1.
Lur
–
A lur, also lure or lurr, is a long natural blowing horn without finger holes that is played by embouchure. Lurs can be straight or curved in various shapes, the purpose of the curves was to make long instruments easier to carry and to prevent directing the loud noise at nearby people. The name lur is particularly given to two types of ancient wind instruments. The more recent type is made of wood and was in use in Scandinavia during the Middle Ages. The older type, named after the more recent type, is made of bronze, dates to the Bronze Age and was found in pairs, deposited in bogs, mainly in Denmark. It consists of a mouthpiece and several pieces and/or pipes and its length can reach between 1.5 meters and 2 meters. It has been found in Norway, Denmark, South Sweden, illustrations of lurs have also been found on several rock paintings in Scandinavia. The earliest references to an instrument called the lur come from Icelandic sagas and these lurs, several examples of which have been discovered in longboats, are straight, end-blown wooden tubes, around one meter long. They do not have holes, and are played much like a modern brass instrument. A kind of lur very similar to these war instruments has been played by farmers and these instruments, called in English a birch trumpet were used for calling cattle and signaling. They are similar in construction and playing technique to the war instrument, the word lur is still in the Swedish language, indicating any funnel-shaped implement used for producing or receiving sound. For instance, the Swedish word for headphones is hörlurar, the Norwegian and Swedish words for foghorn are respectively tåkelur and mistlur. The Danish butter brand Lurpak is named after the lur, the word lur has several other meanings in Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish that are not related to sound. Birch trumpet Natural trumpet 2007 CD by Odd Sylvarnes Lund of Lur and Bukkehorn music - informations on recordings with modern use of the old instruments The Nordic Lurs, part of O. J. s Trumpet Page
2.
Persian people
–
The Persians are an Iranian ethnic group that make up over half the population of Iran. They share a cultural system and are native speakers of the Persian language. The ancient Persians were originally a branch of the ancient Iranian population who entered modern-day Iran by the early 10th century BC. The English term Persian derives from Latin Persia, itself deriving from Greek Persís, in the Bible, it is referred to as Parás —sometimes Paras uMadai —within the books of Esther, Daniel, Ezra and Nehemya. Although Persis was originally one of the provinces of ancient Iran, varieties of this term were adopted through Greek sources, thus, in the Western world, the term Persian came to refer to all inhabitants of the country. 10th-century Iraqi historian Al-Masudi refers to Pahlavi, Dari and Azari as dialects of the Persian language, in 1333, medieval Moroccan traveler and scholar Ibn Battuta, referred to the people of Kabul as a specific sub-tribe of Persians. Lady Mary Sheil, in her observation of Iran during the Qajar era, describes Persians, Kurds and Leks to identify themselves as descendants of the ancient Persians. On March 21,1935, the king of Iran, Reza Shah Pahlavi, issued a decree asking the international community to use the term Iran. However, the term Persian is still used to designate the predominant population of the Iranian peoples living in the Iranian cultural continent. The earliest known written record attributed to the Persians is from the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, the inscription mentions Parsua as a tribal chiefdom in modern-day western Iran. The ancient Persians were originally a branch of the Iranian population that, in the early 10th century BC. They were initially dominated by the Assyrians for much of the first three centuries after arriving in the region, however, they played a role in the downfall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes, another branch of population, founded the unified empire of Media as the regions dominant cultural and political power in c.625 BC. Meanwhile, the Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids formed a state to the central Median power. In c.552 BC, the Achaemenids began a revolution which led to the conquest of the empire by Cyrus II in c.550 BC. They spread their influence to the rest of what is called the Iranian Plateau, at its greatest extent, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from parts of Eastern Europe in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east, making it the largest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenids developed the infrastructure to support their growing influence, including the creation of Pasargadae and its legacy and impact on the kingdom of Macedon was also notably huge, even for centuries after the withdrawal of the Persians from Europe following the Greco-Persian Wars. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, until the Parthian era, the Iranian identity had an ethnic, linguistic, and religious value, however, it did not yet have a political import
3.
Iranian peoples
–
The Iranian peoples or Iranic peoples are a diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise the speakers of the Iranian languages. Proto-Iranians are believed to have emerged as a branch of the Indo-Iranians in Central Asia in the mid 2nd millennium BC. In the 1st millennium AD, their area of settlement was reduced as a result of Slavic, Germanic, Turkic and Mongol expansions and many being subjected to Slavicisation. The Iranian peoples include Balochs, Kurds, Gilaks, Lurs, Mazanderanis, Ossetians, Pashtuns, Pamiris, Persians, Tajiks, Talysh people, the term Iran derives directly from Middle Persian Ērān and Parthian Aryān. The Middle Iranian terms ērān and aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic ēr- and ary-, there have been many attempts to qualify the verbal root of ar- in Old Iranian arya-. The following are according to 1957 and later linguists, Emmanuel Laroche, Old Iranian arya- being descended from Proto-Indo-European ar-yo-, meaning assembler. Harold Walter Bailey, ar- to beget, unlike the Sanskrit ā́rya-, the Old Iranian term has solely an ethnic meaning. Today, the Old Iranian arya- remains in ethno-linguistic names such as Iran, Alan, Ir, in the Iranian languages, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of Avesta. The earliest epigraphically attested reference to the word occurs in the Bistun Inscription of the 6th century BC. The inscription of Bistun describes itself to have composed in Arya. As is also the case for all other Old Iranian language usage, in royal Old Persian inscriptions, the term arya- appears in three different contexts, As the name of the language of the Old Persian version of the inscription of Darius I in the Bistun Inscription. As the ethnic background of Darius the Great in inscriptions at Rustam Relief and Susa, as the definition of the God of Iranians, Ohrmazd, in the Elamite version of the Bistun Inscription. In the Dna and Dse, Darius and Xerxes describe themselves as an Achaemenid, a Persian, son of a Persian, although Darius the Great called his language arya-, modern scholars refer to it as Old Persian because it is the ancestor of the modern Persian language. The trilingual inscription erected by the command of Shapur I gives a clear description. The languages used are Parthian, Middle Persian, and Greek, tou Arianon ethnous despotes eimi, which translates to I am the king of the kingdom of the Iranians. In Middle Persian, Shapur says ērānšahr xwadāy hēm and in Parthian he says aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm, the Avesta clearly uses airiia- as an ethnic name, where it appears in expressions such as airyāfi daiŋˊhāvō, airyō šayanəm, and airyanəm vaējō vaŋhuyāfi dāityayāfi. In the late part of the Avesta, one of the homelands was referred to as Airyanəm Vaējah which approximately means expanse of the Iranians. The homeland varied in its range, the area around Herat
4.
Iran
–
Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
5.
Iraq
–
The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
6.
Kuwait
–
Kuwait /kuːˈweɪt/, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in Western Asia. Situated in the edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, it shares borders with Iraq. As of 2016, Kuwait has a population of 4.2 million people,1.3 million are Kuwaitis and 2.9 million are expatriates, expatriates account for 70% of the population. Oil reserves were discovered in 1938, from 1946 to 1982, the country underwent large-scale modernization. In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability, in 1990, Kuwait was invaded by Iraq. The Iraqi occupation came to an end in 1991 after military intervention by coalition forces, at the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. Kuwait is a constitutional emirate with a political system. It has an income economy backed by the worlds sixth largest oil reserves. The Kuwaiti dinar is the highest valued currency in the world, according to the World Bank, the country has the fourth highest per capita income in the world. The Constitution was promulgated in 1962, making Kuwait the most democratic country in the region, Kuwait ranks highly in regional metrics of gender equality, as it has the regions highest Global Gender Gap ranking. During the Ubaid period, Kuwait was the site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia, mainly centered in As-Subiya in northern Kuwait. The earliest evidence of habitation in Kuwait dates back 8000 B. C. where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan. As-Subiya in northern Kuwait is the earliest evidence of urbanization in the whole Persian Gulf basin area, mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 B. C. Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business, the island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 B. C. The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the worlds earliest maritime traders, one of the worlds earliest reed-boats was discovered in northern Kuwait dating back to the Ubaid period. In 3rd century BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great, according to Strabo and Arrian, Alexander the Great named Failaka Ikaros because it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape. Remains of Greek colonization include a large Hellenistic fort and Greek temples, in 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sassanid Empire. At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait was known as Meshan, Akkaz was a Partho-Sassanian site, the Sassanid religions tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz
7.
Laki language
–
Laki pronunciation is a speech variety that is either considered an independent Iranian language, a dialect of Lurish or of Southern Kurdish. Lexical similarity with Khorramabadi Luristani is 78%, with Persian is 70%, the syntax and vocabulary of Laki have been profoundly altered by Lurish language, a Southwest Iranic language. The basic grammar and verb systems of Laki are, like other Northwestern Iranian languages, especially the Zaza–Gorani languages and this relationship is further affirmed by remnants in Laki of the Kurdish grammatical hallmark, the ergative construction. Despite this, Shahsavari based on his linguistics and semantics characteristics concluded that Laki is obviously different from Kurdish, jalilavand Delfan County Kuhdasht County Selseleh County Bayranshahr
8.
Feyli language
–
Luri also Lurish is a Western Iranian language continuum spoken by the Lurs in Western Asia. Lurish language forms five language groups known as Feyli lurish, Central Lurish (Bakhtiari, Laki and this language is spoken mainly by the Feyli Lurs, Bakhtiaries and Southern Lurs. The Luri language is derived and descended from Middle Persian and they belong to the Persid or Southern Zagros group, and are lexically similar to modern Persian, differing mainly in phonology. The sole typical Lori feature not known in early New Persian or derivable from it is the inchoative marker, the Bakhtiāri dialect may be transitional between Kurdish and Persian. However, there was never a common ancestor to Luri, there are two distinct languages, Greater Lors, a. k. a. Southern Luri, and Lesser Lors, a. k. a, several Lurish communities are inhabited sporadicly across Iran Plateau e. g. Khorasan, Kerman, Guilan and Tehran provinces. Lurish language in comparison with other Iranian languages has been affected by foreign invaders language e. g. Arabic and Turkic. Nowadays, many ancient Iranian language characteristics are preserved and can be observed in Lurish grammar, northern dialect tends to have more Kurdish loanwords inside and southern dialects have been more exposed to Persian loanwords. Some words in Lurish are similar to English words, Bakhtiari dialect Borujerdi dialect Dialects of Fars Freidl, Erika. Warm Hearts and Sharp Tongues, Life in 555 Proverbs from the Zagros Mountains of Iran, ISBN 978-3-7003-1925-2 Dryer, Matthew S. & Haspelmath, Martin, eds. World Atlas of Language Structures Online, max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. CS1 maint, Uses editors parameter The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Lor Bakhtiari tribe Lori dialect, Encyclopædia Iranica Lurish language, - By Erik John Anonby - The Royal Asiatic Society,2003 - Printed in the UK
9.
Shia Islam
–
Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
10.
Yarsanism
–
The Yarsan or Ahl-e Haqq is a syncretic religion founded by Sultan Sahak in the late 14th century in western Iran. Some Yarsanis in Iraq are called Kakai, Yarsanis are also found in some rural communities in southeastern Turkey. The Yarsanis have a religious literature primarily written in the Gorani language. However, few modern Yarsani can speak or read Gorani as their tongues are Southern Kurdish and Sorani Kurdish. The speakers of Sarli, living near Eski Kalak are adherents, as Edmonds surmised and their central religious book is called the Kalâm-e Saranjâm, written in the 15th century based on the teachings of Sultan Sahak. Up to the 20th century, the Yarsani faith was strictly for Kurds who were born into it, called checkedea, as opposed to individuals who married into a Yarsani family, there are some groups located around Kirkuk in Iraq. The Arabic-speaking adherents are based in the Iraqi cities of Mandali, Baqubah, according to Encyclopædia Britannica, The chief source of information about the Ahl-e Haqq is the Firqan al-Akhbar, written in. early 20th century by Hajj Nematollah. The Ahl-e Haqq follow the teachings of Sultan Sahak. From the Ahl-e Haqq point of view, the universe is composed of two distinct yet interrelated worlds, the internal and the external, each having its own order and rules. Although humans are only aware of the world, their lives are governed according to the rules of the inner world. Among other important pillars of their system are that the Divine Essence has successive manifestations in human form. There are however, some followers of the Ahl-e Haqq who believe that they are an Islamic group and they believe that some followers today who claim they arent Muslim lack knowledge, since the Ahl-e Haqq belief sees Ali as a perfect example to follow. The same problem and differences in opinion can be seen in the belief of the Alevis, some people believe that the Ahl-e Haqq was originally a Sufi order within Shia Islam. The name, popularity and influence of Haji Bektash Veli is well known among the Ahl-i Haqq, disappearing from the Guran country without a trace, he reappeared in Anatolia in the form of Haji Bektash Veli. He taught mystical doctrines and techniques in those lands for almost a hundred years, in the perception of his disciples there, he had been away for only an hour. The Yarsani faiths features include millenarism, Innatism, egalitarianism, metempsychosis, angelology, divine manifestation, unlike other indigenous Persianate faiths, the Yarsani explicitly reject class, caste and rank, which sets them apart from the Yezidis and Zoroastrians. The Yarsani have a saying about death, Men. Do not fear the punishment of death, the death of man is like the dive which the duck makes
11.
Kurds
–
The Kurds are culturally and linguistically closely related to the Iranian peoples and, as a result, are often themselves classified as an Iranian people. A recent Kurdish diaspora has also developed in Western countries, primarily in Germany, the Kurdish language refers collectively to the related dialects spoken by the Kurds. It is mainly spoken in parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria. Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongside Arabic, is recognized in Iran as a regional language, the Kurdish languages belong to the northwestern sub‑group of the Iranian languages, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. According to Mackenzie, there are few features that all Kurdish dialects have in common. And the fact that this reflects the sense of ethnic identity and unity of the Kurds. The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at close to 30 million, Kurds comprise anywhere from 18% to 20% of the population in Turkey, possibly as high as 25%,15 to 20% in Iraq, 10% in Iran, and 9% in Syria. Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries, viz. in Turkish Kurdistan, the Kurds are the fourth largest ethnic group in West Asia after the Arabs, Persians, and Turks. The total number of Kurds in 1991 was placed at 22.5 million, with 48% of this number living in Turkey, 18% in Iraq, 24% in Iran, and 4% in Syria. Recent emigration accounts for a population of close to 1.5 million in Western countries and this groups population was estimated at close to 0.4 million in 1990. The land of Karda is mentioned on a Sumerian clay-tablet dated to the 3rd millennium B. C. This land was inhabited by the people of Su who dwelt in the regions of Lake Van. Other Sumerian clay-tables referred the people, who lived in the land of Karda, as the Qarduchi and the Qurti. Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the Medes, an ancient Iranian people, the claimed Median descent is reflected in the words of the Kurdish national anthem, We are the children of the Medes and Kai Khosrow. The Kurdish languages form a subgroup of the Northwestern Iranian languages like Median, some researchers consider the independent Kardouchoi as the ancestors of the Kurds. The term Kurd, however, is first encountered in Arabic sources of the seventh century, the Kurds have ethnically diverse origins. During the Sassanid era, in Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, after initially sustaining a heavy defeat, Ardashir I was successful in subjugating the Kurds. In a letter Ardashir I received from his foe, Ardavan V, the usage of the term Kurd during this time period most likely was a social term, designating Northwestern Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group
12.
Lurish language
–
Luri also Lurish is a Western Iranian language continuum spoken by the Lurs in Western Asia. Lurish language forms five language groups known as Feyli lurish, Central Lurish (Bakhtiari, Laki and this language is spoken mainly by the Feyli Lurs, Bakhtiaries and Southern Lurs. The Luri language is derived and descended from Middle Persian and they belong to the Persid or Southern Zagros group, and are lexically similar to modern Persian, differing mainly in phonology. The sole typical Lori feature not known in early New Persian or derivable from it is the inchoative marker, the Bakhtiāri dialect may be transitional between Kurdish and Persian. However, there was never a common ancestor to Luri, there are two distinct languages, Greater Lors, a. k. a. Southern Luri, and Lesser Lors, a. k. a, several Lurish communities are inhabited sporadicly across Iran Plateau e. g. Khorasan, Kerman, Guilan and Tehran provinces. Lurish language in comparison with other Iranian languages has been affected by foreign invaders language e. g. Arabic and Turkic. Nowadays, many ancient Iranian language characteristics are preserved and can be observed in Lurish grammar, northern dialect tends to have more Kurdish loanwords inside and southern dialects have been more exposed to Persian loanwords. Some words in Lurish are similar to English words, Bakhtiari dialect Borujerdi dialect Dialects of Fars Freidl, Erika. Warm Hearts and Sharp Tongues, Life in 555 Proverbs from the Zagros Mountains of Iran, ISBN 978-3-7003-1925-2 Dryer, Matthew S. & Haspelmath, Martin, eds. World Atlas of Language Structures Online, max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. CS1 maint, Uses editors parameter The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Lor Bakhtiari tribe Lori dialect, Encyclopædia Iranica Lurish language, - By Erik John Anonby - The Royal Asiatic Society,2003 - Printed in the UK
13.
Persian language
–
Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
14.
Lorestan Province
–
Lorestan Province (Persian, استان لرستان, also written Luristan, Lurestan, or Loristan, is a province of western Iran in the Zagros Mountains. The population of Lorestan was estimated at 1,716,527 people in 2006, in 2014 it was placed in Region 4. Lorestan covers an area of 28,392 km2, the major cities in this province are Khorramabad, Borujerd, Aligoodarz, Dorood, Koohdasht, Azna, Alashtar, Noor Abad, Doh Râh/Dowreh, and Pol-e-Dokhtar. The name Lorestan means land of the Lurs, the terrain consists chiefly of mountains, with numerous ranges, part of the Zagros chain, running northwest to southeast. The central range has many summits that almost reach the line of snow, rising to 4000 m. It feeds the headwaters of Irans most important rivers, such as the Zayandeh rud, Jarahi, Karun, Diz, Abi, between the higher ranges lie many fertile plains and low hilly, well-watered districts. The highest point of the province is the Oshtorankuh peak at 4,050 m, the low-lying areas being in the southern most sector of the province are approximately 500 m above sea level. Oak forest covers the slopes, together with elm, maple, walnut. Western Luristan comprises a series of fertile valleys running high in the Zagros mountains. The Pusht-i Kuh region is in the foothills of the Kabir Kuh range. The Pish-i Kuh region lies to the east of Kabir Kuh and this area had human settlements during the Bronze Age as early as the mid–3rd millennium B. C. Climatically, the province can be divided into three parts, the regions, such as Boroujerd, Doroud, Azna, Nourabad and Alishtar experience cold winters. In the central region, the season begins from mid-February. The township of Khorramabad is in this realm, however, southern areas such as Pol-e-Dokhtar and Papi are under the influence of the warm air currents of Khuzestan, have hot summers and relatively moderate winters. The climate is generally sub-humid continental with winter precipitation, a lot of which falls as snow, because it lies on the westernmost slopes of the Zagros Mountains, annual precipitation in Lorestan is among the highest anywhere in Iran south of the Alborz Mountains. At Khorramabad, the annual precipitation totals 530 millimetres of rainfall equivalent. The months June to September are usually dry, but Khorramabad can expect 4 inches of rainfall equivalent in December. Temperatures vary widely with the seasons and between day and night, at Khorramabad, summer temperatures typically range from a minimum of 12 °C to a hot maximum of 32 °C
15.
Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province
–
Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province is one of the thirty-one provinces of Iran. It is in the south-west of the country, in Irans Region 2, the province covers an area of 15,563 square kilometers, and in 2006 had a population of 634,000. According to National Population and Housing Census population of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad in 2011 was 658,629, the people mainly speak Lurish language. The province is mountainous in terrain, part of the Zagros range. The highest point is the Dena summit with a height of 5,109 meters, the mountain range of Dena, with more than 20 elevations and over 4000 meters high above the sea level, is, in fact, the great Himalayas in miniature. The mountain range, which is located in Kohgiluyeh va Buyer Ahmad province, is covered with oak forests, natural springs, singing of the birds, and fresh air fascinate all lovers of nature. Another mountain is Khamin or Khami that is located in Gachsaran country
16.
Khuzestan Province
–
Khuzestan Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It is in the southwest of the country, bordering Iraq and its capital is Ahvaz and it covers an area of 63,238 km2. In 2014 it was placed in Region 4, as the Iranian province with the oldest history, it is often referred to as the birthplace of the nation, as this is where the history of the Elamites begins. Historically, one of the most important regions of the Ancient Near East, Khuzestan is what historians refer to as ancient Elam, the Achaemenid Old Persian term for Elam was Hujiyā when they conquered it from the Elamites, which is present in the modern name. Khuzestan, meaning the Land of the Khuz refers to the inhabitants of this province. In Middle Persian the term evolves into Khuz and Kuzi, the pre-Islamic Partho-Sasanian Inscriptions gives the name of the province as Khwuzestan. The seat of the province has for the most of its history been in the reaches of the land, first at Susa. This town is now known as Ahvaz, however, later in the Sasanian time and throughout the Islamic era, the provincial seat returned and stayed at Shushtar, until the late Qajar period. With the increase in the international sea commerce arriving on the shores of Khuzistan, the River Karun is navigable all the way to Ahvaz. The town was refurbished by the order of the Qajar king, Naser al-Din Shah and renamed after him. Shushtar quickly declined, while Ahvaz/Nâseri prospered to the present day, currently, Khuzestan has 18 representatives in Irans parliament, the Majlis, and 6 representatives in the Assembly of Experts. Khuzestan is known for its diversity, the population of Khuzestan consists of Lurs, Iranian Arabs, Qashqai people, Afshar tribe, indigenous Persians. Khuzestans population is predominantly Shia Muslim, but there are small Christian, Jewish, Sunni, half of Khuzestans population is Lurs. The name Khuzestan means The Land of the Khuzi, and refers to the inhabitants of this province. The name of the city of Ahvaz also has the same origin as the name Khuzestan, being an Arabic broken plural from the compound name, Suq al-Ahvaz --the medieval name of the town, that replaced the Sasanian Persian name of the pre-Islamic times. The entire province was known as the Khudhi or the Khooji until the reign of the Safavid king Tahmasp I. The southern half of the province—south, southwest of the Ahwaz Ridge, had come by the 17th century to be known—at least to the imperial Safavid chancery as Arabistan. The contemporaneous history, the Alamara-i Abbasi by Iskandar Beg Munshi, written during the reign of king Abbas I, the northern half continued to be called Khuzestan
17.
Fars Province
–
Fars Province also known as Pars or Persia in historical context, is one of the thirty-one provinces of Iran and known as the cultural capital of Iran. It is in the south of the country, in Irans Region 2 and it has an area of 122,400 km². In 2011, this province had a population of 4.6 million people, of which 67. 6% were registered as urban dwellers,32. 1% villagers, and 0. 3% nomad tribes. The etymology of the word Persian, found in many ancient names associated with Iran, is derived from the importance of this region. Fars Province is the homeland of the Persian people. The word Fârs is derived from
18.
Rostam
–
For the historical general who fought at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah for the Sasanian Empire, also mentioned in the Shahnameh, see Rostam Farrokhzād. Rostam or Rustam is the most celebrated legendary hero in Shahnameh, in Shahnameh, Rostam and his predecessors are Marzbans of Sistan. Rostam was eventually killed by Shaghad, his half-brother and he was son of Zal and Rudaba. Rostam was always represented as the mightiest of Iranian paladins, and he was immortalized by the 10th-century Persian poet Ferdowsi in the Shahnameh, or Epic of Kings, which contains pre-Islamic Iranian folklore and history. He wore a suit named Babr-e Bayan in battles. In Ferdowsis Shahnameh, Rostam is a native of the Zabulistan a historical region roughly corresponding to todays Zabul Province in southern Afghanistan and his mother Rudaba was a princess of Kabul. Rostam is the champion of champions and is involved in numerous stories, in Shahnameh, Rostam - like his grandfather Sam - works as both a faithful military general as well as king-maker for the Kayanian dynasty of Persia. As a young child, he slays the white elephant of the king Manuchehr with just one blow of the mace owned by his grandfather Sam. He then tames his legendary stallion, Rakhsh, the etymology of the name Rostam is from Raodh+Takhma, where Raodh means growth, reaped, developed and Takhma means brave. In the Avesta, the form is *Raosta-takhma and in Pahlavi *Rodastahm, mehrdad Bahar regards the etymology of the name to be Ruta-staxma, i. e. the river that descends, and argues that Rostam could have been an ancient god of the river Helmand. Rostams mother was Rudaba, the princess of Kabul, who was known for her peerless beauty, Zal was one of Persias most powerful warriors and a great general who conquered many rebellious tribes and ruled over Zabulistan. Zal was known for his wisdom and was unparalleled in riding and fighting on horseback and he once demonstrated his skills to Emperor Menuchihr, to seek his approval to marry his lover Rudaba. In Persian mythology, Rudabas labor of Rostam was prolonged due to the size of her baby. Zal, her lover and husband, was certain that his wife would die in labor, Rudaba was near death when Zal decided to summon the Simurgh. The Simurgh appeared and instructed him upon how to perform a Rostamzad, thus saving Rudaba, after Zals father, Sam came to know of his grandchilds birth, he rushed to see Rostam and was overjoyed. Rostam was brought up and trained by Zal in warfare, when Rostam single handedly slew a mad elephant, his father sent him on his first military assignment. Rostams task was to conquer the fortress on the summit of Mt Sipand where his grandfather, Nariman. Rostam breached the fortress, defeated the enemy, ransacked its treasury and reported his success to his father, Zal and grandfather and he passes through a heros journey to save his sovereign, Kay Kavus who is captured by the demons of Mazandaran
19.
Bushehr Province
–
Bushehr Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It is in the south of the country, with a long coastline onto the Persian Gulf and its center is Bandar-e-Bushehr, the provincial capital. The province has nine counties, Asaluyeh, Bushehr, Dashtestan, Dashti, Dayyer, Deylam, Jam, Kangan, Ganaveh, in 2011, the province had a population of approximately 1 million people. The province was put as part of Region 2 upon the division of the provinces into 5 regions solely for coordination, the Greeks knew of Bushehr by Mezambria during the battles of Nearchus. A French excavating team however in 1913 determined the origin of Bushehr to date back to the Elamite Empire, a city there, known as Lyan, contained a temple that was designed to protect the compound from naval attacks. Its remains can still be seen today 10 kilometers south of the present city of Bushehr, marco Polo describes this region as part of the Persian province of Shabankareh. It contains the village of Saba, Iran where are buried the three Magi which visited the Christ Child. A key turning point in the history of Bor event of significance is known to have taken place in this region until the arrival of the European colonialists in the 16th century. The Portuguese, invaded the city of Bushehr in 1506 and remained there until Shah Abbas Safavi defeated and liberated the Persian Gulf region of their presence. By 1734, Bushehr had once again risen to prominence due to Nader Shah of the Afsharid dynasty, Bushehr was selected by Nader to be the central base of Naders Naval fleet in the Persian Gulf. He thus changed the name of the city to Bandar e Naderiyeh and he hired an Englishman by the name of John Elton to help build his fleet. Dutch accounts report his naval fleet to have amounted to 8000-10000 personnel as well as several ship construction installations, by then, the city of Bushehr had become Irans major port city in the Persian Gulf. By the Qajar era, Britain, Norway, Russia, Italy, France, Germany, close to 100 British ships are reported to have docked at the port city every year during the Qajar era. The Bushehr Light water PWR Nuclear Reactor, designed by Siemens AG, as many as 70,000 foreign engineers and technicians are currently working in this industrial zone 270 kilometers south of the provincial capital. This zone is where the nearby famous South Pars Gas field is located, the South Pars Gas field is the worlds largest natural gas field. Boushehr is home to a football team, Shahin-e Boushehr. Shahin is one of the oldest soccer team in Iran which has found in 1942, shahin is one of the most popular teams in current Iranian football league just like Tractor-Sazi from Tabriz. Despite its unique potentials, Bushehr remains to be developed for absorbing tourists, the city of Bushehr has 3-star hotels, an airport, and modern amenities
20.
Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province
–
Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It lies in the part of the country. The province was put as part of Region 2 upon the division of the provinces into 5 regions solely for coordination and it has an area of 16,332 square kilometers, and had a population of 895,263 in 2011. The history of the province is tied to that of the Bakhtiari tribe, the Bakhtiari tribe can be divided into two sub-tribes, Haft Lang and Chahar Lang with various territorial affiliations and they are the main speakers of Lurish language. As the name of the province dictates with the grammatical feature of -o- which is Persian for and. These peoples and the Lurs live side by side and share almost similar customs, very slight differences exist between them but most are almost unnoticeable. However, there is quite a bit of intermixing of the peoples through marriage. The cities of Shahrekord, Broujen, Ben, Naafch and Saman fall in the Chahar Mahali area of the province and are not inhabited by Lurs. The Bakhtiari territories at times have come under Isfahan and Khuzestan province. The people of this province have a history of having a living and being a capable people who are determined. They have gained such a reputation as being excellent, if not the best, the province has various unique traditions and rituals relative to the tribal lifestyles. Special forms of music, dance, and clothing are noteworthy, Shahrekord Shahrekian Hafshejan Borujen Lordegan Farsan Ardal Dashtak Kaj Farrokhshahr Naafch Saman Juneghan Ben Gandoman Boldaji Faradonbeh The province is mainly active in the agriculture sector. Most of the sector is clustered around the center of the province. The province has the potential to become a vibrant tourist attraction because of its natural resources, ChB highland has one of the highest amounts of precipitation in Iran. Although this province constitutes only 1% of Iran’s land area, 10% of the waters flow in it. The shape of mountains, the rate of Atmospheric precipitation, the height above sea level and the various climates in this province, all have brought about diverse intact landscapes. According to 2011 census, the population of this province is over 900,000 of which more than a half are settled in cities, and the others in villages and some are nomads. Based on the latest national divisions, this province has 9 townships,25 districts,40 towns,50 village units and 820 villages, the townships include Shahrekord, Ardal, Boroujen, Ben, Saman, Farsan, Kouhrang, Kiar and Lordegan
21.
Hamadan Province
–
Hamadan Province, is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. The province of Hamadan covers an area of 19,546 km², in the year 1996, Hamadan province had a population of approximately 1.7 million people, according to the National Census held in 2011 the population of the Province was 1758268 people. In 2014 it was placed in Region 4 and these are part of the Zagros mountain range of Iran. Hamadan enjoys temperate warm summers and relatively cold winters, based on official statistics of 1997, the population of Hamadan county was 563,444 people. Persian language, Spoken by the majority of Hamadan city and county centers, azerbaijani language, Most of the people living in the north and western side of Hamadan city are speak Azeri as of their native language. Lurish, Most people living in the southern of province in Malayer, Nahavand and Samen Kurdish, in Hamadan city, 80% of the people identified their language as Persian, 12% Azeri and 8% Luri, Kurdish and Laki. In the counties of Hamadan province, the Hamadan county, 70% of the people are Persian, 22% Azeri and 8% Lurish, Kurdish, in Hamadan city, 97% of the people identified their language as Persian and 3% other languages. The population of Nahavand was 184160 with approximately 99% speaking Luri, the population of Malayer in 1997 was 297062 and approximately 45% speak Persian, 45% Luri and Laki and 10% Azeri. The population of Tooserkan county was 118945 in 1997 and the majority of the population is Luri, alongside a minority of Azeri of 22%. In Asadabad county, the population was 110077 and 63% were Persian, 19% Kurdish, 14% Azeri and 4% Luri, in Kabudarahang, the population in 1997 was 152318 with 90% speaking Azeri, 5% Persian and another 5% Kurdish. In Razan county, the population was 123790 with 99. 47% of the residents speaking Azeri and 0.53 speaking Kurdish. In Bahar country was 127600 with 86. 3% speaking Azeri,7. 9% speaking Kurdish,4. 5% speaking Persian and 1. 3% speaking Luri, Hamadan province is one of the most ancient parts of Iran and its civilization. Relics of this area confirm this fact, todays Hamedan is what is left of Ecbatana, The Medes capital before they formed a union with the Persians. The poet Ferdowsi says that Ecbatana was built by King Jamshid, according to historical records, there was once a castle in this city by the name of Haft Hessar which had a thousand rooms and its grandeur equalled that of the Babylon Tower. The structures of city are related to Diya Aku, a King of the Medes from 700 BC, according to Greek records, this territory was called Ekbatan and Hegmataneh by this King, thus transformed into a huge capital. During the Parthian era, Ctesiphon became capital of Persia, and Hamedan became the summer capital, after the Parthians, the Sassanids constructed their summer palaces in Hamedan as well. In the year 633 when the war of Nahavand took place and Hamadan came into the hands of the invading Arabs, at times it thrived, during the Buwayhids, it suffered plenty of damages. In the 11th century, the Seljuks shifted their capital from Baghdad to Hamadan once again, the city of Hamadan was always at risk during the rise and fall of powers
22.
Ilam Province
–
Ilam Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. In 2014 it was placed in Region 4 and it is in the west of the country, bordering Iraq. Its provincial center is the city of Ilam, covering an area of 19,086 square kilometers include Ilam, Mehran, Dehloran, Darreh Shahr, Sarable, Eyvan, Abdanan and Arkwaz cities. The population of the province is approximately 600,000 people, the average annual rainfall province is 578 mm. Ilams highest point is the peak Kabir Kuh at 3200 m, part of the Zagros mountains. Eyvan and Ilam are less warm than the cities in the province because they are situated in the north of the province. Wheat is the most common crop cultivated in this province. In 1996, the maximum temperature was 38 °C in August. The number of freezing days in winter was 27 days, previous reports showed that Kurds comprise approximately 86% of the provinces population, with most other inhabitants being Lurs, Laks and Arabs. Ilam Kurds are predominantly Feyli Kurds, the absolute majority of the residents in the southern part of the province are Kurds and speak Kurdish. The north is mostly inhabited by Kurdish tribes who speak two dialects, Kalhuri and Feyli. The majority are Feyli, such as those of Khezel, Arkawâzi, Beyrey, all of residents in Ilam province are Shia Muslims. Altogether, based on new research in 2014, in the southern and eastern parts of the province, the main ethnicities are Kurds, Lurs, laks, persians and Arabs respectively. Totally in ilam province Population and percentage of speakers for languages of Ilam are as following, %79.6 Kurds, %10.7 Lurs, %6.1 Laks, %1.8 Arabs. Limited archaeological studies and discoveries indicate 6,000 years of residence in Ilam. Historical evidence indicates that Ilam province was part of the ancient Elamite Empire, in some of the epigraphs left from Sumerian history, this territory was called Alam, Alamo, or Alamto meaning the high lands where the sun rises. Due to the name of Luristan or Pushtkooh, the Kurdish population in Pushtkooh are called Lur wrongly, arabic texts recorded the name as Fahla or Bahla. Subsequently, Fahla evolved to Faila and Faili -- the modern name of the Pahli Kurds. It is worthy to note that still a town called Pahla exist in the south of the major city of Ilam, Iran. Existence of numerous historical vestiges in Ilam province belonging to the Sassanid period indicates the importance of the region in that time. During the Iran-Iraq war, Ilam province suffered heavily and Iraqs intense bombings left no economic infrastructure for the province, Ilam thus remains one of Irans more undeveloped provinces
23.
Isfahan Province
–
Isfahan province, also transliterated as Esfahan, Espahan, Isfahan, or Isphahan, is one of the thirty-one provinces of Iran. It is located in the center of the country in Irans Region 2 and its secretariat is located in the city of Isfahan. The Isfahan province covers an area of approximately 107,027 square km and is situated in the center of Iran, to its north, stand the Markazi Province and the provinces of Qom and Semnan. To its south, it is bordered by the provinces of Fars, aminabad is the most southern city of Isfahan province just 2 km north of the border. To the east, it is bordered by the province of Yazd, to the west, it is bordered by the province of Lurestan and to the southwest by the province of Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiyari. According to the census in the year 2006, the population of the province was 4,559,256 of which approximately 83.3 percent were urban residents and 16.7 percent resided in the rural areas, the literacy rate was 88.65 percent. In 2011 population of Isfahan grew up to 4,879,312, the province experiences a moderate and dry climate on the whole, ranging between 40.6 °C and 10.6 °C on a cold day in the winter season. The average annual temperature has been recorded as 16.7 °C, the city of Sepahan however experiences an excellent climate, with four distinct seasons. With an elevation of 4,040 metres, the Shahankuh is the highest peak in Isfahan Province and this mountain is located about 20 kilometres southwest of the city of Fereydunshahr in the western part of Isfahan Province. Historians have recorded Espahan, Sepahan or Isfahan initially as a defense and these historical castles were Atashgah, Sarooyieh, Tabarok, Kohan Dej, and Gard Dej to name a few. The oldest of these is Ghaleh Sefeed and the grounds at Tamijan from prehistoric times, the historic village of Abyaneh, a nationwide attraction, also has Sassanid ruins and fire temples among other historical relics. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Isfahan province enjoyed high standards of prosperity as it became the capital of Safavid Persia, while the city of Sepahan was their seat of monarchy, Kashan was their place of vacation and leisure. Isfahan province encompasses various sects today, the majority of the people in the province are Persian speakers, but Bakhtiari Lurs, Georgians, Armenians, Qashqais and Persian Jews also reside in the province. The official language of the province is Persian, though different ethnic groups and tribes abide by their own such as Judeo-Persian, Armenian, Georgian. Isfahan province is noted for its reputed personalities such as writers, poets and other eminent figures who have been born, london, J. Murray and Royal Geographical Society. The Georgians’ position in the Iranian history and civilization, Sepahan, Yekta Rahimi, the Georgians of Iran, Fereydunshahr, Sepahan, Yekta Sepiani, M. Georgian Iranians, Sepahan, Arash Isfahans tourist exhibition mentions the Georgians from Fereydunshahr and Fereydan. The report of this exhibition is available in the web site of the Iranian Cultural Heritage News agency. com Naein News
24.
Encyclopaedia of Islam
–
The Urdu Encyclopaedia of Islam is an encyclopaedia published by the University of the Punjab. The encyclopaedia began in the 1950s as a translation of the Leiden University Encyclopaedia of Islam into Urdu, the editor in chief was Professor Dr. Muhammad Shafi. The editorial board worked on translating the Leiden Encyclopaedia into Urdu, amending, correcting, at the time of Shafis death in 1963, one volume of the encyclopaedia had been published, and a second volume was in press. Because of Shafis death, and lack of funding, work on the Encyclopaedia stalled until 1971, volumes 10 and 12 were completed by 1973. By 1985,21 out of a planned 25 volumes had been published, islamic culture & civilization in Pakistan. Shigeo Minowa and Amadio Antonio Arboleda, ed. Urdu Encyclopaedia of Islam, Asia, Asian quarterly of culture and synthesis. Department of Urdu Encyclopaedia of Islam at the University of the Punjab
25.
Iranian languages
–
The Iranian languages or Iranic languages are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, which in turn are a branch of the Indo-European language family. The speakers of Iranian languages are known as Iranian people, historical Iranian languages are grouped in three stages, Old Iranian, Middle Iranian, and New Iranian. Of the Old Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Old Persian and Avestan, Middle Iranian languages included Middle Persian, Parthian, and Bactrian. As of 2008, there were an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of Iranian languages, ethnologue estimates there are 86 Iranian languages, the largest among them being Persian, Pashto and Kurdish. The term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language, Iranian derives from the Persian and Sanskrit origin word Arya. The use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen, robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878, and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan and Indo-Aryan. Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention, the Eastern Iranian languages subdivided into, Southeastern, of which Pashto is the dominant member, Northeastern, by far the smallest branch, of which Ossetian is the dominant member. All Iranian languages are descended from an ancestor, Proto-Iranian. In turn, and together with Proto-Indo-Aryan and the Nuristani languages, the Indo-Iranian languages are thought to have originated in Central Asia. The Andronovo culture is the candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ca.2000 BC. It was situated precisely in the part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of two have survived. These are, Avestan, the two languages/dialects of the Avesta, i. e. the liturgical texts of Zoroastrianism, Old Persian, the native language of a south-western Iranian people known as Persians. Indirectly attested Old Iranian languages are discussed below, Old Persian is the Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in south-western Iran by the inhabitants of Parsa, who also gave their name to their region and language. The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as Old Avestan, and Younger Avestan. These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since Younger Avestan is not only much younger than Old Avestan, the Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Carduchi and Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages, such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has a Median substrate in some of its vocabulary
26.
Bakhtiari people
–
The Bakhtiari are a southwestern Iranian tribe, and a subgroup of the Lurs. They speak the Bakhtiari dialect, a southwestern Iranian dialect, belonging to the Lurish language, Bakhtiaris primarily inhabit Chahar Mahaal and Bakhtiari and eastern Khuzestan, Lorestan, Bushehr, and Isfahan. In Khuzestan, Bakhtiari tribes are concentrated primarily in the part of the province. A small percentage of Bakhtiari are still nomadic pastoralists, migrating between summer quarters and winter quarters, numerical estimates of their total population vary widely. In Iranian mythology, the Bakhtiaris are considered to be descendants of Fereydun and they are also considered to be directly descended from Cyrus the Great. The Southwest Eurasian haplogroups F, G, and T1a also reach substantial frequency among Bakhtiaris. The term bakhtiari can be best translated as companion of chance or bearer of good luck The term has deep Persian roots and is the result of two smaller words bakht and yar complied together. Bakht is the Persian word for chance and yar, iar, the latter designation largely relates to the nature of the tribes annual migration. This has to do with the nature of Bakhtiari life. In this sense, Bakhtiaris view themselves as a tribe, facing numerous obstacles everyday. Nevertheless, the origins of Bakhtiaris are ancient and it may have well been the case that the tribe underwent a series of name changes throughout its history. However It is mostly claimed that the designation Bakhtiari came largely into use some time in antiquity, Constitutional Revolution, In Irans contemporary history, the Bakhtiari have played a significant role, particularly during the advent of the countrys Constitutional Revolution. This event was largely secured through the Bakhtari campaign, which eventually deposed Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar. The Bakhtiari tribesmen, under the leadership of the Haft Lang khans Sardar Assad and his brother Najaf Qoli Khan Bakhtiari- Saad ad-Daula, captured Tehran and, as a result and these events eventually led to the abdication of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar in 1909 and his exile to Russia. This incident secured Saad ad-Daula the position of Prime Minister in the period followed the abdication of the Qajar Shah. Nonetheless, with Russian backing, the Shah would soon return in 1911 by landing with a coalition of forces at Astarabad, however, his efforts to reclaim his throne would bear no fruit. In this sense, the Bakhtiaris played a role in saving the revolution from the Qajar forces. Pahlavi Period, With the expansion of Bakhtiari influence, urban elites began to worry in regards to a potential Bakhtiari takeover of Persias affairs, prior to this point, the Bakhtiari had largely remained within their own territorial boundaries
27.
Mamasani County
–
Mamasani County is a county in Fars Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Nurabad, which is located 180 kilometres from Shiraz, the people of Mamasani speak Lurish language from southern Lurish dialect. At the 2006 census, the population was 162,694, in 45,145 families, excluding such portions. The county is subdivided into three districts, the Central District, Mahvarmilani District, and Doshman Ziari District, the county has two cities, Nurabad and Khumeh Zar. Mamasani an ancient tribe with numerous sub-tribes live in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, the main tribe resides in Mamasani county in Fars province in Iran and speak Luri language. The Sistani Mamasanis live in Sistan and Baluchistan, the Brahui and Baluchi Mamasanis are called Muhammad Hassani live in Baluchistan provinces of Iran and Pakistan and Nimrus and Helmand of Afghanistan. A Mamasani folk-song sung by Shusha Guppy in the 1970s, You Must Come to Me
28.
Sepidan County
–
Sepidan County is a county in Fars Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Ardakan, at the 2006 census, the countys population was 87,801, in 20,127 families. The county is subdivided into three districts, the Central District, Beyza District, and Hamaijan District, the county has three cities, Beyza, Hamashahr, and Ardakan
29.
Richard N. Frye
–
Richard Nelson Frye was an American scholar of Iranian and Central Asian Studies, and Aga Khan Professor Emeritus of Iranian Studies at Harvard University. His professional areas of interest were Iranian philology and the history of Iran, Frye was born in Birmingham, Alabama. He first attended the University of Illinois, where he received an BA in history and he received his MA from Harvard University in 1940 and his PhD from Harvard in 1946, in Asiatic history. Frye served with the Office of Strategic Services during World War II and he was stationed in Afghanistan and traveled extensively in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. In 1948 he visited Sar Masshad, and was the first European to find and he was a member of the Harvard faculty from 1948 until 1990. He is now a professor emeritus at Harvard and he has also served as faculty, guest lecturer, or visiting scholar at, Habibiya College in Kabul Frankfurt University Hamburg University Pahlavi University of Shiraz University of Tajikistan. Professor Frye helped found the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at Harvard, Frye was also directly responsible for inviting Iranian scholars as distinguished visiting fellows to Harvard University, under a fellowship program initiated by Henry Kissinger. Examples of such guests include Mehdi Haeri Yazdi, Sadegh Choubak, Jalal al Ahmad, Frye felt that Persian civilization was under-appreciated by other Muslims, and Arab Muslims in particular. Frye wrote, Arabs no longer understand the role of Iran, Iranians responded enthusiastically to his appreciation. In August 1953, shortly before the fall of Mosaddegh, prominent Iranian linguist Ali Akbar Dehkhoda gave Frye the title, in his will, Professor Frye expressed his wish to be buried next to the Zayandeh River in Isfahan. This request was approved by Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in September 2007, two other American scholars of Iranian Studies, Arthur Pope and Phyllis Ackerman, are already buried there. In 2010, a house in Isfahan was gifted by Iranian government to Professor Frye in recognition of his services to Iranian studies. On June 8,2014, the family of Dr. Frye decided to cremate his remains after waiting more than 2 months for official Iranian permission to him in Isfahan. His death coincided with growing resentment by Iranian hard-liners over signs of reconciliation with the United States after decades of estrangement and it is not clear what the family intended to do with his ashes. Frye was a public speaker at numerous Iran-related gatherings. In 2005, he spoke at UCLA, encouraging the Iranians present to cherish their culture, in 2004, he spoke at an architectural conference in Tehran, expressing his dismay at hasty modernization that ignores the beauties of traditional Iranian architectural styles. Www. mazdapublishers. com Bukhara, The Medieval Achievement, University of Oklahoma Press,1965, www. mazdapublishers. com The Histories of Nishapur, Harvard University Press,1965 Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum, vol. III, Dura-Europos, London,1968 Persia Allen and Unwin, London,1969 The United States and Turkey and Iran, Archon Books,1971 Sasanian Remains from Qasr-i Abu Nasr
30.
Southern Kurdish
–
Southern Kurdish is a Kurdish dialect predominantly spoken in western Iran and eastern Iraq. In Iran, it is spoken in the provinces of Kermanshah, in Iraq it is spoken in the region of Khanaqin, all the way to Mandali, Pehle. It has more than one million speakers in the city of Baghdad and it is also the dialect of the populous Kurdish Kakayî-Kakavand tribe near Kirkuk and most Yarsani kurds in Kermanshah province. There are also populous diasporas of Palewani-speakers found in the Alburz mountains, native speakers use various different alphabets to write Pałewani, the most common ones are extensions of the standard Kurdish alphabets. The extension consists of a vowel, ۊ for the Arabic-based Sorani script. The subdialects of Southern Kurdish are, Kermanshahi is spoken mostly in western Iran, in, Feyli, referring to the Feyli tribe, also known as Ilami, after Ilam Province. It is spoken in eastern Iraq in the Khanaqin region of Diyala province near the Iranian border and it is spoken by the tribe of Ali Sherwan in Ilam, and by almost all Feyli Kurds in Baghdad, Mandali, Badrah, and Zorbatiah in Iraq. It shares many features with Sorani, garrusi Malekshahi Sanjâbi referring to the language of Sanjâbi people
31.
Izeh
–
Izeh is a city in and the capital of Izeh County, Khuzestan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 103,695, Izeh has temperate weather in spring and summer, although in winter it is usually the coldest city in the Khuzestan province. Izeh is populated by Bakhtiari People, a living in the northern part of the Khuzestan area. It is a rather than an industrial city. The foremost product is rice that mostly comes from Susan, Sheyvand, Meydavood, Izeh also has mines of rocks and minerals. In the Elamite period it was known as Ayapir and sometimes Ayatem, arabs called the town as Idhaj. The local dynasty of Lor Atabakan the Greats renamed it in Malemir or Malmir and this name has been used until 1935 when with government’s approval, it is changed again to Izeh. IḎEH, Encyclopædia Iranica Izeh Photo Gallery from the Khuzestan Governorship Ayapir at fravahr. org
32.
Karim Khan Zand
–
Mohammad Karim Khan Zand, better known as Karim Khan Zand, was the founder of the Zand Dynasty, ruling from 1751 to 1779. He ruled all of Iran except for Khorasan and he also ruled over some Caucasian lands and occupied Basra for some years. While Karim was ruler, Iran recovered from the devastation of 40 years of war, providing the war ravaged country with a sense of tranquility, security, peace. The years from 1765 to Karim Khans death in 1779 marked the zenith of Zand rule, during his reign, relations with Britain were restored, and he allowed the East India Company to have a trading post in southern Iran. He made Shiraz his capital and ordered the construction of several projects there. Following Karim Khans death, civil war broke out once more, the last of these descendants, Lotf Ali Khan, was killed by Qajar ruler Agha Mohammad Khan, who became the sole ruler of Iran. Karim Khan belonged to the Zand tribe, a tribe of Laks, Karim Khan was born ca.1705 somewhere in western Iran. In 1732, Nader Shah, who was the de facto ruler of the Safavid Empire, moved thousands of Bakhtiaris and several Zand families to Khorasan, Karim Khan and his family being one of them. Later in 1736, Nader Shah deposed the Safavid ruler Abbas III and assumed the throne for himself, however, the cooperation ended after Ali Mardan Khan invaded Isfahan and killed Abulfath Khan. Subsequently, Karim Khan killed Ali Mardan Khan and gained control over all of Iran except Khorasan, which was ruled by Shahrukh, nevertheless, Karim Khan did not adopt the title of Shah for himself, preferring the title, Vakil e-Raaayaa. During the following 10 years, Afsharid rule in Khorasan suffered heavily from war among rival chieftains and from invasions by the Durrani ruler of Qandahar, Ahmad Shah Durrani. Karim Khan defeated Mohammad Hasan Khan Qajar in 1759, who was afterwards betrayed by his own followers and killed by his old rival. Due to Agha Mohammad Khans castration, his brother Hosayn Qoli Khan was appointed as the new chieftain of the Qoyunlu instead, shortly thereafter Astarabad fell under the control of Karim Khan, who appointed a Develu named Husain Khan Develu as its governor. Meanwhile, Agha Mohammad Khan and his brother Hosayn Qoli Khan fled to the steppe, One year later, Agha Mohammad Khan made an incursion against Astarabad, but was forced to flee, chased by the citys governor. Agha Mohammad Khan managed to reach Ashraf, but was at last seized and was sent as a hostage to Tehran, Hosayn Qoli Khan was also soon captured and sent to Karim Khan. During his stay Agha Mohammad Khan was treated kindly and honorably by Karim Khan, who made him convince his kinsmen to lay down their arms, Karim Khan then settled them in Damghan. In 1763, Agha Mohammad Khan and Hosayn Qoli Khan were sent to the Zand capital, Shiraz, where their paternal aunt Khadija Begum, who was part of Karim Khans harem, lived. Agha Mohammad Khans half-brothers Morteza Qoli Khan and Mostafa Qoli Khan were granted permission to live in Astarabad, Karim Khan sent the Agha Mohammad Khans remaining brothers to Qazvin, where they were treated honorably
33.
Central Asia
–
Central Asia stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east and from Afghanistan in the south to Russia in the north. It is also referred to as the -stans as the five countries generally considered to be within the region all have names ending with the Persian suffix -stan. Central Asias five former Soviet republics are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its nomadic peoples and the Silk Road. It has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, the Silk Road connected Muslim lands with the people of Europe, India, and China. This crossroads position has intensified the conflict between tribalism and traditionalism and modernization, in pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was predominantly Iranian, peopled by Eastern Iranian-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians and Chorasmians and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Parthians. Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan, the idea of Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was introduced in 1843 by the geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions, historically built political geography and geoculture are two significant parameters widely used in the scholarly literature about the definitions of the Central Asia. The most limited definition was the one of the Soviet Union. This definition was also used outside the USSR during this period. However, the Russian culture has two terms, Средняя Азия and Центральная Азия. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia, the UNESCO general history of Central Asia, written just before the collapse of the USSR, defines the region based on climate and uses far larger borders. An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity and these areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia, the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan. Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan, the Tibetans and Ladakhi are also included. Insofar, most of the peoples are considered the indigenous peoples of the vast region. Central Asia is a large region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains, vast deserts. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of Eastern Europe as a geographical zone known as the Eurasian Steppe. Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming, the Gobi desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs, 77° E, to the Great Khingan Mountains, 116°–118° E. Central Asia has the following geographic extremes, The worlds northernmost desert, at Buurug Deliin Els, Mongolia, the Northern Hemispheres southernmost permafrost, at Erdenetsogt sum, Mongolia, 46°17′ N
34.
Kassites
–
The Kassites were a people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c.1531 BC and until c.1155 BC. The endonym of the Kassites was probably Galzu, although they have also referred to by the names Kaššu. They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the city in 1595 BC, the horse, which the Kassites worshipped, first came into use in Babylonia at this time. The Kassite language has not been classified, however, several Kassite leaders bore Indo-European names, and they might have had an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni, who ruled over the Hurro-Urartian-speaking Hurrians of Asia Minor. The original homeland of the Kassites is not well known, but appears to have located in the Zagros Mountains. However the Kassites were – like the Elamites, Gutians and Manneans who preceded them – linguistically unrelated to the Iranian-speaking peoples who came to dominate the region a millennium later. They first appeared in the annals of history in the 18th century BC when they attacked Babylonia in the 9th year of the reign of Samsu-iluna, the son of Hammurabi. The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god Marduk, but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, the circumstances of their rise to power are unknown, due to a lack of documentation from this so-called Dark Age period of widespread dislocation. No inscription or document in the Kassite language has been preserved, Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the city Karanduniash, re-emerged as a political and military power in Mesopotamia. A newly built capital city Dur-Kurigalzu was named in honour of Kurigalzu I and their success was built upon the relative political stability that the Kassite monarchs achieved. They ruled Babylonia practically without interruption for almost four hundred years— the longest rule by any dynasty in Babylonian history, Kassite kings established trade and diplomacy with Assyria. Egypt, Elam, and the Hittites, and the Kassite royal house intermarried with their royal families, There were foreign merchants in Babylon and other cities, and Babylonian merchants were active from Egypt to Assyria and Anatolia. A further treaty between Kurigalzu I and Ashur-bel-nisheshu of Assyria was agreed in the mid 15th century, Babylon was sacked by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I ) in the 1360s after the Kassite king in Babylon who was married to the daughter of Ashur-uballit was murdered. Ashur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, deposing the king and installing Kurigalzu II of the royal Kassite line as king there and his successor Enlil-nirari also attacked Babylonia and his great grandson Adad-nirari I annexed Babylonian territory when he became king. Tukulti-Ninurta I not content with merely dominating Babylonia went further, conquering Babylonia, deposing Kashtiliash IV, the Kassite kings maintained control of their realm through a network of provinces administered by governors. Almost equal with the cities of Babylon and Dur-Kurigalzu, the revived city of Nippur was the most important provincial center. Nippur, the great city, which had been virtually abandoned c.1730 BC, was rebuilt in the Kassite period. In fact, under the Kassite government, the governor of Nippur, the prestige of Nippur was enough for a series of 13th century BC Kassite kings to reassume the title governor of Nippur for themselves
35.
Gutian people
–
The Guti or Quti, also known by the derived exonyms Gutians or Guteans, were a nomadic people of the Zagros Mountains during ancient times. Their homeland was known as Gutium The Guti are often regarded as precursors of the modern Kurds, conflict between people from Gutium and the Akkadian Empire has been linked to the collapse of the empire, towards the end of the 3rd Millennium BCE. The Guti subsequently overran southern Mesopotamia and formed a dynasty in Sumer. The Sumerian king list suggests that the Guti ruled over Sumer for several generations, by the 1st Millennium BCE, usage of the name Gutium, by the peoples of lowland Mesopotamia, had expanded to include all of western Media, between the Zagros and the Tigris. Various tribes and places to the east and northeast were often referred to as Gutians or Gutium, for example, Assyrian royal annals use the term Gutians in relation to populations known to have been Medes or Mannaeans. As late as the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia, little is known of the origins, material culture or language of the Guti, as contemporary sources provide few details and no artifacts have been positively identified. As the Gutian language lacks a text corpus, apart from some proper names, the names of Gutian-Sumerian kings, suggest that the language was not closely related to any languages of the region, including Sumerian, Akkadian, Hurrian, Hittite and Elamite. He further suggested that they had migrated to the Tarim. Gamkrelidze and Ivanov explored Hennings suggestion as possible support for their proposal of an Indo-European Urheimat in the Near East, however, most scholars reject the attempt to compare languages separated by more than two millennia. Since Gutian appears to have been a language, for information about the Guti. Initially, according to the Sumerian king list, in Gutium, no king was famous, they were their own kings and ruled thus for three years. This may indicate that the Gutian kingship was rotated between tribes/clans, or within an oligarchical elite, Sumerian sources generally portray the Guti as an unhappy, barbarous and rapacious people from the mountains – apparently the central Zagros east of Babylon and north of Elam. The period of the Gutian dynasty in Sumer is portrayed as chaotic, the Guti appear in texts from Old Babylonian copies of inscriptions ascribed to Lugal-Anne-Mundu of Adab as among the nations providing his empire tribute. These inscriptions locate them between Subartu in the north, and Marhashe and Elam in the south and they were a prominent nomadic tribe who lived in the Zagros mountains in the time of the Akkadian Empire. Sargon the Great also mentions them among his subject lands, listing them between Lullubi, Armanum and Akkad to the north, and Nikku and Der to the south. According to one stele, Naram-Sin of Akkads army of 360,000 soldiers defeated the Gutian king Gulaan, the epic Cuthaean Legend of Naram-Sin of a later millennium mentions Gutium among the lands around Mesopotamia raided by Annubanini of Lulubum during Naram-Sins reign. Contemporary year-names for Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad indicate that in one year of his reign, he captured Sharlag king of Gutium, while in another year. As the Akkadians went into decline, the Gutians began to practice hit-and-run tactics on Mesopotamia and their raids crippled the economy of Sumer
36.
Elam
–
The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam, along with the later Akkadian elamtu, and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the political forces of the Ancient Near East. In classical literature, Elam was also known as Susiana, which is a derived from its capital. Elam was part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period, the emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found. In the Old Elamite period, Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan and its culture played a crucial role during the Persian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded Elam, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally accepted to be an isolate unrelated to the much later arriving Persian. The Elamites called their country Haltamti, Sumerian ELAM, Akkadian Elamû, female Elamītu resident of Susiana, the Elamite civilization was primarily centered in the province of what is modern-day Khuzestān and Ilam in prehistoric times. The modern provincial name Khuzestān is derived from the Persian name for Susa, Old Persian Hūjiya Elam, in Middle Persian Huź Susiana, in geographical terms, Susiana basically represents the Iranian province of Khuzestan around the river Karun. In ancient times, several names were used to describe this area, the great ancient geographer Ptolemy was the earliest to call the area Susiana, referring to the country around Susa. Another ancient geographer, Strabo, viewed Elam and Susiana as two different geographical regions and he referred to Elam as primarily the highland area of Khuzestan. Disagreements over the location also exist in the Jewish historical sources says Daniel T. Potts, some ancient sources draw a distinction between Elam as the highland area of Khuzestan, and Susiana as the lowland area. Yet in other ancient sources Elam and Susiana seem equivalent, the uncertainty in this area extends also to modern scholarship. Since the discovery of ancient Anshan, and the realization of its importance in Elamite history. Some modern scholars argued that the centre of Elam lay at Anshan and in the highlands around it and they were Anshanites, Marhashians, Shimashkians, Zabshalians, Sherihumians, Awanites, etc. That Anshan played a role in the political affairs of the various highland groups inhabiting southwestern Iran is clear. Knowledge of Elamite history remains largely fragmentary, reconstruction being based on mainly Mesopotamian sources, the history of Elam is conventionally divided into three periods, spanning more than two millennia. At least three proto-Elamite states merged to form Elam, Anshan, Awan and Shimashki, references to Awan are generally older than those to Anshan, and some scholars suggest that both states encompassed the same territory, in different eras. To this core Shushiana was periodically annexed and broken off, in addition, some Proto-Elamite sites are found well outside this area, spread out on the Iranian plateau, such as Warakshe, Sialk and Jiroft in Kerman Province
37.
Sharafnama
–
The Sharafnama is the famous book of Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi, which he wrote in 1597, in Persian. Sharafnama is regarded as the source on Kurdish history. Sharaf Khan Bidlisi was born in February 25,1543, son of Shamsaddin Batlisi, in 1576 Tahmasb of the Safavids gives him the title the Mir of Mirs, appoints him leader of all Iranian Kurdish tribes. In 1578, Sharafkhan abandons his previous stand, and supports the Ottomans in their war against the Iranians, between 1578 and 1588, Sharafkhan virtually led all the Ottoman wars against the Persians. Sultan Murad III, the Ottoman Sultan, grants Sharafkhan the title of Khan and he becomes the Mir of the Batlisi province. As he turned 53, Sharafkhan gives the authority of his dynasty to his son Shamsaddin Bag Abu Almaali and he begins writing the book Sharafnama in 1597. In 1873–1875, François Charmoy, a French scholar, translated it from Persian into French and published it in Saint Petersburg, at the right, it is a Kurdish–French dictionary, made by Alexandre Jaba, and published in 1879 in Saint Pertersburg, too. Among many other languages, the Sherefname has been translated into Arabic, Azerbaijani, English, Ottoman, Russian, for the first time in 1972 the great Kurdish scholar Abdurrahman Sharafkandi, translated the book from Persian into Kurdish for the first time. List of Kurdish people Kurdish history Ayyubid Dynasty Zand Dynasty Mem and Zin http, //www. kurdistanica. com/. q=node/16
38.
Sharafkhan Bidlisi
–
Sharaf Beg Bedlisi was a medieval Kurdish emir and a politician from the Emirate of Bitlis. But he is known as a historian, writer and poet. Born in the Garmrood village, in central Iran, between Arak and Qom, at an age he was sent to the Safavids court. He is the author of one of the most important works on medieval Kurdish history, written in 1597 and he created a good picture of Kurdish life and Kurdish dynasties in the 16th century in his works. Outside Iran and Kurdish-speaking countries, Sharaf Khan Bidlisi has influenced Kurdish literature and he was also a gifted artist, and a well-educated man excelling as much in mathematics and military strategy, as he did in history. Sharaf Khan Bidlisi was born on February 25,1543, in the Markazi province, Iran in the Garmrood village and he was most commonly known as, Mir Sharaf. Later his family was taken under protection of the Safavid dynasty and he was schooled at Tahmasbs court, and wrote in 1596, Bedlîsî speaks of his education entailing instruction in the Quran, readings in on the principles of the sharia, a piety and purity. Due to Shah Tahmasbs religious disposition, Bidlisi was introduced to religious scholars, who warned him against evil people, and once Bidlisi attained maturity, he was thought the martial arts, archery, polo, racing, swordsmanship, and the precepts of chivalry – humanism and generosity. In 1576 Tahmasb of the Safavids gives him the title the Mir of Mirs and he accepts his title, but only two years later, Sharafkhan abandons his previous stand, and supports the Ottomans in their war against the Iranians, offering them 400 soldiers. Between 1578 and 1588, Sharafkhan virtually led all the Ottoman wars against the Persians, Sultan Murad III, the Ottoman Sultan, grants Sharafkhan the title of Khan. He becomes the Mir of the Batlisi province, as he turned 53, Sharafkhan gave the authority of his dynasty to his son Shamsaddin Bag Abu Almaali. He was thinking for a time to write a book about Kurdish history. The Sharafnama divides its history into four parts, the second part lists dynasties that have had coin struck and the khutba recited in their names. The third part numbers the families of the governors, while the fourth details the history of the mirs of Bitilis. He wrote his works in Persian, and it was not until 1879 that it was translated into Kurdish by the Kurdish polymath Mahmud Bayazidi and its hand-written version is preserved in the Russian National Library, and was published for the first time in 1986. In 1972, the Sorani version of Sharafnama was written for the first time by the late Kurdish scholar Abdurrahman Sharafkandi, in 1873–1875, the French scholar François Charmoy translated Sharafnama from Persian into French and published it in Saint Petersburg, in Russia. Among many other languages, Sharafname has been translated into Arabic, English, Turkic languages, Russian, Greek and he died in his own principality in 1603 at the age of 60, and left thousands of writings. Being one of the oldest books written by a Kurd
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
.JPG)
. PMID 22815981.
.svg){kind=small}
