1.
Macaroon
–
Some recipes call for sweetened condensed milk. Macaroons are often baked on edible rice paper placed on a baking tray, the name of the cake comes from the Italian maccarone or maccherone meaning paste, referring to the original almond paste ingredient, this word itself derives from ammaccare, meaning to crush. The word maccherone itself is derived from the Greek μακαρία, a kind of barley broth which was served to commemorate the dead, the first synthetic of the word in Greek means blessed, happy. Culinary historians claim that macaroons can be traced to an Italian monastery of the 9th century, the monks came to France in 1533, joined by the pastry chefs of Catherine de Medici, wife of King Henri II. Later, two Benedictine nuns, Sister Marguerite and Sister Marie-Elisabeth, came to Nancy seeking asylum during the French Revolution, the two women paid for their housing by baking and selling macaroon cookies, and thus became known as the Macaroon Sisters. Italian Jews later adopted the cookie because it has no flour or leavening and it was introduced to other European Jews and became popular as a year-round sweet. Recipes for macaroons appear in books at least as early as 1725. Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management includes a traditional recipe. Over time, coconut was added to the ground almonds and, in certain recipes, potato starch is also sometimes included in the recipe, to give the macaroons more body. Coconut macaroons may include almond slivers, or occasionally pecans, cashews or other nuts, in Australia, a dollop of raspberry jam or glacé cherries are often concealed in the centre of the macaroon. Coconut macaroons are often topped with a cherry, and/or dipped in chocolate. Macaroons in the Dominican Republic are very dark, grated coconut is mixed with ginger and cinnamon. The term appeared in print in 1552 in the Quart livre by François Rabelais, the coconut macaroon is known as the Congolais, or le rocher à la noix de coco. Thoothukudi and Mangalore have their own varieties of macaroon made with cashews and egg whites, a macaroon chocolate bar is made by Wilton Candy in Co. The description on the packaging is macaroon pieces in Irish milk chocolate and it was first made in 1937. Ricciarelli are a soft almond variety originating from Siena, amaretti di Saronno are a usually crunchy variety from Saronno. Both are often served on occasions such as Christmas. Philippine coconut macaroons are uniquely cake-like in texture and they are slightly crunchy on the outside and soft, moist, and chewy on the inside
Macaroon
–
Coconut macaroons
Macaroon
Macaroon
–
An opened Mangalorean macaroon with
cashews
Macaroon
–
Acıbadem kurabiyesi, a traditional
Turkish macaroon
2.
Macaroni
–
Macaroni /ˌmækəˈroʊni/ is a variety of dry pasta traditionally shaped into narrow tubes, produced in various shapes and sizes. Originating in Italy and made with wheat, macaroni is commonly cut in short lengths. Some home machines can make macaroni shapes, but like most pasta, the curved shape is created by different speeds of extrusion on opposite ends of the pasta tube as it comes out of the machine. In North America, the word macaroni is often used synonymously with elbow-shaped macaroni, as it is the variety most often used in macaroni, in Italy, the noun maccheroni refers to straight, tubular, square-ended pasta corta. Maccheroni may also refer to pasta dishes such as maccheroni alla chitarra and frittata di maccheroni. The name comes from Italian maccheroni, plural form of maccherone, refer to elbow-shaped pasta similar to macaroni in the North American culture. The academic consensus supports that the word is derived from the Greek μακαρία, in turn, that comes from μάκαρες meaning blessed dead, and ultimately from μακάριος, collateral of μάκαρ which means blessed, happy. However, the Italian linguist G. Alessio argues that the word can have two origins, second, from the Greek μακαρία barley broth, which would have added the suffix -one. The Epic History of Italians and their Food, John Dickie instead says that the word macaroni, and its earlier variants like maccheroni, comes from maccare, meaning to pound or crush. The Russian language borrowed the word as a term for all varieties of pasta, this also holds for several other Slavic languages, as well as for Turkish, Greek. In Iran, all sorts of pasta are collectively called makaroni, as is the case with dishes made with other types of pasta, macaroni and cheese is a popular dish in North America, and is often made with elbow macaroni. The same dish, known simply as macaroni cheese, is popular in Great Britain. A sweet macaroni pudding containing milk and sugar was also popular with the British during the Victorian era and this is often a course for breakfast or light lunch fare. Food portal Bigoli Bucatini Kushari http, //law. justia. com/cfr/title21/21-2.0.1.1.24. html
Macaroni
–
Macaroni
Macaroni
–
Homemade
macaroni and cheese, with dried herbs and ground pepper
Macaroni
–
Elbow macaroni
die: front view (left), and rear view (right)
Macaroni
3.
Confectionery
–
Confectionery, also called sweets or candy, is sweet food. The term varies among English-speaking countries, in general, though, confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories, bakers confections and sugar confections. Bakers confectionery, also called flour confections, includes principally sweet pastries, cakes, in the Middle East and Asia, flour-based confections are more dominant. Sugar confectionery includes sweets, candied nuts, chocolates, chewing gum and bubblegum, sweetmeats, pastillage, in some cases, chocolate confections are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections. The words candy, sweets, and lollies are common words for the most common varieties of sugar confectionery, the confectionery industry also includes specialized training schools and extensive historical records. Traditional confectionery goes back to ancient times, and continued to be eaten through the Middle Ages into the modern era, generally, confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories. They may be fat-free foods, although some confections, especially fried doughs, are high-fat foods, many confections are considered empty calories. Specially formulated chocolate has been manufactured in the past for use as a high-density food energy source. Confections are defined by the presence of sweeteners and these are usually sugars, but it is possible to buy sugar-free sweets, such as sugar-free peppermints. The most common sweetener for cooking is table sugar, which is chemically a disaccharide containing both glucose and fructose. Hydrolysis of sucrose gives a mixture called invert sugar, which is sweeter and is also a commercial ingredient. Finally confections, especially commercial ones, are sweetened by a variety of syrups obtained by hydrolysis of starch and these sweeteners include all types of corn syrup. Bakers confectionery includes sweet baked goods, especially those that are served for the dessert course, bakers confections are sweet foods that feature flour as a main ingredient and are baked. Major categories include cakes, sweet pastries, doughnuts, scones, Sugar confections include sweet, sugar-based foods, which are usually eaten as snack food. This includes sugar candies, chocolates, candied fruits and nuts, chewing gum, in the European Union, the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community scheme matches the UN classification, under code number 10.82. Ice cream and sorbet are classified with dairy products under ISIC1050, NACE10.52, different dialects of English use regional terms for sugar confections, In Britain, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, sweets or, more colloquially, sweeties. In Australia and New Zealand, lollies, chewy and Chuddy are Australian slang for chewing gum. In North America, candy, although this generally refers to a specific range of confectionery
Confectionery
–
This
Kransekake is a traditional Scandinavian baker's confection.
Confectionery
–
Petits fours are baker's confections.
Confectionery
–
Rock candy is simply sugar with coloring or flavor added.
Confectionery
–
Peeps are one of many types of
marshmallow -type candies.
4.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
5.
Egg white
–
Albumen is the name for the clear liquid contained within an egg. In chickens it is formed from the layers of secretions of the section of the hens oviduct during the passage of the egg. It forms around fertilized or unfertilized egg yolks, the primary natural purpose of egg white is to protect the yolk and provide additional nutrition for the growth of the embryo. Egg white consists primarily of about 90% water into which is dissolved about 10% proteins, unlike the yolk, which is high in lipids, egg white contains almost no fat, and carbohydrate content is less than 1%. Egg whites contain just over 50% of the protein in the egg, Egg white has many uses in food and also many other uses. Egg white makes up around two-thirds of an egg by weight. Water constitutes about 90% of this, with protein, trace minerals, fatty material, vitamins, and glucose contributing the remainder. A raw U. S. large egg contains around 33 grams of egg white with 3.6 grams of protein,0.24 grams of carbohydrate and 55 milligrams of sodium and it contains no cholesterol and the energy content is about 17 Calories. Egg white is a solution and contains around 148 proteins. The table below lists the major proteins in egg whites by percentage, ovalbumin is the most abundant protein in albumen. Classed as phosphoglycoprotein, during storage, it converts into s-ovalbumin, Denaturation temperature is around 84°C, but it can be easily denatured by physical stresses. Conalbumin/ovotransferrin is a glycoprotein which has the capacity to bind the bi-, at its isoelectric pH, it can bind two cations and assume a red or yellow color. These metal complexes are more stable than the native state. Ovomucoid is the major allergen from egg white and is a heat-resistant glycoprotein found to be a trypsin inhibitor, ovomucin is a glycoprotein which may contribute to the gel-like structure of thick albumen. The amount of ovomucin in the thick albumen is four times greater than in the thin albumen, the physical stress of beating egg whites can create a foam. Two types of stress are caused by beating them with a whisk. The second stress comes from the mixing of air into the whites, when beating egg whites, they are classified in three stages according to the peaks they form when the beater is lifted, soft, firm, and stiff peaks. Overbeaten eggs take on a dry appearance, and eventually collapse, Egg whites do not beat up correctly if they are exposed to any form of fat, such as cooking oils or the fats contained in egg yolk
Egg white
–
A raw
egg yolk surrounded by the egg white.
Egg white
–
Beaten egg whites
6.
Icing sugar
–
Powdered sugar, also called confectioners sugar, icing sugar, and icing cake, is a finely ground sugar produced by milling granulated sugar into a powdered state. It usually contains an amount of anti-caking agent to prevent clumping. Although most often produced in a factory, powdered sugar can also be made by processing ordinary granulated sugar in a grinder, or by crushing it by hand in a mortar. Powdered sugar is utilized in industrial food production when a sugar is required. Home cooks use it principally to make icing or frosting and other cake decorations and it is often dusted onto baked goods to add a subtle sweetness and delicate decoration. Powdered sugar is available in varying degrees of fineness, most commonly XXX, XXXX, and 10X, the greater the number of Xs, finer particles absorb more moisture, which results in caking. Caster sugar has a particle size than powdered sugar, approximately half that of granulated sugar. It is mostly used for decorative purposes, media related to powdered sugar at Wikimedia Commons Asadi, Mosen. Chen, James C. P. Chung Chi Chou, Cane Sugar Handbook, A Manual for Cane Sugar Manufacturers and Their Chemists
Icing sugar
–
Powdered sugar on
cannolis
Icing sugar
–
Closeup of unsifted powdered sugar
Icing sugar
–
Chemistry
7.
Granulated sugar
–
Sucrose is a common saccharide found in many plants and plant parts. Saccharose is a term for sugars in general, especially sucrose. The molecule is a combination of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose with the formula C12H22O11. Sucrose is often extracted and refined from either sugarcane or beet sugar for human consumption, modern industrial sugar refinement processes often involve bleaching and crystallization, producing a white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste of pure sucrose. This refined form of sucrose is commonly referred to as sugar or just sugar. It plays a role as an additive in food production all over the world. About 175 million metric tons of sucrose were produced worldwide in 2013, the term sucrose was first used in 1857 by English chemist William Miller from the French sucre and the generic chemical suffix for sugars -ose. The abbreviated term Suc is often used for sucrose in scientific literature, in sucrose, the components glucose and fructose are linked via an acetal bond between C1 on the glucosyl subunit and C2 on the fructosyl unit. The bond is called a glycosidic linkage, glucose exists predominantly as two isomeric pyranoses, but only one of these forms links to the fructose. Fructose itself exists as a mixture of furanoses, each of which having α and β isomers and this linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units. Since it contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose crystallizes in the space group P21 with room-temperature lattice parameters a =1.08631 nm, b =0.87044 nm, c =0.77624 nm. The purity of sucrose is measured by polarimetry, through the rotation of plane-polarized light by a solution of sugar, the specific rotation at 20 °C using yellow sodium-D light is +66. 47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter, Sucrose does not deteriorate at ambient conditions. The formula for sucrose decomposition can be represented as a 2 step reaction, C12H22O11 + heat → 12C + 11H2O 12C + 12O2 → 12CO2 Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes—at 186 °C —to form caramel, like other carbohydrates, it combusts to carbon dioxide and water. Mixing sucrose with the potassium nitrate produces the fuel known as rocket candy that is used to propel amateur rocket motors. C12H22O11 +6 KNO3 →9 CO +3 N2 +11 H2O +3 K2CO3 This reaction is somewhat simplified though, some of the carbon does get fully oxidized to carbon dioxide, and other reactions, such as the water-gas shift reaction also take place
Granulated sugar
–
Table sugar production in the 19th century.
Sugar cane plantations (upper image) employed slave or indentured laborers. The picture shows workers harvesting cane, loading it on a boat for transport to the plant, while a European overseer watches in the lower right. The lower image shows a sugar plant with two furnace chimneys. Sugar plants and plantations were harsh, inhumane work.
Granulated sugar
–
Sucrose
Granulated sugar
Granulated sugar
–
A
sugarloaf was a traditional form for sugar from the 17th to 19th centuries.
Sugar nips were required to break off pieces.
8.
Almond powder
–
Almond meal, almond flour or ground almond is made from ground sweet almonds. Almond flour is made with blanched almonds, whereas almond meal can be made both with whole or blanched almonds. The consistency is more like corn meal than wheat flour, in France, almond meal is an important ingredient in frangipane, the filling of traditional galette des Rois cake. Almond meal has recently become important in baking items for those on low carbohydrate diets and it adds moistness and a rich nutty taste to baked goods. Items baked with almond meal tend to be calorie-dense, almonds have high levels of polyunsaturated fats in them. Typically, the omega 6 fatty acids in almonds are protected from oxidation by the skin and vitamin E. When almonds are ground, this skin is broken and exposed surface area increases dramatically, greatly enhancing the nuts tendency to oxidize
Almond powder
–
Almond meal being made by hand
9.
Ground almond
–
Almond meal, almond flour or ground almond is made from ground sweet almonds. Almond flour is made with blanched almonds, whereas almond meal can be made both with whole or blanched almonds. The consistency is more like corn meal than wheat flour, in France, almond meal is an important ingredient in frangipane, the filling of traditional galette des Rois cake. Almond meal has recently become important in baking items for those on low carbohydrate diets and it adds moistness and a rich nutty taste to baked goods. Items baked with almond meal tend to be calorie-dense, almonds have high levels of polyunsaturated fats in them. Typically, the omega 6 fatty acids in almonds are protected from oxidation by the skin and vitamin E. When almonds are ground, this skin is broken and exposed surface area increases dramatically, greatly enhancing the nuts tendency to oxidize
Ground almond
–
Almond meal being made by hand
10.
Food coloring
–
Food coloring, or color additive, is any dye, pigment or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or drink. They come in many forms consisting of liquids, powders, gels, Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Food colorants are used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, home craft projects. People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the flavor in anything from candy to wine. During the Middle Ages, the economy in the European countries was based on agriculture, under feudalism, aesthetic aspects were not considered, at least not by the vast majority of the generally very poor population. This situation changed with urbanization at the beginning of the Modern Age, one of the very first food laws, created in Augsburg, Germany, in 1531, concerned spices or colorants and required saffron counterfeiters to be burned. With the onset of the revolution, people became dependent on foods produced by others. These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost, analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few. Copper arsenite was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale and it also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860. Again his tea if mixed or green, he would not escape without the administration of a little Prussian blue. Many color additives had never tested for toxicity or other adverse effects. Historical records show that injuries, even deaths, resulted from tainted colorants, in 1851, about 200 people were poisoned in England,17 of them fatally, directly as a result of eating adulterated lozenges. Originally, these were dubbed coal-tar colors because the materials were obtained from bituminous coal. Many synthesized dyes were easier and less costly to produce and were superior in coloring properties when compared to naturally derived alternatives, some synthetic food colorants are diazo dyes. Diazo dyes are prepared by coupling of a compound with a second aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting compounds contain conjugated systems that absorb light in the visible parts of the spectrum. The attractiveness of the synthetic dyes is that their color, lipophilicity, the color of the dyes can be controlled by selecting the number of azo-groups and various substituents. Yellow shades are often achieved by using acetoacetanilide, Red colors are often azo compounds
Food coloring
–
Food coloring spreading on a thin water film in the
International Space Station
Food coloring
–
Natural food colors can make a variety of different hues
11.
Buttercream
–
Buttercream is a type of icing or filling used inside cakes, as a coating, and as decoration. In its simplest form, it is made by creaming butter with powdered sugar, although other fats can be used, colorings and flavorings are often added, such as chocolate, fruit purees, and various extracts. Buttercream is a topping for cupcakes, sponge cakes, butter cakes. Whether buttercream with no butter or a butter equivalent can rightly be called buttercream is debated among bakers, pastry chefs, simple buttercream is made by creaming together fats and powdered sugar to the desired consistency and lightness. Typically twice as much sugar as butter by weight is used, flavorings, in the form of extracts and oils, may also be added. Some recipes call for non-fat milk solids or meringue powder, these add a creamy texture without any decrease in stability, the icing can form a thin crust after prolonged time at a cool temperature, which prevents sticking. This is due to the sugar content and may be prevented with the addition of invert sugars such as glucose or fructose. Compared to other types of buttercreams, simple buttercream has a proportion of sugar content. There are two types of meringue-based buttercream, Italian and Swiss, the meringues must be cooled to room temperature in order not to melt the butter as it is subsequently beaten in. Italian meringue is prepared by the addition of sugar made by heating sugar. The sugar syrup cooks the egg whites, heating them well past the 60 °C recommended in the USA to kill salmonella, the syrup and egg white mixture is then whipped and cooled until it reaches room temperature. Buttercream prepared in this method is often referred to as Mousseline buttercream. Swiss Meringue is prepared by cooking the egg whites and sugar together in a bowl placed on a pot of boiling water, the mixture is whisked while it cooks until the temperature of the mix reaches 60 °C. The mixture is then removed from the heat and whipped at high speed until it forms stiff peaks and has cooled. No matter which of the two types of meringue are used as the base, once it is prepared, butter, meringue-based buttercreams are light and creamy in texture and balanced between sweetness and richness. They are also the easiest to work with when icing and decorating cakes and they also dont crust over as with simple buttercream. French buttercream is made with whipped egg yolks not French meringue as is sometimes assumed, the syrup and egg yolk mixture is further whipped until it has formed a light foam and has cooled. Butter and flavorings are then whipped in and this icing is very rich, smooth, and light
Buttercream
–
Layer cake with buttercream icing and decorations
12.
Clotted cream
–
Clotted cream is a thick cream made by indirectly heating full-cream cows milk using steam or a water bath and then leaving it in shallow pans to cool slowly. During this time, the cream content rises to the surface and it forms an essential part of a cream tea. Although its origin is uncertain, the production is commonly associated with dairy farms in southwest England and in particular the counties of Cornwall. The current largest commercial producer in the UK is Roddas at Scorrier, Redruth, Cornwall, in 1998 the term Cornish clotted cream became a Protected Designation of Origin by European Union directive, as long as the milk is produced in Cornwall and the minimum fat content is 55%. Clotted cream has been described as having a nutty, cooked milk flavour, and it is a thick cream, with a very high fat content, in the United States it would be classified as butter. For comparison, the fat content of single cream is only 18 percent, due to its high saturated fat content, the regular consumption of clotted cream is usually thought to be bad for health, though some dairy fat in the diet is considered beneficial. A2006 survey of nutrition professionals ranked clotted cream as the least healthy of 120 foods selected to be representative of the British diet, according to the United Kingdoms Food Standards Agency, a 100-gram tub of clotted cream provides 586 kilocalories, roughly equivalent to a 200-gram cheeseburger. While there is no doubt of its strong and long association with Cornwall and Devon, it is not clear of its actual antiquity, the Oxford Companion to Food follows traditional folklore by suggesting it may have been introduced to Cornwall by Phoenician traders in search of tin. It is similar to kaymak, a Near Eastern delicacy that is throughout the Middle East, southeast Europe, Iran, Afghanistan, India. A similar clotted cream known as urum is also made in Mongolia, contemporary ancient food experts, noting Strabos commentaries on Britain have proposed that the early Britons would probably have clotted cream to preserve its freshness. Similar functions are ascribed to the linhay stone-built form, often used as a dairy in later medieval longhouses in the same regions and it has long been disputed whether clotted cream originated in Devon or Cornwall, and which county makes it the best. There is evidence that the monks of Tavistock Abbey were making clotted cream in the early 14th century, after their abbey had been ransacked by Vikings in 997 CE, the monks rebuilt it with the help of Ordulf, Earl of Devon. Local workers were drafted in to help with the repairs, and the monks rewarded them with bread, clotted cream, the 1658 cookery book The Compleat Cook had a recipe for clouted cream. In the 19th century it was regarded as better nourishment than raw cream because that cream was liable to go sour and be difficult to digest, an article from 1853 calculates that creating clotted cream will produce 25 percent more cream than regular methods. In Devon, it was so common that in the century it was used in the formative processes of butter. The butter made in this way had a longer lifespan and was free from any negative flavours added by the churning. In 1993, an application was made for the name Cornish clotted cream to have a Protected Designation of Origin in the European Union for cream produced by the recipe in Cornwall. Cornish clotted cream must be made from milk produced in Cornwall and have a minimum content of 55 percent
Clotted cream
–
A tub of clotted cream, showing top crust.
Clotted cream
–
An advertisement from 1920
Clotted cream
–
A tin that was used in the 1970s to send clotted cream through the post from Devon
Clotted cream
–
A modern cream tea.
13.
Ganache
–
Ganache is a glaze, icing, sauce, or filling for pastries made from chocolate and cream. Ganache is normally made by heating cream, then pouring it over chopped chocolate of any kind, the mixture is stirred or blended until smooth, with liqueurs or extracts added if desired. Butter is traditionally added to give the ganache a shiny appearance, according to Larousse Gastronomique, it was invented in a pâtisserie in Paris in the 1850s. Typically, two parts chocolate to one part cream are used for filling cakes or as a base for making chocolate truffles, cooled ganache can be whipped to increase volume and spread to cover a cake. However, if left to cool too much it can become too thick, another common use of ganache is to be poured into a mold or terrine while warm and allowed to set or cool. Once it has cooled it can be removed from the mold, enrobing — a chocolate coating process. Chocolate tempering Media related to Ganache at Wikimedia Commons
Ganache
–
Peanut butter fudge covered in ganache
Ganache
–
A chocolate cake with ganache frosting
Ganache
–
Overview
14.
Jam
–
Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as made from strawberry or apricot. In English, the word, in form, preserves is used to describe all types of jams. The term preserves is usually interchangeable with jams, some cookbooks define preserves as cooked and gelled whole fruit, which includes a significant portion of the fruit. In the English speaking world, the two terms are more differentiated and, when this is not the case, the more usual generic term is jam. The singular preserve or conserve is used as a noun for high fruit content jam. Additionally, the name of the type of fruit preserves will also vary depending on the variant of English being used. A chutney is a pungent relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices, mango chutney, for example, is mangoes reduced with sugar. Savory confits, such as made with garlic or fennel, may call for a savory oil, such as virgin olive oil. A conserve, or whole fruit jam, is a jam made of fruit stewed in sugar, in Romania they are known as dulceata. As a result of minimal cooking, some fruits are not particularly suitable for making into conserves. Currants and gooseberries, and a number of plums are among these fruits, because of this shorter cooking period, not as much pectin will be released from the fruit, and as such, conserves will sometimes be slightly softer set than some jams. An alternative definition holds that conserves are preserves made from a mixture of fruits and/or vegetables, Conserves may also include dried fruit or nuts. Fruit butter, in context, refers to a process where the whole fruit is forced through a sieve or blended after the heating process. Fruit butters are generally made from fruits, such as apples, plums. Cook until softened and run through a sieve to give a smooth consistency, add sugar and cook as rapidly as possible with constant stirring. … The finished product should mound up when dropped from a spoon, but should not cut like jelly. Neither should there be any free liquid. —Berolzheimer R et al, fruit curd is a dessert topping and spread usually made with lemon, lime, orange, or raspberry. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth
Jam
–
Strawberry jam, one type of common fruit preserve
Jam
–
Jams, jellies and honeys,
Minnesota State Fair
Jam
–
Five varieties of fruit preserves (clockwise from top): apple, quince, plum,
squash, orange (in the center)
Jam
–
Strawberry
varenye (
murabba) made in
Azerbaijan
15.
Meringue
–
A binding agent such as salt, cornstarch or gelatin may also be added to the eggs. The addition of powdered sugar, which usually contains corn starch, the key to the formation of a good meringue is the formation of stiff peaks by denaturing the protein ovalbumin via mechanical shear. They are light, airy and sweet confections, however this claim is contested, the Oxford English Dictionary states that the French word is of unknown origin. It is sure nevertheless that the name meringue for this confection first appeared in print in François Massialots cookbook of 1692, the word meringue first appeared in English in 1706 in an English translation of Massialots book. Slowly baked meringues are still referred to as pets in the Loire region of France due to their light, Meringues were traditionally shaped between two large spoons, as they are generally at home today. Meringue piped through a bag was introduced by Antonin Carême. Different preparation techniques produce these results, French Meringue or basic meringue is the method best known to home cooks. Fine white sugar is beaten into egg whites, Italian Meringue is made with boiling sugar syrup, instead of caster sugar. This leads to a more stable soft meringue which can be used in various pastries without collapsing. In an Italian meringue, a hot syrup is whipped into softly whipped egg whites till stiff. This type of meringue is safe to use without cooking and it will not deflate for a long while and can be either used for decoration on pie, or spread on a sheet or Baked Alaska base and baked. Swiss Meringue is whisked over a bain-marie to warm the egg whites and this forms a dense, glossy marshmallow-like meringue. Protein distribution in egg whites is as follows, ovalbumin, conalbumin/ ovotransferrin, ovomucoid, ovoglobulins, lysozyme, ovoglobulins drive foaming, ovomucin is the main stabilization agent, and the remainder of the proteins interact to contribute to overall foaming and stability. When egg whites are beaten, some of the bonds in the proteins break, causing the proteins to unfold. When these egg white proteins denature, their hydrophobic regions are exposed, the use of a copper bowl, or the addition of cream of tartar is required to additionally denature the proteins to create the firm peaks, otherwise the whites will not be firm. Plastic bowls, wet or greasy bowls will likely result in the mix being prevented from becoming peaky. Wiping the bowl with a wedge of lemon to remove any traces of grease can often help the process, consequently, meringue becomes soggy when refrigerated or stored in a high-humidity environment. This quality also explains the problem called weeping or sweating, in which beads of moisture form on all surfaces of the meringue, sweating is a particular problem for French meringues in which the granulated sugar is inadequately dissolved in the egg whites, and for high-moisture pie fillings
Meringue
–
Meringue with whipped cream
Meringue
–
A bowl of home-made meringues
Meringue
–
Beaten egg whites
Meringue
–
Pavlova is a meringue-based
dessert and an icon of
Australian and
New Zealand cuisine.
16.
Almond meal
–
Almond meal, almond flour or ground almond is made from ground sweet almonds. Almond flour is made with blanched almonds, whereas almond meal can be made both with whole or blanched almonds. The consistency is more like corn meal than wheat flour, in France, almond meal is an important ingredient in frangipane, the filling of traditional galette des Rois cake. Almond meal has recently become important in baking items for those on low carbohydrate diets and it adds moistness and a rich nutty taste to baked goods. Items baked with almond meal tend to be calorie-dense, almonds have high levels of polyunsaturated fats in them. Typically, the omega 6 fatty acids in almonds are protected from oxidation by the skin and vitamin E. When almonds are ground, this skin is broken and exposed surface area increases dramatically, greatly enhancing the nuts tendency to oxidize
Almond meal
–
Almond meal being made by hand
17.
Italian language
–
By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
Italian language
–
Dante Alighieri (above) and
Petrarch (below) were influential in establishing their
Tuscan dialect as the most prominent literary language in all of
Italy in the
Late Middle Ages
Italian language
–
The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period.
Italian language
Italian language
–
Pietro Bembo was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage
18.
Raspberry
–
The raspberry is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus Rubus of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus, the name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial woody stems. Raspberry derives its name from raspise, a sweet rose-colored wine, from the Anglo-Latin, vinum raspeys, or from raspoie, meaning thicket, the name may have been influenced by its appearance as having a rough surface related to Old English rasp or rough berry. Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender and these canes are then dug, roots and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain, where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants are typically planted 2-6 per m in fertile, well drained soil, raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges, the flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators. Raspberries are very vigorous and can be locally invasive and they propagate using basal shoots, extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant, for this reason, raspberries spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked. Raspberries are often propagated using cuttings, and will root readily in moist soil conditions, the fruit is harvested when it comes off the receptacle easily and has turned a deep color. This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest, excess fruit can be made into raspberry jam or frozen. High tunnel bramble production offers the opportunity to bridge gaps in availability during late fall, furthermore, high tunnels allow less hardy floricane-fruiting raspberries to overwinter in climates where they wouldnt otherwise survive. In the tunnel plants are established at close spacing usually prior to tunnel construction, raspberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world. Many of the most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus. Some botanists consider the Eurasian and American red raspberries to belong to a single, circumboreal species, Rubus idaeus, idaeus or R. idaeus var. idaeus, and the native North American red raspberries classified as either R. idaeus subsp. Strigosus, or R. idaeus var. strigosus, recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking. The black raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, is cultivated, providing both fresh and frozen fruit, as well as jams, preserves, and other products. Commercial production of purple-fruited raspberries is rare, blue raspberry is a local name used in Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada for the cultivar Columbian, a hybrid of R. strigosus and R. occidentalis. Both the red and the black raspberry species have albino-like pale-yellow natural or horticultural variants, fruits from such plants are called golden raspberries or yellow raspberries, despite their similar appearance, they retain the distinctive flavor of their respective species. Most pale-fruited raspberries commercially sold in the eastern United States are derivatives of red raspberries, yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry are sometimes grown in home gardens
Raspberry
–
Fruit of four species of raspberry. Clockwise from top left:
Boulder raspberry,
Korean raspberry,
Australian native raspberry,
West Indian raspberry
Raspberry
–
Fruits of a golden or yellow raspberry cultivar
Raspberry
–
Until recently, the most commonly cultivated raspberries have been red-fruited
hybrids between
R. idaeus and
R. strigosus.
Raspberry
–
Purple-fruited raspberry hybrids (and black raspberries) are of interest to growers because of their potential for
nutraceuticals.
19.
Chocolate
–
Chocolate /ˈtʃɒklᵻt, -kəlᵻt/ is a typically sweet, usually brown food preparation of Theobroma cacao seeds, roasted and ground. It is made in the form of a liquid, paste, or in a block, Cacao has been cultivated by many cultures for at least three millennia in Mesoamerica. The earliest evidence of use traces to the Mokaya, with evidence of chocolate beverages dating back to 1900 BCE, the seeds of the cacao tree have an intense bitter taste and must be fermented to develop the flavor. After fermentation, the beans are dried, cleaned, and roasted, the shell is removed to produce cacao nibs, which are then ground to cocoa mass, unadulterated chocolate in rough form. Once the cocoa mass is liquefied by heating, it is called chocolate liquor, the liquor also may be cooled and processed into its two components, cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Baking chocolate, also called chocolate, contains cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of chocolate, a combination of cocoa solids, cocoa butter or added vegetable oils. Milk chocolate is chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. White chocolate contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk, Cocoa solids are a source of flavonoids and alkaloids, such as theobromine, phenethylamine and caffeine. Many candies are filled with or coated with sweetened chocolate, and bars of solid chocolate, Gifts of chocolate molded into different shapes have become traditional on certain Western holidays, such as Easter and Valentines Day. Chocolate is also used in cold and hot beverages such as milk and hot chocolate and in some alcoholic drinks. Although cocoa originated in the Americas, recent years have seen African nations assuming a role in producing cocoa. Since the 2000s, Western Africa produces almost two-thirds of the worlds cocoa, in 2009, the Salvation Army International Development Department stated that child labor and the human trafficking and slavery of child laborers are used in African cocoa cultivation. The word chocolate entered the English language from Spanish in about 1600, how the word came into Spanish is less certain, and there are competing explanations. The word chocolatl does not occur in central Mexican colonial sources, another derivation comes from the Yucatec Mayan word chokol meaning hot, and the Nahuatl atl meaning water. The Nahuatl term, chicolatl, meaning beaten drink, may derive from the word for the frothing stick, the term chocolate chip was first used in 1940. The term chocolatier, for a chocolate maker, is attested from 1888. Chocolate has been prepared as a drink for all of its history
Chocolate
–
Chocolate most commonly comes in dark, milk, and white varieties, with cocoa solids contributing to the brown color.
Chocolate
–
Paul Gavarni Woman Chocolate Vendor (1855–57)
Chocolate
–
"Traités nouveaux & curieux du café du thé et du chocolate", by Philippe Sylvestre Dufour, 1685
Chocolate
–
Late Classic, Maya ('Codex' style),
The Princeton Vase, A.D. 670–750,
Princeton University Art Museum, detail of a female figure pouring chocolate
20.
Foie gras
–
Foie gras is a luxury food product made of the liver of a duck or goose that has been specially fattened. By French law, foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by force-feeding corn with a feeding tube, in Spain and other countries outside France it is occasionally produced using natural feeding. Ducks are force-fed twice a day for 12.5 days, Ducks are typically slaughtered at 100 days and geese at 112 days. Foie gras is a popular and well-known delicacy in French cuisine and its flavor is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole, or is prepared into mousse, parfait, or pâté, French law states that Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France. The technique of gavage dates as far back as 2500 BC, today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China. A number of countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding, and the production, import or sale of foie gras, even where it is legal, as early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined. In the necropolis of Saqqara, in the tomb of Mereruka, at the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese. The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean, the earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet Cratinus, who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the Spartan king Agesilaus visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese, the emperor Elagabalus fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign. After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine, some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasants food animals were mainly pig and sheep. Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a gooses liver during the Roman colonisation of Judea or earlier from Egyptians, the Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe. The Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, forbade lard as a cooking medium, the delicate taste of the gooses liver was soon appreciated, Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some Rabbis were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions, the chasam sofer, Rabbi Moses Sofer, contended that it is not a forbidden food as none of its limbs are damaged. This matter remained a topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century. Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that, however, as liver is regarded as wholly blood, properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practiced
Foie gras
–
Foie gras with mustard seeds and green onions in duck
jus
Foie gras
–
A
Mulard duck, the hybrid used most frequently for foie gras production
Foie gras
–
A
bas relief depiction of overfeeding geese
Foie gras
–
Bartolomeo Scappi
21.
Matcha
–
Matcha is finely ground powder of specially grown and processed green tea. It is special in two aspects of farming and processing, the tea plants for matcha are shade-grown for about three weeks before harvest, and the stems and veins are removed in processing. During shaded growth, the plant Camellia sinensis produces more theanine and caffeine and this combination of chemicals is considered to account for the calm energy people might feel from drinking matcha. The powdered form of matcha is consumed differently from tea leaves or tea bags, the traditional Chinese and Japanese tea ceremony centers on the preparation, serving, and drinking of matcha as hot tea and embodies a meditative spiritual style. In modern times, matcha also has come to be used to flavor and dye foods such as mochi and soba noodles, green tea ice cream, matcha lattes, and a variety of Japanese wagashi confectionery. Often, the former is referred to as ceremonial-grade matcha, meaning that the powder is good enough for tea ceremony. The latter is referred to as culinary-grade matcha, but there is no standard definition or requirements for either. Blends of matcha are given poetic names known as either by the producing plantation, shop, or creator of the blend, or. When a blend is named by the master of a tea ceremony lineage, it becomes known as the masters konomi. In Tang Dynasty China, tea leaves were steamed and formed into tea bricks for storage, the tea was prepared by roasting and pulverizing the tea, and decocting the resulting tea powder in hot water, then adding salt. In the Song Dynasty, the method of making powdered tea from steam-prepared dried tea leaves, preparation and consumption of powdered tea was formed into a ritual by Chan or Zen Buddhists. The earliest extant Chan monastic code, entitled Chanyuan Qinggui, describes in detail the etiquette for tea ceremonies, Zen Buddhism and the Chinese methods of preparing powdered tea were brought to Japan in 1191 by the monk Eisai. Although powdered tea has not been popular in China for some time, now there is a resurgence in Matcha tea consumption. In Japan it continued to be an important item at Zen monasteries, Matcha is made from shade-grown tea leaves that also are used to make gyokuro. The preparation of matcha starts several weeks before harvest and may last up to 20 days and this slows down growth, stimulates an increase in chlorophyll levels, turns the leaves a darker shade of green, and causes the production of amino acids, in particular theanine. Only the finest tea buds are hand-picked, after harvesting, if the leaves are rolled out before drying as in the production of sencha, the result will be gyokuro tea. If the leaves are laid out flat to dry, however, they will crumble somewhat, then, tencha may be de-veined, de-stemmed, and stone-ground to the fine, bright green, talc-like powder known as matcha. Grinding the leaves is a process, because the mill stones must not get too warm
Matcha
–
Matcha
Matcha
–
A bowl of matcha on a black lacquered tray with a traditional sweet
Matcha
–
Low grade matcha
Matcha
–
A three-piece set for making matcha, including a whisk (chasen), bowl (chawan), and spoon (chashaku)
22.
Balloon
–
A balloon is a flexible bag that can be inflated with a gas, such as helium, hydrogen, nitrous oxide, oxygen, or air. Modern day balloons are made from such as rubber, latex, polychloroprene, or a nylon fabric. Some early balloons were made of dried animal bladders, such as the pig bladder, some balloons are used for decorative purposes or entertaining purposes, while others are used for practical purposes such as meteorology, medical treatment, military defense, or transportation. A balloons properties, including its low density and low cost, have led to a range of applications. The rubber balloon was invented by Michael Faraday in 1824, during experiments with various gases, Balloon Decorating Balloons are used for decorating birthday parties, weddings, corporate functions, school events, and for other festive gatherings. The artists who use the round balloons to build are called stackers, the most common types of balloon decor include arches, columns, centerpieces, balloon drops, sculptures, and balloon bouquets. Party balloons are made of a natural latex tapped from rubber trees. The rubbers elasticity makes the volume adjustable, often the term Party Balloon will refer to a twisting balloon or pencil balloon. These balloons are manipulated to create shapes and figures for parties and events, filling the balloon with air can be done with the mouth, a manual or electric inflater, or with a source of compressed gas. When rubber or plastic balloons are filled with helium so that they float, they retain their buoyancy for only a day or so. The enclosed helium atoms escape through pores in the latex which are larger than the helium atoms. Balloons filled with air usually hold their size and shape much longer, even a perfect rubber balloon eventually loses gas to the outside. The process by which a substance or solute migrates from a region of high concentration, through a barrier or membrane, to a region of lower concentration is called diffusion. The inside of balloons can be treated with a gel which coats the inside of the balloon to reduce the helium leakage. Beginning in the late 1970s, some more expensive foil balloons made of thin, unstretchable and these balloons have attractive shiny reflective surfaces and are often printed with color pictures and patterns for gifts and parties. The most important attribute of metallised nylon for balloons is its lightweight, increasing buoyancy, foil balloons have been criticized for interfering with power lines. Balloon artists are entertainers who twist and tie inflated tubular balloons into sculptures, the balloons used for sculpture are made of extra-stretchy rubber so that they can be twisted and tied without bursting. Since the pressure required to inflate a balloon is inversely proportional to the diameter of the balloon, a pump is usually used to inflate these balloons
Balloon
–
Balloons are given for special occasions, such as birthdays or holidays, and are often used as party décor.
Balloon
–
Decorative arches made of party balloons
Balloon
–
Animal-shaped balloons
Balloon
–
Balloons in
Italy
23.
Renaissance
–
The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
Renaissance
–
David, by
Michelangelo (
Accademia di Belle Arti,
Florence) is a masterpiece of Renaissance and world art.
Renaissance
–
Renaissance
Renaissance
–
Leonardo da Vinci 's
Vitruvian Man (c. 1490) shows clearly the effect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers. Based on the specifications in
Vitruvius '
De architectura (1st century BC), Leonardo tried to draw the perfectly proportioned man.
Renaissance
–
Portrait of a young woman (c. 1480-85) (
Simonetta Vespucci) by
Sandro Botticelli
24.
Henry II of France
–
Henry II was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 31 March 1547 until his death in 1559. The second son of Francis I, he became Dauphin of France upon the death of his elder brother Francis III, Duke of Brittany, as a child, Henry and his elder brother spent over four years in captivity in Spain as hostages in exchange for their father. Henry pursued his fathers policies in matter of arts, wars and he persevered in the Italian Wars against the House of Habsburg and tried to suppress the Protestant Reformation, even as the Huguenot numbers were increasing drastically in France during his reign. Henry suffered a death in a jousting tournament held to celebrate the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis at the conclusion of the Eighth Italian War. The kings surgeon, Ambroise Paré, was unable to cure the infected wound inflicted by Gabriel de Montgomery and he was succeeded in turn by three of his sons, whose ineffective reigns helped to spark the French Wars of Religion between Protestants and Catholics. Henry was born in the royal Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris and his father was captured at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 by the forces of his sworn enemy, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, and held prisoner in Spain. To obtain his release, it was agreed that Henry and his brother be sent to Spain in his place. They remained in captivity for four years. Henry married Catherine de Medici, a member of the family of Florence, on 28 October 1533. The following year, he became involved with a thirty-five-year-old widow. They had always very close, she had publicly embraced him on the day he set off to Spain. Diane became Henrys mistress and most trusted confidante and, for the next years, wielded considerable influence behind the scenes. Extremely confident, mature and intelligent, she left Catherine powerless to intervene and she did, however, insist that Henry sleep with Catherine in order to produce heirs to the throne. When his elder brother Francis, the Dauphin and Duke of Brittany, died in 1536 after a game of tennis and he succeeded his father on his 28th birthday and was crowned King of France on 25 July 1547 at Reims Cathedral. Henrys reign was marked by wars with Austria and the persecution of Protestants, Henry II severely punished them, particularly the ministers, for example by burning at the stake or cutting off their tongues for uttering heresies. Even those only suspected of being Huguenots could be imprisoned and it also strictly regulated publications by prohibiting the sale, importation or printing of any unapproved book. It was during the reign of Henry II that Huguenot attempts at establishing a colony in Brazil were made, persecution of Protestants at home did not prevent Henry II from becoming allied with German Protestant princes at the Treaty of Chambord in 1552. Simultaneously, the continuation of his fathers Franco-Ottoman alliance allowed Henry II to push for French conquests towards the Rhine while a Franco-Ottoman fleet defended southern France, an early offensive into Lorraine was successful
Henry II of France
–
Henry II
Henry II of France
–
Henry as a child
Henry II of France
–
Entrance of Henri II in
Metz in 1552, after the signature of the
Treaty of Chambord.
Henry II of France
–
Engraving of Henry II
25.
Larousse Gastronomique
–
Larousse Gastronomique is an encyclopedia of gastronomy. The majority of the book is about French cuisine, and contains recipes for French dishes, the first edition included few non-French dishes and ingredients, later editions include many more. The book was published by Éditions Larousse, founded by Pierre Larousse. The first edition was edited by Prosper Montagné, with prefaces by Georges Auguste Escoffier, Gilbert was a collaborator in the creation of this book as well as Le Guide Culinaire with Escoffier, leading to some cross-over with the two books. The third English edition, which runs to approximately 1350 pages has been modernized and it is also available in a concise edition. A new, updated and revised edition was released on 13 October 2009 published by Hamlyn in the UK, hambledon and London, Cambridge University Press,2002. Larousse Gastronomique, Prosper Montagné, maître cuisinier, avec la collaboration du docteur Gottschalk, Paris,2001 2nd edition, ISBN 2-03-560227-0, with assistance from a gastronomic committee chaired by Joël Robuchon Montagné, Prosper. Larousse gastronomique, the encyclopedia of food, wine & cookery, the English translation of the 1938 edition. Larousse Gastronomique, The New American Edition of the Worlds Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia, second English edition. ISBN 0-609-60971-8 Montagné, Prosper. Larousse Gastronomique, The New American Edition of the Worlds Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia, Larousse Gastronomique, The Worlds Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia
Larousse Gastronomique
–
2001 hardback edition in its box
26.
Cormery
–
Cormery is a commune in the Indre-et-Loire department in the Centre Region. Its inhabitants are called Cormeriens, Cormeriennes and it is located 21 kilometres from Tours and 18 kilometres from Joué-lès-Tours. Cormery is located a few miles southeast of Tours, the area of the town is watered by the Indre river. In 791, an institution was founded by Ithier of St. Martin, abbot of Basilica of St. Martin in Tours. This edifice was to create a friendly place for meditation and prayer. Ithier come here to retreat from the world and its agitations, the modest priory was first called Celle Saint-Paul. Alcuin who succeeded Ithier Cormery led a spiritual growth and materially transformed the priory into an important abbey by donating important areas. This allows his successor, Fridugisus, to great works. A protective shadow of the abbey caused many residents to gather, during the ascent of the Loire river by Normans, the monks of Saint-Martin first put the holy relics in their safe in Cormery before forced to flee to the east. The abbey was in ruins in the eleventh century and was rededicated in 1054. In 1268 to 1271, the abbot was Jean de Brosse, parent of Pierre de Brosse, in 1562, Cormery was sacked by Huguenots during the wars of religion. In 1662, the congregation of Saint Maur recreated a monastic community that would last until the Revolution, there are now only impressive remains, objects of study by historians of the region and a cookie recipe macaroons Abbey. The town of Cormery is part of the SIPTEC, a lantern of the dead from the twelfth century. Declared an historical monument December 1,1920 as a lantern of the dead, benedictine abbey, founded in 791 by Ithier, abbot of Saint Martin of Tours The Chapel of the Virgin, Built at the end of the 15th century. The rectory, Built in the 15th century, Ithier of Saint Martin Paul Boyer, was born in Cormery Engerand, Roland. Cormery, bourg tourangeau, photographies de Sylvain Knecht, communes of the Indre-et-Loire department INSEE commune file Cormery
Cormery
–
The abbey in Cormery
27.
Nancy, France
–
Nancy is the capital of the north-eastern French department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, and formerly the capital of the Duchy of Lorraine, and then the French province of the same name. The metropolitan area of Nancy had a population of 410,509 inhabitants at the 1999 census,103,602 of whom lived in the city of Nancy proper. The motto of the city is Non inultus premor, Latin for Im not touched with impunity—a reference to the thistle, the earliest signs of human settlement in the area date back to 800 BC. Early settlers were attracted by easily mined iron ore and a ford in the Meurthe River. A small fortified town named Nanciacum was built by Gérard, Duke of Lorraine around 1050, Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, was defeated and killed in the Battle of Nancy in 1477, René II, Duke of Lorraine became the ruler. In 1736 Emperor Charles arranged her marriage to Duke François of Lorraine, exiled Polish king Stanisław Leszczyński, father-in-law of French king Louis XV, was given the vacant duchy instead. Under his nominal rule, Nancy experienced growth and a flowering of Baroque culture and architecture, with his death in 1766, the duchy became a regular French province and Nancy lost its position as a residential capital city with its own princely court and patronage. As unrest surfaced within the French armed forces during the French Revolution, a few reliable units laid siege to the town and shot or imprisoned the mutineers. In 1871, Nancy remained French when Prussia annexed Alsace-Lorraine, the flow of refugees reaching Nancy doubled its population in three decades. Artistic, academic, financial and industrial excellence flourished, establishing what is still the Capital of Lorraines trademark to this day, Nancy was freed from Nazi Germany by the U. S. Third Army in September 1944, during the Lorraine Campaign of World War II at the Battle of Nancy ), in 1988, Pope John Paul II visited Nancy. In 2005, French President Jacques Chirac, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, Nancy is situated on the left bank of the river Meurthe, about 10 km upstream from its confluence with the Moselle. The Marne–Rhine Canal runs through the city, parallel to the Meurthe, Nancy is surrounded by hills that are about 150 m higher than the city center, which is situated at 200 m amsl. The area of Nancy proper is small,15 km2. Its built-up area is continuous with those of its adjacent suburbs, the neighboring communes of Nancy are, Jarville-la-Malgrange, Laxou, Malzéville, Maxéville, Saint-Max, Tomblaine, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy and Villers-lès-Nancy. Adjacent to its south is the quarter Charles III – Centre Ville and this quarter contains the famous Place Stanislas, the Nancy Cathedral, the Opéra national de Lorraine and the main railway station. The old city centers heritage dates from the Middle Ages to the 18th century, the cathedral of Nancy, the Triumphal Arch and the Place de la Carriere are a fine examples of 18th-century architecture. The Palace of the Dukes of Lorraine is the princely residence of the rulers
Nancy, France
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Place Stanislas – Fountain of Amphitrite
Nancy, France
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A panoramic view of
Place Stanislas
Nancy, France
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The emblem of the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth on Notre-Dame de Bon Secours
Nancy, France
–
Cours-Léopold
28.
French Revolution
–
Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
French Revolution
–
The
August Insurrection in 1792 precipitated the last days of the monarchy.
French Revolution
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The French government faced a fiscal crisis in the 1780s, and King Louis XVI was blamed for mishandling these affairs.
French Revolution
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Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back.
French Revolution
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The meeting of the Estates General on 5 May 1789 at Versailles.
29.
Rosewater
–
Rose water is a flavoured water made by steeping rose petals in water. It is the portion of the distillate of rose petals. It is used to food, as a component in some cosmetic and medical preparations. Rose syrup is made from water, with sugar added. In Iran, India and other countries in the Indian Subcontinent, Gulab, refers to, the cultivation of various fragrant flowers for obtaining perfumes including rose water may date back to Sassanid Persia. Locally it was known as golāb in Middle Persian, and as zoulápin in Byzantine Greek and this allowed for more efficient and lucrative trade. Since ancient times, roses have been used medicinally, nutritionally, the ancient Greeks, Romans and Phoenicians considered large public rose gardens to be as important as croplands such as orchards and wheat fields. Rose water is a by-product of this process, rose water has a very distinctive flavour and is used heavily in Persian and Middle Eastern cuisine—especially in sweets such as nougat, gumdrops, and baklava. For example, rose water is used to some types of Turkish delight their distinctive flavours. The Cypriot version of mahaleb uses rosewater and it is also a key ingredient in sweet lassi, a drink made from yogurt, sugar and various fruit juices, and is also used to make jallab. In Malaysia and Singapore, sweet red-tinted rose water is mixed with milk, marzipan has long been flavoured with rose water. Marzipan originated in the Middle East and arrived in Western Europe by the Middle Ages, rose water was also used to make Waverly Jumbles. American and European bakers enjoyed the floral flavouring of rose water in their baking until the 19th century when vanilla flavouring became popular, in parts of the Middle East, rose water is commonly added to lemonade or milk. It is often added to water to mask unpleasant odours and flavours found in tap water, in many parts of Mexico, rose water is an essential ingredient for rose petal raspado, a rose petal-flavored shave ice. In the historic English county of Yorkshire rosewater has long used as a flavouring for one of that regions best loved dishes. In medieval Europe, rosewater was used to wash hands at a table during feasts. Rose water is a component of perfume. A rose water ointment is used as an emollient
Rosewater
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A bottle of Iranian rose water
Rosewater
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A small manufactory of rose water in
Kashan
30.
Ambergris
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Ambergris, ambergrease or grey amber, is a solid, waxy, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour, produced in the digestive system of sperm whales. Freshly-produced ambergris has a marine, fecal odour, however, as it ages, it acquires a sweet, earthy scent, commonly likened to the fragrance of rubbing alcohol, without the vaporous chemical astringency. Although ambergris used to be highly valued by perfumers as a fixative. The word ambergris comes from the Old French ambre gris or grey amber, the word amber comes from the same source but since the late 13th century in Europe, it has been applied almost exclusively to fossilised tree resins from the Baltic region. Ambergris is formed from a secretion of the duct in the intestines of the sperm whale. It is also found in the abdomens of dead sperm whales. The sperm whale usually vomits these, but if one further down the gut. Ambergris is usually passed in the fecal matter and it is speculated that an ambergris mass too large to be passed through the intestines is expelled via the mouth, leading to the reputation of ambergris as primarily coming from whale vomit. Christopher Kemp, the author of Floating Gold, A Natural History of Ambergris, says that it is produced by sperm whales. Ambergris is rare, once expelled by a whale, it often floats for years before making landfall, the very small chance of finding ambergris, and the legal ambiguity involved led perfume makers away from ambergris. Most commercially collected ambergris comes from the Bahamas in the Caribbean, fossilised ambergris from 1.75 million years ago has also been found. A1. 1-kilogram lump of ambergris, found on a beach at Anglesey, Wales, was sold to a French buyer for £11,000 at an auction in Macclesfield, England, on 25 September 2015. A 13-kilogram piece of ambergris was found by two Omanis, washed up on a beach on the Fooshi shores of Sadah province in southern Oman, Ambergris is found in lumps of various shapes and sizes, usually weighing from 15 g to 50 kg, sometimes more. When initially expelled by or removed from the whale, the fatty precursor of ambergris is pale white in colour, soft and its smell has been generally described as a vastly richer and smoother version of isopropanol without its stinging harshness. In this developed condition, ambergris has a specific gravity ranging from 0.780 to 0.926 and it melts at about 62 °C to a fatty, yellow resinous liquid, and at 100 °C it is volatilised into a white vapour. It is soluble in ether, and in volatile and fixed oils, Ambergris is relatively nonreactive to acid. White crystals of a known as ambrein can be separated from ambergris by heating raw ambergris in alcohol. Breakdown of the relatively scentless ambrein through oxidation produces ambroxan and ambrinol, ambroxan is now produced synthetically and used extensively in the perfume industry
Ambergris
–
Ambergris
31.
Two International Finance Centre
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The International Finance Centre is a skyscraper and an integrated commercial development on the waterfront of Hong Kongs Central District. A prominent landmark on Hong Kong Island, IFC consists of two skyscrapers, the IFC Mall, and the 55-storey Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong, Tower 2 is the second tallest building in Hong Kong, behind the International Commerce Centre in West Kowloon. It is of height to the former World Trade Center. The Airport Express Hong Kong Station is directly beneath it, IFC was constructed and is owned by IFC Development, a consortium of Sun Hung Kai Properties, Henderson Land and Towngas. Tower 1 is also known as 1IFC and branded in lowercase letters, likewise, Tower 2 is also known as 2IFC and branded as Two ifc. 1IFC opened in December 1998, towards the end of the Asian financial crisis, tenants included ING Bank, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corp, Fidelity International, the Mandatory Provident Fund Schemes Authority and the Financial Times. Ernst & Young took six floors, or about 180,000 square feet, in 2IFC, 2IFC, which was completed at the height of the SARS epidemic, was initially available to rent at HK$25-HK$35 per square foot. In 2007, as the economy has improved, high quality office space is highly sought after, the 88th floor of 2IFC is the backdrop of core scenes of the German Thriller Im Schatten der Lombardis by Berit Paton Reid, a German writer based in Dubai, UAE. One International Finance Centre was constructed in 1998 and opened in 1999 and it is 688 feet tall, has 39 storeys and four trading floors,18 high speed passenger lifts in 4 zones, and comprises 784,000 square feet. It is similar in design and appearance to 30 Hudson Street in Jersey City, the building currently accommodates approximately 5,000 people. Two International Finance Centre, completed in 2003, is attached to the phase of the ifc mall. This 415-metre-tall building, currently Hong Kongs second tallest, is quoted as having 88 storeys and 22 high-ceiling trading floors to qualify as being extremely auspicious in Chinese culture. It is, however, short of the number, because taboo floors like 14th and 24th are omitted as being inauspicious – because 4 sounds like die in Cantonese. The highrise is designed to accommodate financial institutions, for example, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority is located at the 55th floor. It is equipped with advanced telecommunications, raised floors for flexible cabling management, the building expects to accommodate up to 15,000 people. It is one of few buildings in the world equipped with double-deck elevators. The 55th, 56th and the 77th to 88th floors were bought by the HKMA for US$480 million in 2001, despite common practice for owners to allow naming buildings after its important tenants, the owners decided not to allow renaming of the building. The Four Seasons Hotel is a hotel that was built near the IFC One
Two International Finance Centre
–
International Finance Centre complex in September 2008 with the 2 IFC Tower (left)
Two International Finance Centre
–
The
Hong Kong Station of the
Airport Express is beneath IFC
Two International Finance Centre
–
One International Finance Centre (left) and
The Four Season Hotel (right)
Two International Finance Centre
–
Two International Finance Centre office lobby
32.
Basque Country (greater region)
–
The Basque Country is the name given to the home of the Basque people in the western Pyrenees that straddles the border between France and Spain on the Atlantic coast. Euskal Herria is the oldest documented Basque name for the area they inhabit, dating to the 16th century and it comprises the Autonomous Communities of the Basque Country and Navarre in Spain and the Northern Basque Country in France. The region is home to the Basque people, their language, culture, the name in Basque is Euskal Herria. The name is difficult to translate into other languages due to the wide range of meanings of the Basque word herri. It can be translated as nation, country, land, people, population and town, village, the first part, Euskal, is the adjectival form of Euskara the Basque language. Thus a more literal translation would be country/nation/people/settlement of the Basque language, some Basques refer to the seven traditional districts collectively as Zazpiak Bat, meaning The Seven One, a motto coined in the late 19th century. In most contemporary sources it covers the arrondissement of Bayonne and the cantons of Mauléon-Licharre and Tardets-Sorholus, within these conventions, the area of Northern Basque Country is 2,995 square kilometres. As emphasized by Jean Goyhenetche, it would be accurate to depict it as the reunion of five entities, Labourd, Lower Navarre, Soule but also Bayonne. The Southern Basque Country, known in Basque as Hegoalde is the part of the Basque region that lies completely within Spain and it is the largest and most populated part of the Basque Country. It includes two main regions, the Basque Autonomous Community and the Chartered Community of Navarre and its name refers to the charters, the Fueros of Navarre. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 states that Navarre may become a part of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country if it is so decided by its people, to date, there has been no implementation of this law. The latter has repeatedly asked for an amendment to the Constitution to remove this clause, the Basque Country region is dominated by a warm, humid and wet oceanic climate and the coastal area is part of Green Spain and by extension it affects Bayonne and Biarritz as well. Inland areas in Navarre and the regions of the autonomous community are transitional with continental mediterranean climate with somewhat larger temperature swings between seasons. The list only sources locations in Spain, but Bayonne/Biarritz have a similar climate as nearby Hondarribia on the Spanish side of the border. According to some theories, Basques may be the least assimilated remnant of the Paleolithic inhabitants of Western Europe to the Indo-European migrations, Basque tribes were mentioned by Greek writer Strabo and Roman writer Pliny, including the Vascones, the Aquitani, and others. Geographically, the Basque Country was inhabited in Roman times by several tribes, the Vascones, the Varduli, the Caristi, the Autrigones, the Berones, the Tarbelli, and the Sibulates. Many believe that except for the Berones and Autrigones they were non-Indo-European peoples, some ancient place-names, such as Deba, Butrón, Nervión, Zegama, suggest the presence of non-Basque peoples at some point in protohistory. The Vascones around Pamplona, after fighting against Franks and Visigoths, founded the Kingdom of Pamplona
Basque Country (greater region)
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San Sebastián or Donostia in the
Basque language
Basque Country (greater region)
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Flag
Basque Country (greater region)
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Town of Maule (
Mauléon) in (
Soule)
Basque Country (greater region)
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Dolmen in Bilar (Álava)
33.
Saint-Jean-de-Luz
–
Saint-Jean-de-Luz is a commune in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department in south-western France. Saint-Jean-de-Luz is part of the Basque province of Labourd, Saint-Jean-de-Luz bay is situated to the east of the Bay of Biscay. It is the sheltered bay between Arcachon and Spain. Thanks to its sea walls or dykes that protect the town from the full savagery of the Atlantic Ocean. Water from the flows into the town from the Nivelle and its smaller tributaries. There is also the Basarun, and its tributary the Mendi. The river has made accessible to boats and it joins the sea by the Erromardia beach. A branch of the Uhabia, a river in the neighbouring Bidart district. Saint-Jean-de-Luz straddles Route départementale D810, the old Route nationale 10, the town can be reached from the A63 motorway, Exit 3 and Exit 2. The Saint-Jean-de-Luz-Ciboure railway station is served by the SNCF Bordeaux–Irun railway, Biarritz Airport is the closest airport to Saint-Jean-de-Luz. Saint-Jean-de-Luz is located on the Atlantic coast of France, just a few kilometres from the border with Spain. Its wealth stems from its port and its past, with the town being associated with fishing, and with the capture of vessels by its own Basque corsaires, or pirates. This prosperity reached its height during the 17th Century, which is considered as the towns Golden Age. During this period, Saint-Jean-De-Luz became the second largest town in the Labourd region with a population or around 12,000, Saint-Jean-de-Luz is known for its royal wedding connection. Saint-Jean-de-Luz and its church were chosen to host the wedding on 9 June 1660. The marriage is one of the most important political marriages in history that brought an end to a bitter war, today, visitors of the cathedral can see that the main door is bricked off. Two legends circulate this oddity, First, it has said that the door the couple passed through was later closed to represent the closing of the troubles between France and Spain. A more popular theory among the locals is that the king, Louis XIV, ordered the door to be closed off, the Duke of Wellington set up his winter headquarters in the town during the Peninsular War, 1813-14
Saint-Jean-de-Luz
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Waterfront
Saint-Jean-de-Luz
Saint-Jean-de-Luz
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Fishermen from St Jean de Luz
Saint-Jean-de-Luz
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Infanta of Spain's House
34.
Amiens
–
Amiens is a city and commune in northern France,120 km north of Paris and 100 km south-west of Lille. It is the capital of the Somme department in Hauts-de-France, the city had a population of 136,105 according to the 2006 census. It has one of the biggest university hospitals in France with a capacity of 1,200 beds, Amiens Cathedral, the tallest of the large, classic, Gothic churches of the 13th century and the largest in France of its kind, is a World Heritage Site. The author Jules Verne lived in Amiens from 1871 until his death in 1905, during December, the town hosts the largest Christmas market in northern France. The first known settlement at this location was Samarobriva, the settlement of the Ambiani. The town was given the name Ambianum by the Romans, meaning settlement of the Ambiani people, the town has been much fought over, being attacked by barbarian tribes, and later by the Normans. In 1113 the city was recognized by King Louis VI of France, in 1597, Spanish soldiers held the city during the six-month Siege of Amiens, before Henry IV regained control. During the 18th and 19th century, the tradition of Amiens became famous for its velours. In 1789 the provinces of France were dismantled and the territory was organised into departments, much of Picardy became the newly created department of Somme, with Amiens as the departmental capital. During the industrial revolution the city walls were demolished, opening up space for large boulevards around the town centre, the Henriville neighbourhood in the south of the city was developed around this time. In 1848, the first railway arrived in Amiens, linking the city to Boulogne-sur-Mer, during the 1870 Battle of Amiens, when the Somme was invaded by Prussian forces, Amiens was occupied. The town was fought over during both the First and Second World Wars, suffering damage, and being occupied several times by both sides. The 1918 Battle of Amiens, was the phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. It was heavily bombed by the Royal Air Force during the Second World War, the city was rebuilt according to Pierre Dufaus plans, with a focus on widening the streets to ease traffic congestion. These newer structures were built of brick, concrete and white stone with slate roofs. The architect Auguste Perret designed the Gare dAmiens train station and nearby Tour Perret, Amiens, the regional prefecture of Picardy, is also the prefecture of the Somme, one of the three departments in the region. Located in the Paris Basin, across the country the city benefits from a geographical position. At the crossroads of major European routes of movement, the city is also at the heart of a major rail star
Amiens
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Amiens
Amiens
–
The Somme in the old town at the beginning of the 20th century
Amiens
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The Becquet Bridge, at the start of the 20th century
Amiens
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The Place Gambetta: An important hub of the former tram network of Amiens at the beginning of the 20th century.
35.
Montmorillon
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Montmorillon is a commune in the Vienne department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, in western France. The clay mineral montmorillonite was named after Montmorillon after its discovery there in 1847, Montmorillon is well known for its macarons, and has a museum dedicated to it. The Maison Rannou-Métivier is the oldest macaron bakery in Montmorillon, dating back to 1920, the traditional recipe for Montmorillon macarons remains unchanged for over 150 years. The widely popular Coopération pédagogique range of posters were produced in Montmorillon. Joseph Carré, architect Simon Pagenaud, Champion Indycar Driver Communes of the Vienne department INSEE Tourisme Montmorillon
Montmorillon
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The town hall in Montmorillon
36.
Le Dorat
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Le Dorat is a commune in the Haute-Vienne department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region in western France. It is considered to be the capital of the Basse Marche. Some say that Le Dorat owes its name to the gilded angel located at the summit of the Lou Dora bell tower, the town is located 50 km north of Limoges. The river Brame forms part of the northwestern border. There is one SNCF train station on the line Limoges-Poitiers that connects the town to Paris, in the year 950, missionaries reconstructed a church dedicated to the Saint Michel. 20 years later, the Saint Pierre chapel and the chapitre du Dorat were founded near the church Saint Michel, Le Dorat was a town of nobility and property oweners. In 1356, the town was besieged by the Prince of Wales and during the European wars of religion from 1524 to 1648, Le Dorat is an ancient town, with fine examples of Romanesque architecture, especially the 11th Century Collegiate of Saint-Pierre. Communes of the Haute-Vienne department INSEE Town Website Central Town Cafe/Bar
Le Dorat
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Collegiate church of Le Dorat
37.
Chartres
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Chartres is a commune and capital of the Eure-et-Loir department in France. It is located 96 km southwest of Paris and this city is well known for its cathedral. Chartres was in Gaul one of the towns of the Carnutes. In the Gallo-Roman period, it was called Autricum, name derived from the river Autura, the city was burned by the Normans in 858, and unsuccessfully besieged by them in 911. During the Middle Ages, it was the most important town of the Beauce. It gave its name to a county which was held by the counts of Blois, and the counts of Champagne, and afterwards by the House of Châtillon, a member of which sold it to the Crown in 1286. In 1417, during the Hundred Years War, Chartres fell into the hands of the English, in 1528, it was raised to the rank of a duchy by Francis I. In 1568, during the Wars of Religion, Chartres was unsuccessfully besieged by the Huguenot leader and it was finally taken by the royal troops of Henry IV on 19 April 1591. In 1674, Louis XIV raised Chartres from a duchy to a peerage in favor of his nephew. The title of Duke of Chartres was hereditary in the House of Orléans, in the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War, Chartres was seized by the Germans on 2 October 1870, and continued during the rest of the war to be an important centre of operations. With his driver, Griffith proceeded to the cathedral and, after searching it all the way up its bell tower, the order to destroy the cathedral was withdrawn. Colonel Griffith was killed in later on that day in the town of Lèves,3.5 kilometres north of Chartres. For his heroic action both at Chartres and Lèves, Colonel Griffith received, posthumously, several decorations awarded by the President of the United States, 5th Infantry and 7th Armored Divisions belonging to the XX Corps of the U. S. Third Army commanded by General George S. Patton, Chartres is built on a hill on the left bank of the Eure River. Its renowned medieval cathedral is at the top of the hill, to the southeast stretches the fertile plain of Beauce, the granary of France, of which the town is the commercial centre. Chartres is best known for its cathedral, the Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Chartres and its historical and cultural importance has been recognized by its inclusion on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. It was built on the site of the former Chartres cathedral of Romanesque architecture, begun in 1205, the construction of Notre-Dame de Chartres was completed 66 years later. The stained glass windows of the cathedral were financed by guilds of merchants and craftsmen and it is not known how the famous and unique blue, bleu de Chartres, of the glass was created, and it has been impossible to replicate it
Chartres
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Chartres
Chartres
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Cathedral of Chartres.
Chartres
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The famous "Chartres blue".
Chartres
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South elevation, lithography 1864
38.
Joyeuse
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Joyeuse, is the name traditionally attributed to Charlemagnes personal sword. Some legends claim Joyeuse was forged to contain the Lance of Longinus within its pommel, others say the blade was smithed from the materials as Rolands Durendal. Some seven hundred years later, Bulfinchs Mythology described Charlemagne using Joyeuse to behead the Saracen commander Corsuble as well as to knight his comrade Ogier the Dane. Baligant, a general of the Saracens in The Song of Roland, named his sword Précieuse, a sword identified with Charlemagnes Joyeuse was carried in front of the Coronation processionals for French kings, for the first time in 1270, and for the last time in 1824. The sword was kept in the Saint Denis Basilica since at least 1505 and this Joyeuse as preserved today is a composite of various parts added over the centuries of use as coronation sword. But at the core, it consists of a blade of Oakeshott type XII. Martin Conway argued the blade might date to the early 9th century, opening the possibility that it was indeed the sword of Charlemagne, while Guy Laking dated it to the early 13th century. Some authors have argued that the medieval blade may have been replaced by a modern replica in 1804 when the sword was prepared for the coronation of Napoleon Bonaparte. The Louvres official website dates the pommel to the 10th to 11th centuries, the crossguard to the 12th, before the Miholjanec legend had been regarded, the so-called sword of Attila in Vienna was known as the sword of Charlemagne
Joyeuse
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Joyeuse displayed in the
Louvre.
Joyeuse
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Joyeuse exhibited with its 13th century
sheath at the
Musée de Cluny in 2012.
Joyeuse
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Louis XIV with Joyeuse (Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1701)
Joyeuse
–
Real
39.
Almond paste
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Almond paste is made from ground almonds or almond meal and sugar in equal quantities, with small amounts of cooking oil, beaten eggs, heavy cream or corn syrup added as a binder. Almond paste is used as a filling in pastries, but it can also be found in chocolates, in commercially manufactured almond paste, ground apricot or peach kernels are sometimes added to keep the cost down. Almond paste is used as a filling in pastries of many different cultures and it is a chief ingredient of the American bear claw pastry. In Scandinavia almond paste is used extensively, in various pastries and cookies, in Sweden it is used in biscuits, muffins and buns and as a filling in the traditional spring season pastry semla and is used in Easter and Christmas sweets. In Denmark, almond paste is used in pastries, for example as a filling in the Danish traditional pastry kringle. In the Netherlands, almond paste is used in gevulde speculaas and it is used as filling in the fruited Christmas bread Kerststol, traditionally eaten at Christmas breakfast. In Germany, almond paste is used in pastries and sweets. In the German language, almond paste is known as Marzipanrohmasse and sold for example as Lübecker Edelmarzipan, Almond paste is the main ingredient of French traditional calisson candy in Aix-en-Provence. It is used as a filling in almond croissants, the Chinese use almond paste in sweetheart cakes. The sweetheart cake or wife cake is a traditional Chinese pastry made with winter melon, in Turkey, almond paste is traditionally made in Edirne, once the capital of Ottoman Empire. During the Ottoman era of Turkish history, it was a royal delight mostly used in palace and it is now sold at delight shops in Istanbul and Edirne. Rainbow cookie Marzipan Parsi Almond Fish
Almond paste
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Almond paste
Almond paste
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Almond paste fish (a typical
Salento Christmas food)
Almond paste
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Almond paste lamb (a typical
Salento Easter food)
40.
Remiremont
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Remiremont is a town and commune in the Vosges department of northeastern France, situated in southern Grand Est. Inhabitants of the town are known as Romarimontains Remiremont is located on the river Moselle, close to its confluence with the Moselotte, the town is 25 km southeast of the departmental capital of Épinal, and 27 km west of the ski resorts of Gérardmer and La Bresse. Remiremont is surrounded by low, undulating, forest-clad mountains, the abbey contains an eleventh-century crypt in which the tombs of some of the former abbesses can be found. The church was consecrated in 1051, but as a whole the building belongs more to the thirteenth century. The abbatial residence has been rebuilt in modern times, but the original plan and style have been preserved, the imposing front, the vestibule. Some of the houses of the canonesses dating from the 17th and 18th centuries also remain, Remiremont contains the Statue of the Volunteer of 1792, created by the sculptor Paul-François Choppin in 1899. The statue commemorates the civic virtue of those who volunteered to defend France during the Revolutionary Wars and it is the only remaining of the two originals produced, the other, located on square Parmentier in Paris, was melted down by the German occupiers in 1942. The towns principal shopping street is rue Charles de Gaulle and this street is lined by 18th-century arcades, providing a sheltered walkway for visiting the local boutiques and cafés. It is at the westernmost end of street that the aforementioned statue can be found. Remiremont derives its name from Saint Romaric, one of the companions of Saint Columban of Luxeuil, the first was Remiremont Abbey, in the valley, which housed the monks. The second was a convent located above the town on the now known as Saint-Mont. Over time, the nuns moved from the site down into Remiremont itself. By the end of the 13th century, however, the nuns had abandoned their Benedictine lifestyle and their members were extracted solely from those who could prove at least 200 years of noble descent. Thanks to the patronage of the Dukes of Lorraine, the Kings of France, and Holy Roman Emperors, the abbess of Remiremont Abbey was raised to the status of Imperial Princess and consecrated by the Pope. In 1635, during the Thirty Years War the town, where five-hundred Frenchmen were lodged, was stormed and plundered by Imperialist forces, the town was attacked by the French in 1638. However, under the guidance of the canonesses, the managed to repel the siege. The town was ruined by the earthquake of 1682. Along with the rest of Lorraine, it was joined to France in 1766, the church properties in the town were suppressed during the French Revolution
Remiremont
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Clockwise from top-left: Statue of the Volunteer of 1792,
Remiremont Abbey, a panorama of Remiremont seen from Saint-Mont
Remiremont
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rue Charles de Gaulle
Remiremont
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Fort du Parmont
41.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
Switzerland
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Founded in 44 BC by
Lucius Munatius Plancus,
Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.
Switzerland
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Flag
Switzerland
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The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)
Switzerland
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The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.
42.
Stracciatella (ice cream)
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Stracciatella is a variety of gelato, consisting of milk-based ice cream filled with fine, irregular shavings of chocolate. It was originally created in Bergamo, northern Italy, in 1962, and was inspired by stracciatella soup, made from egg and broth and it is one of the most renowned Italian gelato flavours. This process creates the shreds of chocolate that give stracciatella its name, while traditionally flavoured with milk ice cream and milk chocolate, modern variations can also be made with vanilla and dark chocolate. The flavour was created in 1962 by Enrico Panattoni, the owner of La Marianna, according to Panattoni, the idea came to him after he had grown tired of stirring eggs into broth to satisfy customers of his restaurant who kept asking for stracciatella soup. List of ice cream flavors Notes References
Stracciatella (ice cream)
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Stracciatella over chocolate ice cream
43.
Champagne
–
The primary grapes used in the production of Champagne are black Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier but also white Chardonnay. Champagne appellation law only allows grapes grown according to rules in specifically designated plots within the appellation to be used in the production of champagne. Royalty became associated with Champagne in the 17th, 18th, the leading manufacturers made efforts to associate their Champagnes with nobility and royalty through advertising and packaging, which led to popularity among the emerging middle class. Patricia Harmsworth, Viscountess Rothermere, the English socialite, was nicknamed Bubbles after her love of champagne, wines from the Champagne region were known before medieval times. The Romans were the first to plant vineyards in this area of north-east France, with the region being cultivated by at least the 5th century, later, churches owned vineyards and monks produced wine for use in the sacrament of Eucharist. French kings were anointed in Reims, and Champagne was served as part of coronation festivities. The Champenois were envious of the reputation of the wines made by their Burgundian neighbours to the south, however, the northerly climate of the region gave the Champenois a unique set of challenges in making red wine. At the far extremes of sustainable viticulture, the grapes would struggle to fully and often would have bracing levels of acidity. The wines would be lighter bodied and thinner than the Burgundy wines they were seeking to outdo, the oldest recorded sparkling wine is Blanquette de Limoux, which was apparently invented by Benedictine Monks in the Abbey of Saint-Hilaire, near Carcassonne in 1531. They achieved this by bottling the wine before the initial fermentation had ended, Merret presented a paper at the Royal Society, in which he detailed what is now called méthode champenoise, in 1662. French glass-makers at this time could not produce bottles of the quality or strength. As early as 1663 the poet Samuel Butler referred to brisk champagne, in France the first sparkling Champagne was created accidentally, the pressure in the bottle led it to be called the devils wine, as bottles exploded or corks popped. In 1844 Adolphe Jaquesson invented the muselet to prevent the corks from blowing out, initial versions were difficult to apply and inconvenient to remove. Even when it was produced as a sparkling wine, Champagne was for a very long time made by the méthode rurale. Champagne did not use the méthode champenoise until the 19th century, the 19th century saw an exponential growth in Champagne production, going from a regional production of 300,000 bottles a year in 1800 to 20 million bottles in 1850. In 2007, Champagne sales hit a record of 338.7 million bottles. In the 19th century Champagne was noticeably sweeter than the Champagnes of today, the trend towards drier Champagne began when Perrier-Jouët decided not to sweeten his 1846 vintage prior to exporting it to London. The designation Brut Champagne was created for the British in 1876 and they include codification of the most suitable growing places, the most suitable grape types, and a lengthy set of requirements specifying most aspects of viticulture
Champagne
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Vineyards in the Champagne region of France
Champagne
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A glass of Champagne exhibiting the characteristic
bubbles associated with the wine
Champagne
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1915 English magazine illustration of a lady riding a Champagne cork (Lordprice Collection)
Champagne
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Le Remueur: 1889 engraving of the man engaged in the daily task of turning each bottle a fraction
44.
Amaretto
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Amaretto is a sweet, almond-flavoured, Italian liqueur associated with Saronno, Italy. Various commercial brands are made from a base of apricot pits, almonds, Amaretto serves a variety of culinary uses, can be drunk by itself, and is added to other beverages to create several popular mixed drinks, as well as to coffee. The name amaretto originated as a diminutive of the Italian word amaro, meaning bitter, however, the bitterness is not unpalatable, and sweeteners—and sometimes sweet almonds—enhance the flavour in the final products. Thus one can interpret the name as a description of the taste as a little bitter. Conflation of amaro and amore has led to associations with romance, one should not confuse amaretto with amaro, a different family of Italian liqueurs that, while also sweetened, have a stronger bitter flavour deriving from herbs. Despite the known history on the introduction and acceptance of almonds into Italian cuisine, newer takes on the meanings, as the church was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, Luini needed to depict the Madonna, but was in need of a model. He found his inspiration in a young widowed innkeeper, who became his model, out of gratitude and affection, the woman wished to give him a gift. Her simple means did not permit much, so she steeped apricot kernels in brandy, Disaronno Originale has a characteristic bittersweet almond taste and is known for its distinctive appearance. Disaronno has been in production since about 1900. It claims its originale amarettos secret formula is unchanged from 1525 and its production remains in Saronno, but the product is sold worldwide. The company describes its amaretto as an infusion of apricot kernel oil with absolute alcohol, burnt sugar, the amber liqueur is presented in a rectangular glass decanter designed by a craftsman from Murano. The product was originally named Amaretto di Saronno Originale and it subsequently changed to Amaretto Disaronno, transforming the origin of the product into a more distinctive brand name. Finally, it changed once more to Disaronno Originale, it has not marketed itself as an amaretto since 2001, according to the Disaronno website, their amaretto contains no almonds, and is nut-free. Therefore, it is safe for people with nut or related allergies, Lazzaroni Amaretto, produced by Paolo Lazzaroni & Figli S. p. A. also presents itself as the first such liqueur. It is based on an infusion of Amaretti di Saronno, a process which imparts a delicate almond/apricot flavour. Lazzaroni claim the tale of the young couple blessed by the bishop as the origin of their family recipe, dating it to 1718. Many distillers produce their own brand of amaretto, among them are Bols, DeKuyper, Hiram Walker, Luxardo, Mr. Boston, Paramount, and Phillips. Amaretto serves a variety of culinary uses, Amaretto is added to desserts, including ice cream, which enhances the flavour of the dessert with almonds and complements chocolate
Amaretto
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Bottles of amaretto liqueur.
Amaretto
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The Disaronno Originale rectangular bottle, which was marketed as an amaretto until 2001.
Amaretto
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Fermented beverage
45.
Mandarin orange
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The mandarin orange, also known as the mandarin or mandarine, is a small citrus tree with fruit resembling other oranges. Mandarins are usually plain or in fruit salads. Specifically reddish-orange mandarin cultivars can be marketed as tangerines, but this is not a botanical classification, mandarins are smaller and oblate, rather than spherical like the common oranges. The taste is considered less sour, as well as sweeter and stronger, a ripe mandarin is firm to slightly soft, heavy for its size, and pebbly-skinned. The peel is very thin, with very little white mesocarp, so they are usually easier to peel. Hybrids generally have these traits to a lesser degree, the tree is more drought-tolerant than the fruit. The mandarin is tender and is damaged easily by cold and it can be grown in tropical and subtropical areas. The name mandarin orange is a calque of Swedish mandarin apelsin, the form mandarine derives from the French name for this fruit. The reason for the epithet mandarin is not clear, hypotheses ranging from the colour of some robes worn by mandarin dignitaries to the mandarin being an excellent kind of Chinese orange. Mandarins are generally peeled and eaten fresh, the fresh fruit is also used in salads, desserts and main dishes. Fresh tangerine juice and frozen juice concentrate are commonly available in the United States, the number of seeds in each segment varies greatly. The peel is used fresh, whole or zested, or dried as chenpi and it can be used as a spice for cooking, baking, drinks, or candy. Canned mandarin segments are peeled to remove the white pith prior to canning, otherwise, segments are peeled using a chemical process. First, the segments are scalded in hot water to loosen the skin, then they are bathed in a lye solution, finally, the segments undergo several rinses in plain water. They are often used in salads, desserts, and baking, in traditional Chinese medicine, the dried peel of the fruit is used in the regulation of chi, and also used to treat abdominal distension, to enhance digestion, and to reduce phlegm. Mandarins have also used in ayurveda. During Chinese New Year, mandarin oranges/tangerine/satsumas are considered symbols of abundance. During the two-week celebration, they are displayed as decoration and presented as gifts to friends, relatives
Mandarin orange
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Mandarin orange
Mandarin orange
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Thin, pebbly skin
Mandarin orange
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Dried mandarin
peel used as a seasoning
Mandarin orange
–
Chocolate -coated
citrus peel.
46.
Luxembourg
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Luxembourg /ˈlʌksəmbɜːrɡ/, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east and its culture, people and languages are highly intertwined with its neighbours, making it essentially a mixture of French and Germanic cultures. It comprises two regions, the Oesling in the north as part of the Ardennes massif. With an area of 2,586 square kilometres, it is one of the smallest sovereign states in Europe, Luxembourg had a population of 524,853 in October 2012, ranking it the 8th least-populous country in Europe. As a representative democracy with a monarch, it is headed by a Grand Duke, Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Luxembourg is a country, with an advanced economy and the worlds highest GDP per capita. Luxembourg is a member of the European Union, OECD, United Nations, NATO, and Benelux, reflecting its political consensus in favour of economic, political. The city of Luxembourg, which is the capital and largest city, is the seat of several institutions. Luxembourg served on the United Nations Security Council for the years 2013 and 2014, around this fort, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a state of great strategic value. In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors, in the following centuries, Luxembourgs fortress was steadily enlarged and strengthened by its successive occupants, the Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns and the French. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was disputed between Prussia and the Netherlands and this arrangement was revised by the 1839 First Treaty of London, from which date Luxembourgs full independence is reckoned. In 1842 Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union, the King of the Netherlands remained Head of State as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, maintaining a personal union between the two countries until 1890. At the death of William III, the throne of the Netherlands passed to his daughter Wilhelmina and this allowed Germany the military advantage of controlling and expanding the railways there. In August 1914, Imperial Germany violated Luxembourgs neutrality in the war by invading it in the war against France and this allowed Germany to use the railway lines, while at the same time denying them to France. Nevertheless, despite the German occupation, Luxembourg was allowed to maintain much of its independence, in 1940, after the outbreak of World War II, Luxembourgs neutrality was again violated when the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany entered the country, entirely without justification. A government in exile based in London supported the Allies, sending a group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion. Luxembourg was liberated in September 1944, and became a member of the United Nations in 1945. Luxembourgs neutral status under the constitution formally ended in 1948, in 2005, a referendum on the EU treaty establishing a constitution for Europe was held
Luxembourg
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Historic map (undated) of Luxembourg city's fortifications
Luxembourg
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Flag
Luxembourg
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Photograph of the fortress of Luxembourg prior to demolition in 1867
Luxembourg
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Luxembourg City: The Passerelle, also known as the viaduct or old bridge, over the
Pétrusse river valley, opened 1861
47.
Swiss German
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Swiss German is any of the Alemannic dialects spoken in the German-speaking part of Switzerland and in some Alpine communities in Northern Italy bordering Switzerland. Linguistically, Swiss German forms no unity, the linguistic division of Alemannic is rather into Low, High and Highest Alemannic, varieties of all of which are spoken both inside and outside of Switzerland. The only exception within German-speaking Switzerland is the municipality of Samnaun where a Bavarian dialect is spoken, the dialects of Swiss German must not be confused with Swiss Standard German, the variety of Standard German used in Switzerland. Most people in Germany do not understand Swiss German, therefore, when an interview with a Swiss German speaker is shown on German television, subtitles are required. Unlike most regional languages in modern Europe, Swiss German is the everyday language of all social levels in industrial cities. Using the dialect conveys neither social nor educational inferiority and is done with pride. There are a few settings where speaking Standard German is demanded or polite, e. g. in education, in multilingual parliaments and this situation has been called a medial diglossia, since the spoken language is mainly the dialect, whereas the written language is mainly Standard German. Swiss German speakers on TV or in films are usually dubbed or subtitled if shown in Germany. Dialect rock is a music genre using the language, many Swiss rock bands, however, the Swiss Amish of Adams County, Indiana and their daughter settlements also use Swiss German. Swiss German is a regional or political umbrella term, not a linguistic unity, for all dialects, there are idioms spoken outside Switzerland that are more closely related to them than some Swiss German dialects. Low Alemannic is only spoken in the northernmost parts of Switzerland, in Basel, High Alemannic is spoken in most of the Swiss Plateau, and is divided in an eastern and a western group. Highest Alemannic is spoken in the Alps, each dialect is separable into numerous local subdialects, sometimes down to a resolution of individual villages. Speaking the dialect is an important part of regional, cantonal and national identities, in the more urban areas of the Swiss plateau, regional differences are fading due to increasing mobility, and a growing population of non-Alemannic descent. Despite the varied dialects, the Swiss can still understand one another, but may particularly have trouble understanding Walliser dialects. Most Swiss German dialects, being High German dialects, have completed the High German consonant shift, that is, they have not only changed t to or and p to or, There are, however, exceptions, namely the idioms of Chur and Basel. Basel German is a Low Alemannic dialect, and Chur German is basically High Alemannic without initial or, North of the Benrath line up to the North Sea, this consonant shift did not happen. The Walser migration, going on between the 12th and 13th centuries, spread upper Wallis varieties towards the east and south, into Grisons and even further to western Austria and northern Italy. Informally, a distinction is made between the German-speaking people living in the canton of Valais, the Walliser, and the migrated ones, so, the Walser were pioneers of the liberalisation from serfdom and feudalism
Swiss German
–
French (
Romandy)
48.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
South Korea
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Flag
South Korea
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Balhae and
Silla, 830 CE
South Korea
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Jikji, the first known book printed with movable metal type in 1377. Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris
49.
Korean language
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It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County of the Peoples Republic of China. Approximately 80 million people worldwide speak Korean and this implies that Korean is not an isolate, but a member of a small family. There is still debate on whether Korean and Japanese are related with each other, the Korean language is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax. A relation of Korean with Japonic languages has been proposed by linguists like William George Aston, Chinese characters arrived in Korea together with Buddhism during the pre-Three Kingdoms period. Mainly privileged elites were educated to read and write in hanja, however, today, the hanja are largely unused in everyday life, but in South Korea they experience revivals on artistic works and are important in historic and/or linguistic studies of Korean. Since the Korean War, through 70 years of separation, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation, verb inflection, the Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in North Korea and South Korea. In South Korea, the Korean language is referred to by names including hanguk-eo Korean language, hanguk-mal, Korean speech and uri-mal. In hanguk-eo and hanguk-mal, the first part of the word, hanguk, refers to the Korean nation while -eo and -mal mean language and speech, Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo, literally national language. This name is based on the same Chinese characters meaning nation + language that are used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China, the language is most often called Chosŏn-mal, or more formally, the English word Korean is derived from Goryeo, which is thought to be the first dynasty known to Western countries. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram and Goryeo In, the majority of historical and modern linguists classify Korean as a language isolate. Such factors of typological divergence as Middle Mongolians exhibition of gender agreement can be used to argue that a relationship with Altaic is unlikely. Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list, a good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asa, meaning hemp. Also, the doublet wo meaning hemp is attested in Western Old Japanese and it is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. Among ancient languages, various relatives of Korean have been proposed. Some classify the language of Jeju Island as a distinct modern Koreanic language, Other famous theories are the Dravido-Korean languages theory and the mostly unknown southern-theory which suggest an Austronesian relation. Korean is spoken by the Korean people in North Korea and South Korea and by the Korean diaspora in countries including the Peoples Republic of China, the United States, Japan. Korean-speaking minorities exist in these states, but because of cultural assimilation into host countries, Korean is the official language of South Korea and North Korea
Korean language
–
Two names for Korean, Hangugeo and Chosŏnmal,
written vertically in
Hangul
Korean language
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Street signs in Korean; Daegu, Korea.
Korean language
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Korean writing systems
France
Cookbook: Macaron 
Media: Macaron
