honors. A good example of an Indonesian military burial is that of the late president Suharto-, prayers are led by representatives of the persons religious faith. Similar traditions also exist in the Indonesian National Police, in Italy the members of the Armed Forces who died in the line of duty are granted a state funeral by decree of the Prime Minister. So the funeral follows the protocol of a funeral. In Poland, the last fragment of Władysław Tarnowskis song Śpij, kolego and it is also played during state ceremonies. Also part of it is a three volley salute with the firing party consisting of a platoon or company. In Spain, the troops sing La muerte no es el final, Death is not the End during funeral ceremonies and in all military ceremonies. The Spanish Legion has an exception, the regimental hymn Novio de la Muerte is played in full instead during occasions that the Legion attends, the British Army carries reversed arms at military funerals. The Last Post and Rouse or Reveille are sounded at the moment during the rite
Military funeral
–
The United States Army Caisson Platoon of the
3rd United States Infantry Regiment "The Old Guard" transports the flag-draped casket of
Sergeant Major of the Army George W. Dunaway on a horse-drawn
limbers and caissons during a military
funeral procession at
Arlington National Cemetery, 2008.
Military funeral
–
State funeral for the soldiers fallen during the
Nasiriyah bombing, celebrated by
Cardinal Camillo Ruini in the
Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, 18 November 2003
Military funeral
–
The military funeral of U.S. Navy Rear Admiral
Henry H. Bell held in Hiogo, Japan on January 14, 1868.
Military funeral
–
The coffin of Lieutenant
Reginald Warneford being carried to his burial plot in
Brompton Cemetery by members of the
Royal Naval Division on June 21, 1915.
16.
Uhland, Texas
–
Uhland is a city in Caldwell and Hays counties in the U. S. state of Texas. The population was 1,014 at the 2010 census, up from 386 at the 2000 census, Uhland is named after the German poet Ludwig Uhland. Uhland is located in eastern Hays County and northwestern Caldwell County at 29°57′50″N 97°47′42″W, Texas State Highway 21 is the main road through town, leading southwest 11 miles to San Marcos and northeast 31 miles to Bastrop. Austin is 25 miles to the north, according to the United States Census Bureau, Uhland has a total area of 2.4 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 386 people,134 households, the population density was 211.3 people per square mile. There were 143 housing units at a density of 78.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 73. 06% White,0. 78% African American,0. 52% Asian,23. 83% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 51. 30% of the population. 23. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.88 and the average family size was 3.42. In the city, the population was out with 32. 9% under the age of 18,11. 4% from 18 to 24,30. 1% from 25 to 44,17. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 28 years, for every 100 females there were 90.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.3 males, the median income for a household in the city was $30,714, and the median income for a family was $31,875. Males had an income of $24,750 versus $22,813 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,593, about 7. 1% of families and 11. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12. 1% of those under age 18 and 13. 2% of those age 65 or over. The City of Uhland is served by the Hays Consolidated Independent School District
Uhland, Texas
–
Location of Uhland, Texas
17.
Austin
–
Austin is the capital of the U. S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County. It is the 11th-most populous city in the U. S. and it is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix, Arizona. As of the U. S. Census Bureaus July 1,2015 estimate and it is the cultural and economic center of the Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1,2016. In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River, in 1839, the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas and the republics first secretary of state. The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a city and, by the 1980s, it emerged as a center for technology. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including Amazon. com, cisco, eBay, Google, IBM, Intel, Oracle Corporation, Texas Instruments, 3M, and Whole Foods Market. Dells worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock, a suburb of Austin, residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to an influx of technology. In the late 1800s, Austin was known as the City of the Violet Crown because of the glow of light across the hills just after sunset. Even today, many Austin businesses use the term Violet Crown in their name, Austin is known as a clean-air city for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings, including restaurants and bars. The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U. S. for the year 2012, U. S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U. S. in 2017. Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of habitation since at least 9200 BC. When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area, the Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area for centuries, in 1730, three missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in area for only about seven months
Austin
–
Downtown skyline as seen from
Lady Bird Lake
Austin
–
An 1873 illustration of Edwin Waller's layout for Austin
Austin
–
Statue of the Goddess of Liberty on the
Texas State Capitol Grounds prior to installation on top of the rotunda
Austin
–
Bob Bullock Texas History Museum in Austin. Its mission is to "tell The Story of Texas".
18.
Texas
–
Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
Texas
–
Sam Rayburn Reservoir
Texas
–
Flag
Texas
–
Texas Hill Country
Texas
–
Big Bend National Park.
19.
Daniel Coit Gilman
–
Daniel Coit Gilman was an American educator and academic. He was also co-founder of the Russell Trust Association, which administers the affairs of Yales Skull. At Yale he was a classmate of Andrew Dickson White, who would serve as first president of Cornell University. The two were members of the Skull and Bones secret society, and traveled to Europe together after graduation, Gilman was also a member of the Alpha Delta Phi Fraternity. Gilman would later co-found the Russell Trust Association, the foundation behind Skull, Gilman contemplated going into the ministry, and even took out a license to preach, but later settled on a career in education. From 1856 to 1865 Gilman served as librarian of Yale College, in 1863, Gilman was appointed professor of geography at the Sheffield Scientific School, and became secretary and librarian as well in 1866. His work there was hampered by the legislature, and in 1875 Gilman accepted the offer to establish. Before being formally installed as president in 1876, he spent a year studying university organization and his formal inauguration, on 22 February 1876, has become Hopkins Commemoration Day, the day on which many university presidents have chosen to be installed in office. Gilmans primary interest was in fostering advanced instruction and research, the aim of the modern research university, said Gilman, was to extend, even by minute accretions, the realm of knowledge At his inaugural address at Hopkins, Gilman asked, What are we aiming at. The answer, he said, was the encouragement of research and the advancement of individual scholars, who by their excellence will advance the sciences they pursue, in 1884, Gilman was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. Gilman was also active in founding Johns Hopkins Hospital and Johns Hopkins Medical School and he founded and was for many years president of the Charity Organization of Baltimore, and in 1897 he served on the commission to draft a new charter for Baltimore. From 1896 to 1897, he was a member of the commission to settle the line between Venezuela and British Guiana. Gilman served as a trustee of the John F. Slater and Peabody education funds, in this capacity, he became active in the promotion of education in the southern United States. He retired from Johns Hopkins in 1901, but accepted the presidency of the newly founded Carnegie Institution of Washington and his books include biographies of James Monroe and James Dwight Dana, a collection of addresses entitled University Problems, and The Launching of a University. His first wife was Mary Van Winker Ketcham, daughter of Tredwell Ketcham of New York, Daniel Gilmans brother Dr. Edward Whiting Gilman was married to Julia Silliman, daughter of Yale Professor and chemist Benjamin Silliman. Daniel Coit Gilman died in Norwich, Connecticut, the original academic building on the Homewood campus of the Johns Hopkins University, Gilman Hall, is named in his honor. In 1897, he helped found a school called The Country School for Boys on the Johns Hopkins campus. Upon relocation in 1910, it was renamed in his honor and today, on the University of California, Berkeley campus, Gilman Hall, also named in his honor, is the oldest building of the College of Chemistry and a National Historic Chemical Landmark
Daniel Coit Gilman
–
Daniel Coit Gilman
Daniel Coit Gilman
–
Portrait of William Charles Gilman, father of Daniel Coit Gilman,
Boston Museum of Fine Arts
Daniel Coit Gilman
–
Gilman and
University of Chicago president
William Rainey Harper, 1903
Daniel Coit Gilman
–
Home of Daniel C. Gilman,
Baltimore,
Maryland.
20.
New International Encyclopedia
–
The New International Encyclopedia was an American encyclopedia first published in 1902 by Dodd, Mead and Company. It descended from the International Cyclopaedia and was updated in 1906,1914 and 1926, the New International Encyclopedia was the successor of the International Cyclopaedia. Initially, the International Cyclopaedia was largely a reprint of Aldens Library of Universal Knowledge, the local Cyclopaedia was much improved by editors Harry Thurston Peck and Selim Peabody. The title was changed to New International Encyclopedia in 1902, with editors Harry Thurston Peck, Daniel Coit Gilman, in 1906 the New International Encyclopedia was expanded from 17 volumes to 20. The 2nd edition appeared in 1914 in 24 volumes, set up from new type and it was very strong in biography. The 1926 material was printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by The University Press, boston Bookbinding Company of Cambridge produced the covers. Thirteen books enclosing twenty-three volumes comprise the encyclopedia, which includes a supplement after Volume 23, each book contains about 1600 pages. A great deal of material is recorded in the New International Encyclopedia. An early description of Adolf Hitler and his activities from 1920 to 1924 is in the supplement to the 1926 edition, many of the names used to describe the scientific identities of plants and animals are now obsolete. Numerous colorful maps which display the nations, states, colonies, the maps are valuable for their depictions of national and colonial borders in Europe, Asia, and Africa at the time of World War I. Drawings, illustrations, and photographs are plentiful, more than 500 men, and some women, submitted and composed the information contained in the New International Encyclopedia. Editors of the First Edition Daniel Coit Gilman, LL. D, President of Johns Hopkins University, President of Carnegie Institution. Frank Moore Colby, M. A. formerly Professor in New York University, editors of the Second Edition Frank Moore Colby, M. A. Talcott Williams, LL. D. Director of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, media related to New International Encyclopedia at Wikimedia Commons 1914 second ed
New International Encyclopedia
–
Marsupials
21.
Internet Archive
–
The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
Internet Archive
–
Since 2009, headquarters have been at 300 Funston Avenue in
San Francisco, a former
Christian Science Church
Internet Archive
–
Internet Archive
Internet Archive
–
Mirror of the Internet Archive in the
Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Internet Archive
–
From 1996 to 2009, headquarters were in the
Presidio of San Francisco, a former U.S. military base
22.
LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
LibriVox
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Hugh McGuire, founder of LibriVox
23.
Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
Project Gutenberg
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Michael Hart (left) and Gregory Newby (right) of Project Gutenberg, 2006
Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg
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Formats
24.
Open Library
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Open Library is an online project intended to create one web page for every book ever published. It provides access to public domain and out-of-print books, which can be read online. Its book information is collected from the Library of Congress, other libraries, if books are available in digital form, a button labelled Read appears next to its catalog listing. Links to where books can be purchased or borrowed are also provided, tens of thousands of modern books were made available from four and then 150 libraries and publishers for ebook digital lending. Open Library began in 2006 with Aaron Swartz as the engineer and leader of Open Librarys technical team. The project was led by George Oates from April 2009 to December 2011, Oates was responsible for a complete site redesign during her tenure. In 2015, the project was continued by Giovanni Damiola and then Brenton Cheng, the site was redesigned and relaunched in May 2010. The site uses Infobase, its own database framework based on PostgreSQL, the source code to the site is published under the GNU Affero General Public License. The website was relaunched adding ADA compliance and offering over 1 million modern, under certain provisions of United States copyright law, libraries are sometimes able to reproduce copyrighted works in formats accessible to users with disabilities
Open Library
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Open Library homepage in September 2011
25.
Goodreads
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Goodreads is an Amazon company and social cataloging website founded in December 2006 and launched in January 2007 by Otis Chandler, II, a software engineer and entrepreneur, and Elizabeth Chandler. The website allows individuals to freely search Goodreads database of books, annotations, users can sign up and register books to generate library catalogs and reading lists. They can also create their own groups of book suggestions, surveys/polls, blogs, in December 2007, the site had over 650,000 members and over 10,000,000 books had been added. By July 2012, the site reported 10 million members,20 million monthly visits, on July 23,2013, it was announced on their website that the user base had grown to 20 million members, having doubled in close to 11 months. The websites offices are in San Francisco, on March 28,2013, Amazon announced its acquisition of Goodreads for an undisclosed amount. The Chandlers created Goodreads in 2006, Goodreads stated mission is to help people find and share books they love. To improve the process of reading and learning throughout the world, Goodreads also addressed what publishers call the discoverability problem by guiding consumers in the digital age to find books they might want to read. During its first year of business, the company was run without any formal funding, in December 2007, the site received funding estimated at $750,000 from angel investors. This funding lasted Goodreads until 2009, when Goodreads received two dollars from True Ventures. In October 2010 the company opened its application programming interface, which enabled developers to access its ratings, Goodreads also receives a small commission when a user clicks over from its site to an online bookseller and makes a purchase. After a user has rated 20 books on its five-star scale, Otis Chandler believed this rating system would be superior to Amazons, as Amazons includes books a user has browsed or purchased as gifts when determining its recommendations. Later that year, Goodreads introduced an algorithm to suggest books to registered users and had five million members. In October 2012, Goodreads announced it had grown to 11 million members with 395 million books catalogued, a month later, in November 2012, Goodreads had surpassed 12 million members, with the member base having doubled in one year. In March 2013, Amazon. com announced that it had reached an agreement to acquire Goodreads in the quarter of 2013 for an undisclosed sum. In September 2013, Goodreads announced it would delete, without warning, in January 2016, Amazon announced on Shelfari. com that it would be merging Shelfari with Goodreads and closing down Shelfari. To prepare Shelfari members for the move, Amazon posted on Shelfari. com a prominent announcement stating, IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT, although Shelfari discussion threads will not be migrated, users were advised, you may save your own data for your own records. In April 2016, Goodreads announced that over 50 million user reviews have been posted, once users have added friends to their profile, they will see their friends shelves and reviews and can comment on friends pages. Goodreads features a system of one to five stars, with the option of accompanying the rating with a written review
Goodreads
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Goodreads
26.
Danish Golden Age
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The Danish Golden Age covers a period of exceptional creative production in Denmark, especially during the first half of the 19th century. Although Copenhagen had suffered fires, bombardment and national bankruptcy. It also saw the development of Danish architecture in the Neoclassical style, Copenhagen, in particular, acquired a new look, with buildings designed by Christian Frederik Hansen and by Michael Gottlieb Bindesbøll. In relation to music, the Golden Age covers figures inspired by Danish romantic nationalism including J. P. E. Hartmann, Hans Christian Lumbye, Niels W. Gade, literature centred on Romantic thinking, introduced in 1802 by the Norwegian-German philosopher Henrik Steffens. Key contributors were Adam Oehlenschläger, Bernhard Severin Ingemann, N. F. S. Grundtvig and, last but not least, Hans Christian Andersen, Søren Kierkegaard furthered philosophy while Hans Christian Ørsted achieved fundamental progress in science. The Golden Age thus had an effect not only on life in Denmark but, with time. The origins of the Golden Age can be traced back to around the beginning of the 19th century, surprisingly, this was a very rough period for Denmark. Copenhagen, the centre of the intellectual life, first experienced huge fires in 1794 and 1795 which destroyed both Christiansborg Palace and large areas of the inner city. In 1801, as a result of the involvement in the League of Armed Neutrality. Then in 1813, as a result of the inability to support the costs of war. To make matters worse, Norway ceased to be part of the Danish realm when it was ceded to Sweden the following year, Copenhagens devastation nevertheless provided new opportunities. Architects and planners widened the streets, constructing beautifully designed Neoclassical buildings offering a brighter yet intimate look, at the time, with a population of only 100,000, the city was still quite small, built within the confines of the old ramparts. As a result, the figures of the day met frequently, sharing their ideas, bringing the arts. Henrik Steffens was perhaps the most effective proponent of the Romantic idea, in a series of lectures in Copenhagen, he successfully conveyed the ideas behind German romanticism to the Danes. Influential thinkers, such as Oehlenschläger and Grundtvig were quick to take up his views and it was not long before Danes from all branches of the arts and sciences were involved in a new era of Romantic nationalism, later known as the Danish Golden Age. Especially in the field of painting, change became apparent, grand historical art gave way to more widely appealing but less pretentious genre paintings and landscapes. The Golden Age is generally believed to have lasted until about 1850, around that time, Danish culture suffered from the outbreak of the First Schleswig War. In addition, political reforms involving the end of the monarchy in 1848
Danish Golden Age
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Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, Woman in front of a Mirror, 1841. French Neo-Classicism transmuted into
Biedermeier style.
Danish Golden Age
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Copenhagen on Fire by
C.W. Eckersberg (1807)
Danish Golden Age
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Henrik Steffens (1773–1845) who lectured on German romanticism
Danish Golden Age
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A company of Danish artists in
Rome, painted by
Constantin Hansen, 1837. Lying on the floor is architect
Bindesbøll. From left to right: Constantin Hansen,
Martinus Rørbye,
Wilhelm Marstrand,
Albert Küchler,
Ditlev Blunck and
Jørgen Sonne.
27.
19th-century French literature
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19th-century French literature concerns the developments in French literature during a dynamic period in French history that saw the rise of Democracy and the fitful end of Monarchy and Empire. French literature enjoyed enormous prestige and success in the 19th century. The first part of the century was dominated by Romanticism, until around the mid-century Realism emerged, in the last half of the century, naturalism, parnassian poetry, and symbolism, among other styles, were often competing tendencies at the same time. Some writers did form into literary groups defined by a name, in other cases, these expressions were merely pejorative terms given by critics to certain writers or have been used by modern literary historians to group writers of divergent projects or methods. Nevertheless, these labels can be useful in describing broad historical developments in the arts and their influence was felt in theatre, poetry, prose fiction. Foreign influences played a big part in this, especially those of Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Byron, Goethe, Le mal du siècle, a sense of loss, disillusion, and aporia, typified by melancholy and lassitude. Romanticism in England and Germany largely predate French romanticism, although there was a kind of pre-romanticism in the works of Senancour and Jean-Jacques Rousseau at the end of the 18th century. French Romanticism took definite form in the works of François-René de Chateaubriand and Benjamin Constant and it found early expression also in the sentimental poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine. The major battles of romanticism in France was in the theater, the dramatic unities of time and place were abolished, tragic and comic elements appeared together and metrical freedom was won. Marked by the plays of Friedrich Schiller, the romantics often chose subjects from historic periods, victor Hugo was the outstanding genius of the Romantic School and its recognized leader. He was prolific alike in poetry, drama, and fiction, all three also wrote novels and short stories, and Musset won a belated success with his plays. Alexandre Dumas, père wrote The Three Musketeers and other novels in an historical setting. Prosper Mérimée and Charles Nodier were masters of shorter fiction, Romanticism is associated with a number of literary salons and groups, the Arsenal, the Cénacle, the salon of Louis Charles Delescluze, the salon of Antoine Deschamps, the salon of Madame de Staël. Romanticism in France defied political affiliation, one finds both liberal, conservative and socialist strains, the expression Realism, when applied to literature of the 19th century, implies the attempt to depict contemporary life and society. The growth of realism is linked to the development of science, history, honoré de Balzac is the most prominent representative of 19th century realism in fiction. His La Comédie humaine, a vast collection of nearly 100 novels, was the most ambitious scheme ever devised by a writer of fiction—nothing less than a contemporary history of his countrymen. Realism also appears in the works of Alexandre Dumas, fils, similar tendencies appeared in the theatrical melodramas of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in the Grand Guignol at the end of the century. In addition to melodramas, popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-century turned to realism in the well-made bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin Labiche, from the 1860s on, critics increasingly speak of literary Naturalism
19th-century French literature
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This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011)
28.
German Romanticism
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German Romanticism was the dominant intellectual movement in the philosophy, the arts, and the culture of German-speaking countries in the late-18th and early 19th centuries. Late-stage German Romanticism emphasized the tension between the world and the irrational and supernatural projections of creative genius. In particular, the critic Heinrich Heine criticized the tendency of the early German romantics for looking to the medieval past for a model of unity in art, key figures of German romanticism include, Ludwig van Beethoven. In his earlier works, Beethoven was a Classicist in the traditions of Mozart and Haydn, because Beethoven wrote some of his greatest music after he became totally deaf, he embodies the Romantic ideal of the tragic artist who defies all odds to conquer his own fate. His later works portray the triumph of the spirit, most notably his Choral Symphony No. 9, the stirring Ode to Joy from this symphony has been adopted as the anthem of the European Union and his works are cast in the formal moulds of Classicism, he had a profound reverence for Beethoven. Liszt was by nationality a Hungarian, but nevertheless he spent many years in Germany, credited as the inventor of the tone poem. In his old age, Liszt adopted a more dissonant, ominous flavour, characteristic works being la Lugubre Gondola and Die Zelle in Nonnenwerth—predating Impressionism, a composer of the Early Romantic period, together with such figures as Schumann, Chopin and Liszt. One of the responsible for reviving interest in the almost-forgotten music of Johann Sebastian Bach. His body of work consists mainly of song cycles and German Lieder set to poems by his contemporaries and his works recall the nostalgia of lost childhood innocence, first love, and the magnificence of the German countryside. As an influential critic, he played a role in discovering new talents, among them Chopin. The greatest composer of German opera, was an exponent of Leitmotif, one of the main figures in the so-called War of the Romantics. The emotional intensity and supernatural, folklore-based themes in his operas presented a break from the Neoclassical traditions of that time. The Mystical Sources of German Romantic Philosophy, translated by Blair R. Reynolds, caspar David Friedrich, translated by Sarah Twohig. Introduction, A Revolution in Culture, in European Romanticism, A Brief History with Documents, “Making of a Romantic Icon, The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbeck’s ‘Italia und Germania. ’” American Philosophical Society,2007. “Orpheus Philologus, Bachofen versus Mommsen on the Study of Antiquity. ”Painting the Sacred in the Age of German Romanticism, baltic Light, Early Open-Air Painting in Denmark and North Germany. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1999, caspar David Friedrich and the Age of German Romanticism. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1980, ISBN 3-8228-2293-0 ONeill, J, ed. German masters of the nineteenth century, paintings and drawings from the Federal Republic of Germany
German Romanticism
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Caspar David Friedrich, (1774–1840)
Moonrise Over The Sea, 1822, 55x71 cm
German Romanticism
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Angelica Kauffman,
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, 1787
German Romanticism
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Moritz Daniel Oppenheim Heinrich Heine, 1831,
Kunsthalle Hamburg
German Romanticism
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Joseph von Eichendorff
29.
Norwegian romantic nationalism
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A subject of much study and debate in Norway, it was characterized by nostalgia. The context and impact of Norwegian romantic nationalism derived from recent history, norwegians, having reasserted their political aspirations in 1814, the question of a distinct Norwegian identity became important. As urban culture gained prominence also in the districts, the rich cultural heritage of the Norwegian countryside came under threat. As a result, a number of individuals set out to collect the artifacts of the distinctly Norwegian culture, hoping thereby to preserve and he synthesized a grammar, vocabulary, and orthography for a separate Norwegian language that became the origin of Nynorsk. In the waning days of the romantic movement, efforts were renewed to collect rural buildings. Arthur Hazelius, the founder of Nordiska Museet in Stockholm gathered large collections, the last king of union between Sweden and Norway, Oscar II, was a supporter of this new wave of collecting, starting what must be the oldest outdoor museum, the origins of Norsk Folkemuseum. He supported the manager of the Royal domains at Bygdøy, Christian Holst in his efforts to gather old buildings from the rural districts. Among the buildings that are still at the museum, the Gol stave church, soon after other pioneers started equal efforts to rescue important pieces of traditional Norwegian architecture and handicraft. Anders Sandvig started the museum Maihaugen at Lillehammer, hulda Garborg started the collecting of traditional folk costumes and dances. This effort is underway, but became more systematic as other cultural movements took the center stage in Norway in the late 19th. Romantic nationalism has had an impact on the Norwegian national identity. The Askeladden character from the tales is considered being an integral part of the Norwegian way. On the Norwegian Constitution Day even in cities like Oslo and Bergen, a great proportion of people dress up in bunad for the parade, unthinkable 100 years ago
Norwegian romantic nationalism
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Brudeferden I
Hardanger (Bridal party in Hardanger), a monumental piece within Norwegian romantic nationalism. Painted by
Hans Gude and
Adolph Tidemand.
Norwegian romantic nationalism
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National romantic painting by Hans Gude, 1847
30.
Golden Age of Russian Poetry
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Golden Age of Russian Poetry is the name traditionally applied by Russian philologists to the first half of the 19th century. It is also called the Age of Pushkin, after its most significant poet, mikhail Lermontov and Fyodor Tyutchev are generally regarded as two most important Romantic poets after Pushkin. Vasily Zhukovsky and Konstantin Batyushkov are the best regarded of his precursors, Pushkin himself, however, considered Evgeny Baratynsky to be the finest poet of his day. Silver Age of Russian Poetry List of Russian-language poets
Golden Age of Russian Poetry
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Vasily Zhukovsky
Golden Age of Russian Poetry
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Alexander Pushkin
Golden Age of Russian Poetry
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Evgeny Baratynsky
Golden Age of Russian Poetry
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Mikhail Lermontov
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Uhland, Johann Ludwig". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
Quotations related to Ludwig Uhland at Wikiquote
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