1.
Mackinac Island, Michigan
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Mackinac Island is a city in Mackinac County in the U. S. state of Michigan. In the 2010 census, the city had a permanent population of 492, although there are thousands of seasonal workers and tourists during the summer months. From 1818 until 1882 the city was the county seat of the former Michilimackinac County, the city includes all of Mackinac Island and the unpopulated Round Island, which is federally owned and part of Hiawatha National Forest. The city limits include all of Mackinac Island State Park, which makes up 80% of Mackinac Island. The city is served by the Mackinac Island Public School, a unique local ordinance prohibits the use of any motor vehicles on the island. The most common means of travel are foot, bicycle, or horseback, certain enumerated exceptions include emergency vehicles, electric wheelchairs for those with disabilities, snowmobiles in winter, and golf carts for on-course use only. Mackinac Island is home to the famed Grand Hotel, the 1980 movie Somewhere in Time was filmed here, and the city made an exception to allow the production company to use motorized vehicles on the island. Mackinac Island is also noted for its many shops on the island. The island has a large industry making fudge in a traditional manner. The many varieties are a tourist draw and common gift throughout Michigan, andrew Blackbird was the son of an Ottawa chief and served as an official interpreter for the U. S. government in the late 19th century. According to his 1887 history of the peoples of Michigan. They became affiliated with the tribe of Ottawa from Ottawa Island situated north of Lake Huron. One winter the Mi-shi-ne-macki naw-go on Mackinac were nearly annihilated by the Seneca, two natives escaped by hiding in one of the natural caves at the island. To commemorate this tribe, the Ottawa and Chippewa named the island as Mi-shi-ne-macki-nong, in 1654 Jesuit missionaries recorded French traders at the island, who were with a large party of Huron and Ottawa heading to Three Rivers. Another trader was said to have made a voyage to the island in 1665. The French colonists continued in the fur trade, which became extremely lucrative, they operated out of Montreal and established posts on Mi-shi-ne-macki-nong, during the American Revolutionary War, they vacated the latter. The Americans established a garrison on what they called Mackinac Island by 1782, commanded by Captain Daniel Robertson, in 1796 as a result of Jays Treaty, the island officially became part of the United States and the Northwest Territory. In the early 1800s Mackinac Island had a permanent population of about 250, although it was part of the United States, most of the residents were of French-Canadian and Métis ancestry, based on its colonial history, and French was the predominant language
2.
Mackinac Island State Park
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Mackinac Island State Park is a state park located on Mackinac Island in the U. S. state of Michigan. The island park encompasses 2.81 mi², which is approximately 74% of the total area of 3.78 mi². The park is also within the boundaries of the city of Mackinac Island and has permanent residents within its boundaries, m-185 circles the perimeter of the park as the only motorless highway in the state due to the islands ban of automobiles. The park is governed by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources, on July 15,2009, the park celebrated its 20 millionth visitor. The park was first established as Mackinac National Park in 1875, in 1895, it was transferred to state control and reorganized as Mackinac Island State Park, which was the first state park in Michigan. The park contains many important historical and geological features, such as Fort Mackinac, Fort Holmes, other buildings, historic sites, limestone caves. The park also operates the Mackinac Island Airport, many of these sites are formally operated by the Mackinac Island State Park Commission, which also governs many parks around the Straits of Mackinac area. Mackinac Island played an important role in the War of 1812 between the United States and Canada, Fort Mackinac, upon the island, was built by the British army during the Revolutionary War. The British later relinquished the fort to the Americans in 1796, the two nations used their island forts in a struggle to maintain supremacy over the waters of northern Lake Huron. As one of the actions of the War of 1812. An American attempt to recapture the fort in 1814 failed in the Battle of Mackinac Island, when the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent in 1815, the island was returned to American control
3.
Michilimackinac
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Michilimackinac is derived from an Odawa name for present-day Mackinac Island and the region around the Straits of Mackinac between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan. Early settlers of North America applied the term to the region along Lakes Huron, Michigan. Today it is considered to be mostly within the boundaries of Michigan, Michilimackinac was the original name for present day Mackinac Island and Mackinac County. The area around the Great Lakes had been occupied by succeeding cultures of indigenous peoples, at the time of European contact, the Native American nations of the Ojibwa, along with Ottawa, inhabited the area. The French were the first Europeans to explore the area, beginning in 1612 and they established trading posts and Jesuit Catholic missions. One of the oldest missions, named St. Ignace, was located on the side of the strait at Point Iroquois, near present-day St. Ignace. This mission was established in 1671 by the Jesuit Father Jacques Marquette, the area was already known to the Odawa as Michilimackinac, the name for Mackinac Island. Later it was called Old Michilimackinac or Ancient Fort Mackinac, the French later established a fort and settlement on the south side of the strait. The fort became a trading post, attracting Native Americans from throughout the northern Great Lakes. After Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, their forces took over the fort. Fort Michilimackinac fell to an Ojibwa attack during the Native American uprising of 1763 and it was reoccupied by the British in September 1764. In 1780, during the American Revolution, British commandant Patrick Sinclair moved the British trading and military post to Mackinac Island, after the rebel Americans gained independence in the Revolutionary War, this site became part of a territory of the United States. Today, Fort Michilimackinac is preserved as a tourist site, re-enactors portray historic activities of the French and English. An archeological dig at the site is open for viewing,1839 tourist map of Michigan showing extent of Michilimackinac area
4.
Lake Huron
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Lake Huron is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. It is shared on the north and east by the Canadian province of Ontario and on the south, the name of the lake is derived from early French explorers who named it for the Huron people inhabiting the region. The Huronian glaciation was named due to evidence collected from Lake Huron region, the northern parts of the lake include the North Channel and Georgian Bay. Across the lake to the southwest is Saginaw Bay, the main inlet is the St. Marys River and the main outlet is the St. Clair. By volume however, Lake Huron is only the third largest of the Great Lakes, being surpassed by Lake Michigan, when measured at the low water datum, the lake contains a volume of 850 cubic miles and a shoreline length of 3,827 mi. The surface of Lake Huron is 577 feet above sea level, the lakes average depth is 32 fathoms 3 feet, while the maximum depth is 125 fathoms. It has a length of 206 statute miles and a greatest breadth of 183 statute miles. Cities with over 10,000 people on Lake Huron include Sarnia, the largest city on Lake Huron, and Saugeen Shores in Canada and Bay City, Port Huron, a large bay that protrudes northeast from Lake Huron into Ontario, Canada, is called Georgian Bay. A notable feature of the lake is Manitoulin Island, which separates the North Channel and it is the worlds largest freshwater island. Major centres on Georgian Bay include Owen Sound, Wasaga Beach, Midland, Penetanguishene, Port Severn, a smaller bay that protrudes southwest from Lake Huron into Michigan is called Saginaw Bay. Historic High Water The lake fluctuates from month to month with the highest lake levels in October and November, the normal high-water mark is 2.00 feet above datum. In the summer of 1986, Lakes Michigan and Huron reached their highest level at 5.92 feet above datum, the high-water records began in February 1986 and lasted through the year, ending with January 1987. Water levels ranged from 3.67 to 5.92 feet above Chart Datum, historic Low Water Lake levels tend to be the lowest in winter. The normal low-water mark is 1.00 foot below datum, in the winter of 1964, Lakes Michigan and Huron reached their lowest level at 1.38 feet below datum. As with the records, monthly low-water records were set each month from February 1964 through January 1965. During this twelve-month period, water levels ranged from 1.38 to 0.71 feet below Chart Datum, the Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Lake Huron has the largest shore line length of any of the Great Lakes, Lake Huron is separated from Lake Michigan, which lies at the same level, by the 5-mile-wide, 20-fathom-deep Straits of Mackinac, making them hydrologically the same body of water. Aggregated, Lake Huron-Michigan, at 45,300 square miles, is technically the worlds largest freshwater lake, when counted separately, Lake Superior is 8,700 square miles larger than Huron and higher
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Bois Blanc Island (Michigan)
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Bois Blanc Island is an island in Lake Huron coterminous with Bois Blanc Township, Mackinac County, Michigan. The island covers about 34 sq mi and is about 12 miles long,6 miles wide and has 6 lakes and it lies southeast of Mackinac Island and almost due north of the city of Cheboygan. Bois Blanc is French for white wood, the name is commonly thought to be a reference to either, the paper birch, or more likely the basswood, called bois blanc in other contexts. The basswoods white underbark was extensively used by Native Americans and French-speaking fur traders for cordage, including the sewing up of canoes, the French Canadian colloquial term for inner bark was bois blanc. The Indians themselves had a name for Bois Blanc Island and the meaning is the same as the Canadian name, wigobi or wicopy signifies tying bark or inner bark. Boblo is an English corruption of the French pronunciation of the name, several islands with the same name dot the Great Lakes, and nearly all are known as Boblo or Bob-lo by the local populations. Bois Blanc was ceded by the local Anishinaabe as an extra, during the War of 1812, U. S. Navy Captain Arthur Sinclairs fleet took shelter at the island while waiting to attack the British at Fort Mackinac. In 1880 the island provided a haven to alleged murderer Henry English who escaped from Pennsylvania authorities before his trial and he was apprehended on Bois Blanc by Pinkerton agents, returned to Pennsylvania and acquitted. In 1827, the United States mapped the island, the United States Life Saving Service established a life-saving station at Walkers Point in 1890. A few years earlier the Pointe Aux Pins Association was formed, after extensive use as a source of kilned lime and firewood for Mackinac Island and other local frontier settlements, Bois Blanc was settled in the late 19th century as a summer resort community. In 1908, on behalf of the association, President Walter B. Webb hired the Mason L. Brown Company, Pointe Aux Pins was the first resort community on the island. Much of Bois Blanc Island is state-owned forest land containing White, as recently as the 1950s, Bois Blanc provided lumber to Mackinac Island where woodcutting is prohibited. At that time, there were approximately 200 structures on the Island, an electric service upgrade in 1999 replaced the original cable with two submarine cables spanning the Straits of Mackinac. Private and commercial vehicles are brought to and from Bois Blanc Island by ferry. There are no paved roads, however, a county road extends from the Islands northeast corner to the far western tip. Fire Tower Road bisects the Island and is also the used for public access to Twin Lake and Lake Thompson. There are numerous un-maintained roads and trails, plaunt Transportation is the sole provider of ferry services for the Island. Ferries are sailed daily when the straits are not frozen over from Cheboygan to Pointe Aux Pins, the Kristen D is a ferry which operates between Cheboygan and Bois Blanc Island
7.
Round Island (Michigan)
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This article is about the Round Island near the Mackinac Straits. For other Round Islands in Michigan, see List of islands of Michigan, Round Island is an uninhabited island in Mackinac County of the U. S. state of Michigan. It is located in the Straits of Mackinac, which connect Lake Michigan, the Native Americans called the island Nissawinagong. The island has an area of only 378 acres, almost the entire island comprises the Round Island Wilderness Area within the Hiawatha National Forest. The island is part of the City of Mackinac Island, Michigan. To Round Islands southeast lies the island of Bois Blanc. The sole building on the island is the vintage lighthouse Round Island Light, the ship channel between Mackinac Island and Round Island, lighted by Round Island Light, is called Round Island Channel. Christopher Reeve and Jane Seymour can be sitting near the lighthouse in the 1980 movie Somewhere in Time which was filmed primarily on Mackinac Island. The lighthouse is off-limits to anyone who may visit the island, beacons in the Night, Michigan Lighthouse Chronology, Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University
8.
Fort Holmes
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Fort Holmes is a fortified earthen redoubt located on the highest point of Mackinac Island. S. The British named the redoubt Fort George and reinforced it with cannon, a blockhouse, however, Fort Holmes never functioned as an independent military fortification. It was always a dependent outpost of nearby Fort Mackinac, when United States armed forces reoccupied Mackinac Island in 1815 under the terms of the Treaty of Ghent, they took possession of Fort George. They surveyed and measured their prize, which they renamed Fort Holmes in honor of Major Andrew Holmes, however, the American army soon abandoned Fort Holmes. The earthworks and buildings of the former redoubt slowly eroded and disappeared over the course of more than a century, as of 1984, however, most of the reconstructed buildings of Fort Holmes had again disappeared, except for the redoubts earthen walls. In 2015 the Mackinac Island State Park completed a reconstruction of Fort Holmes that resumes the appearance that the redoubt had in 1817. The blockhouse includes interpretive panels inside, and is open in the summer, many visitors come to the fort site for a view of the Straits of Mackinac, much of which is visible from this lookout point approximately 310 feet above the surface of Lake Huron. The redoubt and blockhouse can be rented for special occasions
9.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
10.
Mackinac County, Michigan
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Mackinac County is a county in the Upper Peninsula of the U. S. state of Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the population was 11,113, the county seat is St. Ignace. The countys name is believed to be shortened from Michilimackinac, which referred to the Straits of Mackinac area as well as the French settlement at the tip of the lower peninsula, Michilimackinac County was created on October 26,1818, by proclamation of territorial governor Lewis Cass. The county originally encompassed the Lower Peninsula of Michigan north of Macomb County, as later counties were settled and organized, they were divided from this territory. At the time of founding, the county seat was the community of Michilimackinac Island on Michilimackinac Island, later known as Mackinac Island and this has been an important center for fur trading before the 1830s, when European demand declined. The county was organized in 1849 as Mackinac County, in 1882 the county seat was moved from Mackinac Island to St. Ignace, Michigan, which had been founded as a French Jesuit mission village during the colonial years. Mackinac County is home to the Mackinac Bands of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians, a Native American tribe located in St. Ignace. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 2,101 square miles. Mackinac County lies at the boundary of Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, St. Ignace is the northern terminus of the Mackinac Bridge. Mackinac Island is within the county, the nearest airports with scheduled commercial passenger service are Chippewa County International Airport in Sault Ste. M-185 does not allow vehicles with the exception of emergency vehicles. H-33 H-40 H-42 H-57 H-63 Numerous companies operate ferries to Bois Blanc Island, ferries to and from Mackinac Island sail from St. Ignace and Mackinaw City, while the Bois Blanc Island ferry sails from Cheboygan. Canadian National Railway The 2010 United States Census ireported that Mackinac County had a population of 11,113 and this was a decrease of 830 from the 2000 United States Census. In 2010 there were 5,024 households and 3,219 families residing in the county, the population density was 11 per square mile. 18. 5% were of German,8. 8% English,8. 0% French, French Canadian or Cajun,7. 6% Irish and 5. 1% Polish ancestry. 31. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.7. 18. 7% of the population were under the age of 18,5. 5% from 18 to 24,19. 3% from 25 to 44,34. 0% from 45 to 64, the median age was 49 years. The population was 50. 5% male and 49. 5% female, the median household income was $39,055 and the median family income was $50,984
11.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
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National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
13.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
14.
Straits of Mackinac
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The Straits of Mackinac is a narrow waterway in the U. S. state of Michigan, between Michigans Lower and Upper Peninsulas. The Straits of Mackinac connect two of the Great Lakes, Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, the straits are five miles wide and 20 fathoms deep. Hydrologically, the two connected lakes can be considered one, which is called Lake Michigan–Huron, historically, the region around the Straits was known by the native Odawa people as Michilimackinac. The Straits of Mackinac is whipsawed by currents unlike anywhere else in the Great Lakes. The Straits of Mackinac is a shipping lane, providing passage for raw materials and finished goods and connecting, for instance. Before the railroads reached Chicago from the east, most immigrants arrived in the Midwest, the straits is five miles wide at its narrowest point, where it is spanned by the Mackinac Bridge. Before the bridge was built, car ferries transported vehicles across the straits, today passenger-only ferries carry people to Mackinac Island, which does not permit cars. Visitors can take their vehicles on a car ferry to Bois Blanc Island, islands in the Straits of Mackinac include the two populated islands, Bois Blanc and Mackinac, and two that are uninhabited, Round and St. Helena islands. At 11 miles in length, Bois Blanc is the largest island in the straits, the straits are shallow and narrow enough to freeze over in the winter. Navigation is ensured for year-round shipping to the Lower Great Lakes by the use of icebreakers, the straits were an important Native American and fur trade route. The eastern end of the straits was controlled by Fort Mackinac on Mackinac Island, the straits are patrolled by a detachment of the United States Coast Guard based at Graham Point, St. Ignace. A shipping channel through the ice is maintained by the Coast Guards Great Lakes icebreaker, USCGC Mackinaw. This vessel went into service during the 2005/06 ice season, Lighthouses in the Straits of Mackinac include, The McGulpin Point Light, on McGulpin Point, three miles west of Fort Michilimackinac. The Old Mackinac Point Light, in Mackinaw City, which is open to the public, the Round Island Light on Round Island, which is not open to the public but which can be viewed from the Mackinac Island ferry channel. The St. Helena Island Lighthouse, which is not open to the public but is visible from a rest area on U. S. Highway 2 at Gros Cap west of St. Ignace. The Bois Blanc Light, which is not open to the public, the 1953 pipeline enters the Straits of Mackinac water on the north shore at St. Ignace, Michigan and lies along the bottom of the Straits which is nearly two hundred and fifty feet in places. By 2013 Enbridge had increased the capacity on the lines to 540,000 barrels per day. In selling the idea of the pipeline to residents living near the Straits, the developers claimed, it was essential to the defense of the United States
15.
Upper Peninsula of Michigan
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The Upper Peninsula is the northern of the two major peninsulas that make up the U. S. state of Michigan. It may also be referred to as the UP or Upper Michigan, the peninsula is bounded on the north by Lake Superior, on the east by the St. Marys River, on the southeast by Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and on the southwest by Wisconsin. The Upper Peninsula contains 29% of the area of Michigan. Residents are frequently called Yoopers and have a regional identity. Large numbers of French Canadian, Finnish, Swedish, Cornish, the peninsula includes the only counties in the United States where a plurality of residents claim Finnish ancestry. Ordered by size, the peninsulas largest cities are Marquette, Sault Ste, Marie, Escanaba, Menominee, Houghton, and Iron Mountain. The land and climate are not very suitable for agriculture because of the harsh winters. The economy has been based on logging, mining, and tourism, most mines have closed since the golden age from 1890 to 1920. The land is forested and logging remains a major industry. The first known inhabitants of the Upper Peninsula were tribes speaking Algonquian languages and they arrived roughly around A. D.800 and subsisted chiefly from fishing. Early tribes included the Menominee, Nocquet, and the Mishinimaki, Étienne Brûlé of France was probably the first European to visit the peninsula, crossing the St. Marys River around 1620 in search of a route to the Far East. French colonists laid claim to the land in the 17th century, establishing missions, following the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, the territory was ceded to Great Britain. Sault Ste Marie, Michigan is the oldest European settlement in Michigan, American Indian tribes formerly allied with the French were dissatisfied with the British occupation, which brought new territorial policies. Whereas the French cultivated alliances among the Indians, the British postwar approach was to treat the tribes as conquered peoples, in 1763, tribes united in Pontiacs Rebellion to try to drive the British from the area. In 1764, they began negotiations with the British which resulted in temporary peace, although the Upper Peninsula nominally became United States territory with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the British did not give up control until 1797 under terms of the Jay Treaty. As an American territory, the Upper Peninsula was still dominated by the fur trade, john Jacob Astor founded the American Fur Company on Mackinac Island in 1808, however, the industry began to decline in the 1830s as beaver and other game were overhunted. When the Michigan Territory was first established in 1805, it included only the Lower Peninsula, in 1819, the territory was expanded to include the remainder of the Upper Peninsula, all of Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. When Michigan was preparing for statehood in the 1830s, the boundaries proposed corresponded to the territorial boundaries
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Lower Peninsula of Michigan
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The Lower Peninsula of Michigan is the southern of the two major landmasses of the U. S. state of Michigan, the other being the Upper Peninsula. It is surrounded by water on all sides except its southern border, although the Upper Peninsula is commonly referred to as the U. P. it is fairly uncommon for the Lower Peninsula to be called the L. P. Because of its shape, the Lower Peninsula is nicknamed the mitten. This has led to several folkloric creation myths for the area, one being that it is a print of Paul Bunyan. When asked where they live, Lower Peninsula residents may hold up their right palm, the peninsula is sometimes divided into the Northern Lower Peninsula—which is more sparsely populated and largely forested—and the Southern Lower Peninsula—which is largely urban or farmland. The Lower Peninsula dominates Michigan politics, and maps of it without the Upper Peninsula are sometimes presented as Michigan, Yoopers jokingly refer to residents of the Lower Peninsula as flat-landers or trolls. The Lower Peninsula is bounded on the south by the states of Indiana and it is bounded by the west by Lake Michigan and on the northeast by Lake Huron, which connect at the Straits of Mackinac. In the southeast, the waterway of the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, at its widest points, the Lower Peninsula is 277 miles long from north to south and 195 miles from east to west. It contains nearly two-thirds of Michigans total land area, the surface of the peninsula is generally level, broken by conical hills and glacial moraines usually not more than a few hundred feet tall. The western coast features extensive sandy beaches and dunes and it is divided by a low water divide running north and south. The larger portion of the state is on the west of this, the highest point in the Lower Peninsula is not definitely established but is either Briar Hill at 1,705 feet, or one of several points nearby in the vicinity of Cadillac. The lowest point is the surface of Lake Erie at 571 feet, the American Bird Conservancy and the National Audubon Society have designated several locations as internationally Important Bird Areas. The Lower Peninsula is dominated by a geological basin known as the Michigan Basin and that feature is represented by a nearly circular pattern of geologic sedimentary strata in the area with a nearly uniform structural dip toward the center of the peninsula. The basin is centered in Gladwin County where the Precambrian basement rocks are 16,000 feet deep, around the margins, such as under Mackinaw City, Michigan, the Precambrian surface is around 4,000 feet down. This 4, 000-foot contour on the bedrock clips the northern part of the lower peninsula and it crosses the southern counties of Michigan and continues on to the north beneath Lake Huron. Highways include, US10 US12 US23 US24 US31 US127 US131 US223 The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes. Michigans Lower Peninsula can be divided into four regions based on geological, soil, and vegetation differences, amount of urban areas or rural areas, minority populations. The four principal regions listed below can further be separated into sub-regions, united States Coast Guard Historians Office
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Odawa
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They are one of the Anishinaabeg, related to but distinct from the Ojibwe and Potawatomi peoples. They considered this their original homeland, after the 17th century, they also settled along the Ottawa River, and in the state of Michigan, United States, as well as through the Midwest south of the Great Lakes in the latter country. In the 21st century, there are approximately 15,000 Odawa living in Ontario, the Odawa language is part of the Algonquian language family. This large family has numerous smaller groups or “bands, ” commonly called “Tribe” in the United States. Their language is considered a divergent dialect of Ojibwe, characterized by frequent syncope, odaawaa, this term is common to the Cree, Algonquin, Nipissing, Montagnais, Odawa, and Ojibwe. The Potawatomi spelling of Odawa and the English derivative Ottawa are also common, the Anishinaabe word for Those men who trade, or buy and sell is Wadaawewinini. But, this meaning is more appropriately associated with the Matàwackariniwak. Their neighbors applied the Trader name to the Ottawa because in traditional times. From The Odawa dealt chiefly in cornmeal, sunflower oil, furs and skins, rugs and mats, tobacco, like the Ojibwe, the Odawa usually identify as Nishnaabe, meaning original people. The Odawa name in its English transcription is the source of the names of Ottawa, Ontario. The Odawas home territory at the time of early European contact, the tribe is source of the name for Tawas City, Michigan, and Tawas Point, which reflect the syncope-form of their name. Ottawa, Ohio is the county seat of Putnam County located at the site of the last Ottawa reservation in Ohio, the Odawa dialect is considered one of several divergent dialects of the Ojibwe language group, noted for its frequent syncope. In the Odawa language, the language group is known as Nishnabemwin. Of the estimated 5,000 ethnic Odawa and additional 10,000 people with some Odawa ancestry, in the early 21st century an estimated 500 people in Ontario, the Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma has three fluent speakers. According to Anishinaabeg tradition, and from recordings in Wiigwaasabak, the Odawa people came from the areas of North America, or Turtle Island. Directed by the beings, the Anishinaabe peoples moved inland along the Saint Lawrence River. At the Third Stopping Place near what is now Detroit, Michigan, the Hopewell tradition was a widely extended trading network operating from about 200BCE to 500 CE. Some of these peoples constructed earthwork mounds for burials, a practice that ended about 250 CE, the Saugeen mounds have not been excavated
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Great Lakes
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Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth, containing 21% of the worlds surface fresh water by volume. The total surface is 94,250 square miles, and the volume is 5,439 cubic miles. Due to their sea-like characteristics the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas, Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area, and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country. The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis, the lakes have been a major highway for transportation, migration and trade, and they are home to a large number of aquatic species. Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade, and some threaten the regions biodiversity, though the five lakes reside in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water, within the Great Lakes Basin. The lakes form a chain connecting the interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. From the interior to the outlet at the Saint Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Huron and Michigan, southward to Erie, the lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers, and are studded with approximately 35,000 islands. There are also several smaller lakes, often called inland lakes. The surface area of the five primary lakes combined is roughly equal to the size of the United Kingdom, while the area of the entire basin is about the size of the UK. Lake Michigan is the one of the Great Lakes that is located entirely within the United States. The lakes are divided among the jurisdictions of the Canadian province of Ontario and the U. S. states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Both Ontario and Michigan include in their boundaries portions of four of the lakes, Ontario does not border Lake Michigan, New York and Wisconsins jurisdictions extend into two lakes, and the remaining states into one of the lakes. This designation, however, is not universal and those living on the shore of Lake Superior often refer to all the other lakes as the lower lakes, because they are farther south. This corresponds to thinking of Lakes Erie and Ontario as down south, vessels sailing north on Lake Michigan are considered upbound even though they are sailing toward its effluent current. The Chicago River and Calumet River systems connect the Great Lakes Basin to the Mississippi River System through man-made alterations, the St. Marys River, including the Soo Locks, connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron. The Straits of Mackinac connect Lake Michigan to Lake Huron, the St. Clair River connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair. The Detroit River connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie, the Niagara River, including Niagara Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The Welland Canal, bypassing the Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, the Saint Lawrence River connects Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which connects to the Atlantic Ocean
19.
Fur trade
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The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the modern period, furs of boreal, polar. Historically the trade stimulated the exploration and colonization of Siberia, northern North America, today the importance of the fur trade has diminished, it is based on pelts produced at fur farms and regulated fur-bearer trapping, but has become controversial. Animal rights organizations oppose the fur trade, citing that animals are brutally killed, Fur has been replaced in some clothing by synthetic imitations, for example, as in ruffs on hoods of parkas. Before the European colonization of the Americas, Russia was a supplier of fur pelts to Western Europe. Its trade developed in the Early Middle Ages, first through exchanges at posts around the Baltic, the main trading market destination was the German city of Leipzig. Originally, Russia exported raw furs, consisting in most cases of the pelts of martens, beavers, wolves, foxes, squirrels and hares. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Russians began to settle in Siberia, in a search for the prized sea otter pelts, first used in China, and later for the northern fur seal, the Russian Empire expanded into North America, notably Alaska. From the 17th through the half of the 19th century. The fur trade played a role in the development of Siberia, the Russian Far East. As recognition of the importance of the trade to the Siberian economy, the sable is a symbol of the Ural Sverdlovsk Oblast. Fur was relied on to make clothing, a critical consideration prior to the organization of coal distribution for heating. Portugal and Spain played major roles in fur trading after the 15th century with their business in fur hats and they began by establishing trading posts along the Volga and Vychegda river networks and requiring the Komi people to give them furs as tribute. Novgorod, the chief fur-trade center prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League, Novgorodians expanded farther east and north, coming into contact with the Pechora people of the Pechora River valley and the Yugra people residing near the Urals. Both of these native tribes offered more resistance than the Komi, as Muscovy gained more power in the 15th century and proceeded in the gathering of the Russian lands, the Muscovite state began to rival the Novgorodians in the North. During the 15th century Moscow began subjugating many native tribes, one strategy involved exploiting antagonisms between tribes, notably the Komi and Yugra, by recruiting men of one tribe to fight in an army against the other tribe. Campaigns against native tribes in Siberia remained insignificant until they began on a larger scale in 1483 and 1499. Besides the Novgorodians and the indigenes, Muscovites also had to contend with the various Muslim Tatar khanates to the east of Muscovy, at this point the phrase ruler of Obdor, Konda, and all Siberian lands became part of the title of the Tsar in Moscow
20.
Fort Mackinac
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Fort Mackinac is a former British and American military outpost garrisoned from the late 18th century to the late 19th century in the city of Mackinac Island, Michigan, on Mackinac Island. The British built the fort during the American Revolutionary War to control the strategic Straits of Mackinac between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and by extension the fur trade on the Great Lakes, the British did not relinquish the fort until fifteen years after American independence. Fort Mackinac later became the scene of two battles for control of the Great Lakes during the War of 1812. During most of the 19th century, it served as an outpost of the United States Army, closed in 1895, the fort has been adapted as a museum on the grounds of Mackinac Island State Park. Before 1763, the French used Fort Michilimackinac on the south shore of the Straits of Mackinac to control the area. After the Treaty of Paris, the British occupied the French fort, in 1780/1781, its lieutenant governor Patrick Sinclair constructed a new limestone fort on the 150-foot limestone bluffs of Mackinac Island above the Straits of Mackinac. The British held the outpost throughout the American Revolutionary War, Captain Daniel Robertson commanded the garrison on Mackinac Island from 1782 to his death in 1787. Despite the terms of the Treaty of Paris, the British did not officially relinquish the fort to the United States until 1796. In June 1812, at the start of the War of 1812 and this party returned with an order to attack Fort Mackinac, then known as Fort Michilimackinac. A minimal United States garrison of sixty men under the command of Lieutenant Porter Hanks then manned Fort Mackinac. Although a diligent officer, Hanks had received no communication from his superiors for months, on the morning of 17 July 1812, a combined British and Native American force of seventy war canoes and ten bateaux under the command of British Captain Charles Roberts attacked Fort Mackinac. British Captain Roberts came from Fort St. Joseph and landed on the end of Mackinac Island,2 miles from the fort. The British removed the village inhabitants from their homes and trained two cannons at the fort, the Americans, under Lieutenant Hanks, were taken by surprise and Hanks perceived his garrison was badly outnumbered. The officers and men under Roberts numbered about two hundred, a few hundred Native Americans of various tribes supported him, fearing that the Native Americans on the British side would massacre his men and allies, American Lieutenant Hanks accepted the British offer of surrender without a fight. The British paroled the American forces, essentially allowing them to go free after swearing to not take up arms in the war again and they made the island inhabitants swear an oath of allegiance as subjects of the United Kingdom. Shortly after the British captured the fort, two American vessels arrived from Ft. Dearborn, unaware of the start of the War of 1812, or the forts capture by British forces. The British raised the American flag and when the vessels tied up at the pier, the ships were the Erie and Friends Good Will, the latter being taken by the British into service as HMS Little Belt. The schooner Mary and the Salina, anchored at port, were sent by the British to Detroit as cartels carrying the prisoners they had taken, Lieutenant Hanks made his way to Detroit and the American military post there
21.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
22.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
23.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
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Victorian architecture
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Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. Victorian refers to the reign of Queen Victoria, called the Victorian era, however, many elements of what is typically termed Victorian architecture did not become popular until later in Victorias reign. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles mixed with the introduction of middle east, the name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it follows Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture, during the early 19th century, the romantic medieval Gothic revival style was developed as a reaction to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. Paxton also continued to build houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular English Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity new methods of construction were developed, other notable Scottish architects of this period are Archibald Simpson and Alexander Marshall Mackenzie whose stylistically varied work can be seen in the architecture of Aberdeen. Victorian architecture usually has many intricate window frames inspired by the famous architect Elliot Rae, some chose the United States, and others went to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Normally, they applied architectural styles that were fashionable when they left England, thus, the influence of English architecture spread across the world. Several prominent architects produced English-derived designs around the world, including William Butterfield, the Victorian period flourished in Australia and is generally recognised as being from 1840 to 1890, which saw a gold rush and population boom during the 1880s in the state of Victoria. There were fifteen styles that predominated, The Arts and Crafts style and Queen Anne style are considered to be part of the Federation Period, during the British colonial period of British Ceylon, Sri Lanka Law College, Sri Lanka College of Technology and the Galle Face Hotel. In the United States, Victorian architecture generally describes styles that were most popular between 1860 and 1900, a list of these styles most commonly includes Second Empire, Stick-Eastlake, Folk Victorian, Queen Anne, Richardsonian Romanesque, and Shingle. As in the United Kingdom, examples of Gothic Revival and Italianate continued to be constructed during this period, some historians classify the later years of Gothic Revival as a distinctive Victorian style named High Victorian Gothic. Stick-Eastlake, a manner of geometric, machine-cut decorating derived from Stick, on the other hand, terms such as Painted Ladies or gingerbread may be used to describe certain Victorian buildings, but do not constitute a specific style. The names of architectural styles varied between countries, many homes combined the elements of several different styles and are not easily distinguishable as one particular style or another. San Francisco is well known for its extensive Victorian architecture, particularly in the Haight-Ashbury, Lower Haight, Alamo Square, Noe Valley, Castro, Nob Hill, the extent to which any one is the largest surviving example is debated, with numerous qualifications. The Distillery District in Toronto, Ontario contains the largest and best preserved collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America, cabbagetown is the largest and most continuous Victorian residential area in North America. Other Toronto Victorian neighbourhoods include The Annex, Parkdale, and Rosedale, in the USA, the South End of Boston is recognized by the National Register of Historic Places as the oldest and largest Victorian neighborhood in the country. Old Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky also claims to be the nations largest Victorian neighborhood, richmond, Virginia is home to several large Victorian neighborhoods, the most prominent being The Fan
25.
Grand Hotel (Mackinac Island)
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Constructed in the late 19th century, the facility advertises itself as having the worlds largest porch. The Grand Hotel is well known for a number of visitors, including five U. S. presidents, Russian presidents Vladimir Putin and Dmitri Medvedev, inventor Thomas Edison. Grand Hotel is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation. In 1886, the Michigan Central Railroad, Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad, the group purchased the land on which the hotel was built and construction began, based upon the design by Detroit architects Mason and Rice. The hotel opened July 10,1887 and took a mere 93 days to complete, at its opening, nightly rates at the hotel ranged from $3 to $5 a night. In 1957, the Grand Hotel was designated a State Historic Building, in 1972, the hotel was named to the National Register of Historic Places, and on June 29,1989, the hotel was made a National Historic Landmark. Carleton Varney, a protégé of Dorothy Draper, designed the Grand Hotel in its late 19th-century decor, Varney purposely designed the hotel so that all the rooms are different from each other in at least one aspect. There are four types of rooms, Category I, Category II, Category III, the presidential suite is located in the center of the hotel with a balcony over the porch. A detached structure added in early 2000 was named the Masco Cottage, additionally, seven suites are named for and designed by seven former First Ladies of the United States. These are the Jacqueline Kennedy Suite, Lady Bird Johnson Suite, Betty Ford Suite, Rosalynn Carter Suite, Nancy Reagan Suite, Barbara Bush Suite, and the Laura Bush Suite. Grand Hotels front porch is the longest in the world at some 660 feet in length, overlooking a vast Tea Garden and these areas are often used by guests on a casual family vacation, for large conventions, or concerts during the hotels annual Labor Day Jazz Festival. The hotel has some criticism for its policy of charging a $10 fee for non-guests to enter the building. Before 2007, air conditioning was available in public rooms, such as the lobby, parlor. Due to the design it was difficult to add air conditioning to the guest rooms. Air conditioning was installed in 170 guest rooms after water heat exchangers in the bathrooms were added, the exchangers cool the air through contact with the cold water system. Mackinac Island does not permit motor vehicles, and transport to, the only other motor vehicles allowed in recent history were cars brought over for the filming of Somewhere in Time. During the winter months, when ice prevents ferry transport from the mainland, the island also has a small airport for private aircraft. The horse-drawn taxis will take guests from the airport to the hotel or any other destination, U. S. Presidents Harry Truman, John F. Kennedy, Gerald Ford, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton have visited the hotel
26.
Ojibwe language
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Ojibwe /oʊˈdʒɪbweɪ/, also known as Chippewa or Otchipwe, is an Indigenous language of North America of the Algonquian language family. Ojibwe is characterized by a series of dialects that have local names, there is no single dialect that is considered the most prestigious or most prominent, and no standard writing system that covers all dialects. The relative autonomy of the dialects of Ojibwe is associated with an absence of linguistic or political unity among Ojibwe-speaking groups. The latter two cover approximately the territory as Central Ojibwa, which he does not recognize. Ojibwe is a relatively healthy indigenous language, the Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School teaches all classes to children in Ojibwe only. The Algonquian language family of which Ojibwe is a member is itself a member of the Algic language family, other Algic languages being Wiyot, Ojibwe is sometimes described as a Central Algonquian language, along with Fox, Cree, Menominee, Miami-Illinois, Potawatomi, and Shawnee. The most general indigenous designation for the language is Anishinaabemowin speaking the language, with varying spellings. Some speakers use the term Ojibwemowin, the general term in Oji-Cree is Anihshininiimowin, although Anishinaabemowin is widely recognized by Severn speakers. Some speakers of Saulteaux Ojibwe refer to their language as Nakawemowin, the Ottawa dialect is sometimes referred to as Daawaamwin, although the general designation is Nishnaabemwin, with the latter term also applied to Jibwemwin or Eastern Ojibwe. Other local terms are listed in Ojibwe dialects, English terms include Ojibwe, with variants including Ojibwa and Ojibway. The related term Chippewa is more commonly employed in the United States, Ojibwe and Potawatomi are frequently viewed as being more closely related to each other than to other Algonquian languages. A discussion of Algonquian family subgroups indicates that Ojibwe–Potawatomi is another possibility that awaits investigation, in a proposed consensus classification of Algonquian languages, Goddard classifies Ojibwa and Potawatomi as Ojibwayan, although no supporting evidence is adduced. The Central languages share a significant number of common features, groups of speakers of the Ottawa dialect migrated to Kansas and Oklahoma during the historical period, with a small amount of linguistic documentation of the language in Oklahoma. The presence of Ojibwe in British Columbia has been noted, current census data indicate that all varieties of Ojibwe are spoken by approximately 56,531 people. This figure reflects census data from the 2000 United States census, the Red Lake, White Earth, and Leech Lake reservations are known for their tradition of singing hymns in the Ojibwe language. As of 2011, Ojibwe is the language of Red Lake. Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible, Ojibwe is usually considered to be a language with a number of dialects. Conventionally regarded as a language consisting of a continuum of dialectal varieties since
27.
Andrew Blackbird
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Andrew Jackson Blackbird was an Odawa tribe leader and historian. He was author of the 1887 book, History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan, Blackbird was born in the LArbre Croche area of Michigan around 1815. At least one account, though, places this date as late as 1821 and his father was an Ottawa chief named Mack-e-te-be-nessy. The name was mistranslated first by the French and from French to English as Blackbird, makade-binesi was chief of the Arbor Croche or Middle Village band. Makade-binesi was stranded on an island by white traders he was helping. Although his father survived, this cruelty left an impression on Andrew. Blackbird frequently bemoaned his limited formal education, because his father was a chief, Blackbird was solidly educated in traditional Ottawa culture and practices. Blackbird was baptized a Roman Catholic by a priest called Father Baden in 1825 and he served as interpreter at the Protestant mission in LArbre Croche. Even though he was a Christian, he knew the traditional Ottawa religious beliefs well, Blackbird was trained as a blacksmith at mission schools in the LArbre Croche area. He studied for four years at Twinsburg Institute in Twinsburg in Summit County, Ohio, in 1850 his elderly fathers health worsened. This forced Blackbird to leave school and return home to assist the old chief, later he attended Eastern Michigan University in Ypsilanti, Michigan, for two years, but again did not graduate. I have begun too late of attending those things. I should like to have gone to visit my people but I am considerable in debt, therefore I will have to work out here during the time. Blackbird was loyal to the United States during various uprisings, in 1858 Blackbird married Elizabeth Margaret Fish, a white woman of English descent. As a result, he was viewed favorably by the United States, by the 1850s, Blackbird had become a counselor for both sides between the United States government and the Ottawa and Ojibwa peoples. Blackbird helped veterans of the United States who were Native Americans receive their pensions and he also assisted in settling land claims. During this time, Blackbird strongly advocated that citizenship be granted to the Ottawa, when the Treaty With The Ottawa and Chippewa was signed on July 31,1855, Blackbird served as an interpreter, translator and official witness. In 1858, Blackbird bought a house in Harbor Springs, Michigan, at the time, Harbor Springs was still primarily populated by Ottawas
28.
Menominee
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Some placenames use other spellings, see also Menomonee and Menomonie. The Menominee are a federally recognized nation of Native Americans, with a 353.894 sq mi reservation in Wisconsin and their historic territory originally included an estimated 10 million acres in present-day Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. The tribe currently has about 8,700 members, the tribe was terminated in the 1950s under federal policy of the time which stressed assimilation. The U. S. Supreme Court determined that the tribe had not lost traditional hunting and fishing rights as a result of termination, the tribe regained federal recognition in 1973 in an act of Congress, and re-established its reservation in 1975. They operate under a constitution establishing an elected government. Their first government under it took over government and administration from the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1979. The Menominee are part of the Algonquian language family of North America, made up several tribes now located around the Great Lakes and many other tribes based along the Atlantic coast. They are one of the tribes of present-day upper Michigan and Wisconsin. They are believed to have been well-settled in that territory for more than 1,000 years, by some accounts, they are descended from the Old Copper Culture people and other indigenous peoples who had been in this area for 10,000 years. Menominee oral history states that they have always been here and their reservation is located 60 miles west of the site of their Creation, according to their tradition. They arose where the Menominee River enters Green Bay of Lake Michigan and their name for themselves is Mamaceqtaw, meaning the people. The name Menominee is not their autonym and it was adopted by Europeans from the Ojibwe people, another Algonquian tribe whom they encountered first as they moved west and who told them of the Menominee. The Ojibwe name for the tribe was manoominii, meaning wild rice people, historically, the Menominee were known to be a peaceful, friendly and welcoming nation, who had a reputation for getting along with other tribes. When the Oneota culture arose in southern Wisconsin between AD800 and 900, the Menominee shared the forests and waters with them, the Menominee are a Northeastern Woodlands tribe. They were initially encountered by European explorers in Wisconsin in the century during the colonial era. During this period lived in numerous villages which the French visited for fur trading. The anthropologist James Mooney in 1928 estimated that the number in 1650 was 3,000 persons. The early French explorers and traders referred to the people as folles avoines, the Menominee have traditionally subsisted on a wide variety of plants and animals, with wild rice and sturgeon being two of the most important
29.
Frederic Baraga
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Irenaeus Frederic Baraga was a Slovenian Roman Catholic missionary to the United States and a grammarian of Native American languages. He became the first bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Marquette, Michigan, originally sited at Sault Sainte Marie and his letters about his missionary work were published widely in Europe, inspiring Saint John Neumann and Father Francis Xavier Pierz to emigrate to the United States. He has been honored as Venerable, Frederic Baraga was born in the manor house at Mala Vas no.16 near the Carniolan village of Dobrnič, in what was then Lower Carniola, a province of the Duchy of Carniola in the Habsburg Monarchy. Today it is a part of the municipality of Trebnje in Slovenia, never using his first name, he was baptized Irenaeus Frederic. He was the fourth of five born to John Nepomuc. His mother inherited upon her fathers death the estate of Mala Vas and his mother died in 1808, and his father in 1812. Frederic spent his boyhood in the house of Dr. George Dolinar, Baraga grew up during the Napoleonic Wars, when France had taken over the Slovene Lands from the Austrian Empire for a time. As a result, the language of instruction in his schools changed several times during his childhood between Slovenian and German. By the time he was nine, he was fluent in French as well, in addition, Latin and Greek were required subjects for all students. Thus, by age 16, Frederic Baraga was multilingual—a skill that would serve him well in later life, Baraga attended law school at the University of Vienna, where he graduated in 1821. Influenced by Clement Mary Hofbauer, Baraga then entered the seminary in Ljubljana, at age 26, he was ordained a Roman Catholic priest on September 21,1823 in the Cathedral of St. Nicholas by Augustin Johann Joseph Gruber, the Bishop of Ljubljana. As a young priest, he was assigned as an assistant first at St. Martins near Kranj, Father Baraga was a staunch opponent of Jansenism. During this time, he wrote a book in Slovene entitled Dušna Paša. In 1830 Baraga answered the request of Bishop Edward Fenwick of Cincinnati for priests to aid in ministering to his growing flock and he left his homeland on October 29,1830 and arrived in New York on December 31. He arrived in Cincinnati, Ohio on January 18,1831, during the winter and spring he worked among the German immigrants in the area. At the same time he studied the Ottawa language, a branch of the Algonquian languages, in May 1831 was sent to the Ottawa Indian mission at Arbre Croche to finish his mastery of the language. In 1837, he published Otawa Anamie-Misinaigan, the first book written in the Ottawa language, in 1843 Baraga founded a mission at LAnse, Michigan. During this time he earned the nickname “the Snowshoe Priest” because he would travel hundreds of miles each year on snowshoes during the harsh winters and he worked to protect the Indians from being forced to relocate, as well as publishing a dictionary and grammar of the Ojibway language
30.
Mackinaw City, Michigan
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Mackinaw City /ˈmækᵻnɔː ˈsɪti/ is a village in Emmet and Cheboygan counties in the U. S. state of Michigan. Mackinaw City is at the tip of the Michigans Lower Peninsula along the southern shore of the Straits of Mackinac. Across the straits lies the states Upper Peninsula and these two land masses are physically connected by the Mackinac Bridge, which runs from Mackinaw City north to St. Ignace. Mackinaw City is also the base for ferry service to Mackinac Island. According to AAAs 2009 TripTik requests, Mackinaw City is the most popular tourist city in the state of Michigan, the official name of the community is The Village of Mackinaw City and as that suggests, it is a village by state law. Mackinaw City is governed by the General Law Village Act, Public Act No and these peoples had long frequented the surrounding region, which they called Michilimackinac, to fish, hunt, trade, and worship. Mackinac Island in the straits appeared to have the shape of a turtle, the Native Americans here had a creation myth based on the sacred turtle. His reports resulted in the French government providing funds to send settlers, missionaries, traders, father Jacques Marquette had established a mission on Mackinac Island in 1671. The construction of Fort de Baude at St. Ignace in 1681 was an attempt by the authorities of New France to establish a presence at the Straits. Mackinaw Citys first European settlement came in 1715 when the French built Fort Michilimackinac and they lost it to the British during the Seven Years War, and the British abandoned the fort in 1783, after the American Revolutionary War resulted in independence of its Thirteen Colonies. The site of the fort in present-day Mackinaw City is a National Historic Landmark and is now preserved as an historical museum. As with the forts at other settlements of the era and region such as Detroit and it housed French civilians inside the fort, and allowed them to garden, hunt, and fish outside the walls. It was a trading post for the fur trade, what the British did not take with them, they burned, that way they could prevent the American rebels from using Michilimackinac as a base. In 1857, two men by the names of Conkling and Searles platted what would become Mackinaw City, the original plan reserved the northern portion as a park, to preserve the area that was once Fort Michilimackinac and to accommodate a hoped-for lighthouse. This was not built for nearly a generation after the land was set aside, Old Mackinac Point Lighthouse was built in 1892 in the same northern park that was originally allotted for its construction. This lighthouse would eventually replace McGulpin Point Light, which was built in the 1870s in the far end of the village limits. The village became a port for train ferries crossing the Straits beginning in the 1890s. In the 1890s, Mackinaw had one newspaper, the Mackinaw Witness, published weekly by Presbyterian missionary Rev. G. W. Wood, auto ferries began running in the early 1900s
31.
Recorded history
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Recorded history or written history is a historical narrative based on a written record or other documented communication. Recorded history can be contrasted with other narratives of the past, for broader world history, recorded history begins with the accounts of the ancient world around the 4th millennium BC, and coincides with the invention of writing. Examples of written texts, however, can be found dating as far back as 1750 BCE in Ancient Mesopotamia, for some geographic regions or cultures, written history is limited to a relatively recent period in human history because of the limited use of written records. Because of these limits, recorded history in different contexts may refer to different periods of time depending on the historical topic. The question of the nature, and even the possibility, of a method for interpreting recorded history is raised in the philosophy of history as a question of epistemology. Prehistory traditionally refers to the span of time before recorded history, prehistory refers to the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. Protohistory refers to the period between prehistory and history, after the advent of literacy in a society but before the writings of the first historians. Protohistory may also refer to the period during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing, more complete writing systems were preceded by proto-writing. Early examples are the Jiahu symbols, Vinča signs, early Indus script, earliest recorded history, which varies greatly in quality and reliability, deals with Pharaohs and their reigns, made by ancient Egyptians. Much of the earliest recorded history was re-discovered relatively recently due to archaeological dig sites findings, since these initial accounts, a number of different traditions have developed in different parts of the world in how to handle the writing and production of historical accounts. In China, the earliest history was recorded in oracle bone script which was deciphered, the Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BCE, is the earliest written of narrative history in the world and covers the period from 722 to 468 BCE. The Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and it is traditionally attributed to Confucius. Zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of materials on the Warring States period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era, Herodotus of Halicarnassus has generally been acclaimed as the father of history composing his The Histories written from 450s to the 420s BCE. However, his contemporary Thucydides is credited with having first approached history with a historical method in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was studied through a sacred or religious perspective
32.
Seneca people
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The Seneca are a group of indigenous Iroquoian-speaking people native to North America who historically lived south of Lake Ontario. They were the nation located farthest to the west within the Six Nations or Iroquois League in New York before the American Revolution, in the 21st century, more than 10,000 Seneca live in the United States, which has three federally recognized Seneca tribes. Two are in New York, the Seneca Nation of New York, the Seneca-Cayuga Nation is located in Oklahoma, where their ancestors were relocated from Ohio during Indian Removal. Approximately 1,000 Seneca live in Canada, near Brantford, Ontario and they are descendants of Seneca who resettled there after the American Revolution, as they had been allies of the British and forced to cede much of their lands. The Seneca nations own name is Onöndowága, meaning Great Hill Place and it is identical to the endonym used by the Onondaga people. At the time of formation of the Haudenosaunee, they lived as the farthest west of the five nations within the league and they were referred to as the Keepers of the Western Door. Other nations called them Seneca after their village of Osininka. Since Osininka sounds like the Anishinaabe word Asinikaa, meaning Those at the Place Full of Stones, non-Haudenosaunee nations confused the Seneca nations name with that of the Oneida nations endonym Onyotaa, ka, meaning People of the Standing Stone. A legend of the Seneca tribe states that the tribe originated in a village called Nundawao, near the end of Canandaigua Lake. Close to South Hill stands the 865 foot -high Bare Hill, Bare Hill is part of the Bare Hill Unique Area, which began to be acquired by the state in 1989. Bare Hill had been the site of a Seneca or pre-Seneca indigenous fort and they indicate defenses raised by Indian hands, or more probably belong to the labors of a race that preceded the Indian occupation. The wall is now about tumbled down, the stones seem somewhat scattered, in the early 1920s, the material that made up the Bare Hill fort was used by the Town of Middlesex highway department for road fill. The Seneca traditionally lived in what is now New York state between the Genesee River and Canandaigua Lake, the dating of an oral tradition mentioning a solar eclipse yields 1142 AD as the year for the Seneca joining the Iroquois. The Seneca were by far the most populous of the Haudenosaunee nations, the villages were the homes and headquarters of the Seneca. While the Seneca maintained substantial permanent settlements and raised crops in the vicinity of their villages. The villages, where hunting and military campaigns were planned and executed, major Seneca villages were protected with wooden palisades. Ganondagan, with 150 longhouses, was the largest Seneca village of the 17th century, while Chenussio, the Seneca had two branches, the western and the eastern. Each branch distinct, they were incorporated and recognized by the Iroquois Confederacy Council
33.
Northern Michigan
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Northern Michigan, also known as Northern Lower Michigan or Upper Michigan, is a region of the U. S. state of Michigan. A popular tourist destination, it is home to several small- to medium-sized cities, extensive state and national forests, lakes and rivers, the region has a significant seasonal population much like other regions that depend on tourism as their main industry. Northern Lower Michigan is distinct from the more northerly Upper Peninsula and Isle Royale, in the northern-most 21 counties in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, the total population of the region is 506,658 people. The southern boundary of the region is not precisely defined, the 45th parallel runs across Northern Michigan. Signs in the Lower Peninsula that mark that line are at Mission Point Light, suttons Bay, Cairn Highway in Kewadin, Alba, Michigan on U. S.131 Highway, Gaylord, Atlanta and Alpena. These are six of 29 places in the U. S. A. where such signs or monuments are known to exist, one other such sign is in Menominee, Michigan in the Upper Peninsula. Across the Straits of Mackinac, to the north, west and northeast, although, residents of the Upper Peninsula often say that Northern Michigan is not in the Lower Peninsula. They insist the region must only be referred to as Northern Lower Michigan, the two regions are connected by the 5 mile long Mackinac Bridge. All of the northern Lower Peninsula – north of a line from Manistee County on the west to Iosco County on the east – is considered to be part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaylord. The geographical theme of this region is shaped by rolling hills, Great Lakes shorelines including coastal dunes on the west coast, large lakes, numerous rivers. A tension zone is identified running from Muskegon to Saginaw Bay marked by a change in soil type, North of the line the historic presettlement forests were beech and sugar maple, mixed with hemlock, white pine, and yellow birch which only grew on moist soils further south. Southern Michigan forests were primarily deciduous with oaks, red maple, shagbark hickory, Northern Michigan soils tend to be coarser, and the growing season is shorter with a cooler climate. Lake effect weather brings significant snowfalls to snow belt areas of Northern Michigan, glaciers shaped the area, creating a unique regional ecosystem. Large lakes were created by glacial action, the region has the four seasons in their extremes, with sometimes hot and humid summer days to subzero days in winter. With the expansive hardwood forest in Northern Michigan, fall color tourist are found throughout the area in early to mid-autumn, when the spring rains come, many roads and bridges become impassable due to flooding or muddy to the point a four-wheel drive cannot pass. Both the high and low temperature records for all of Michigan are held by communities in Northern Lower Michigan, the high is 112 °F set in Mio on July 13,1936 and the low is -51 °F set in Vanderbilt on February 9,1934. In the northern-most 21 counties in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, the area was populated by many different ethnicities, including groups from New England, Ireland, Germany, and Poland. The Odawa nation is located in Emmet County. Native American reservations exist at Mount Pleasant, sailing, kayaking, canoeing, birding, bicycling, horse back riding, motorcycling, and off roading are important avocations
34.
British Landing
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British Landing is a place within Mackinac Island, Michigan and is located on the shore of Mackinac Island, two miles northwest of the islands downtown and harbor. The operation led directly to the surrender of Fort Mackinac by the U. S. Army, as the war began, Fort Mackinac, located at the northwestern end of Lake Huron, was a strategic strongpoint that dominated the Upper Great Lakes. Adjacent to the fort, a trading post for furs was a key point for Euro-American-Native American commerce. While poor American military intelligence failed to communicate to Fort Mackinac the news that war had broken out and they promptly notified the commander of Fort St. Joseph, a British strongpoint located approximately 40 miles northeast by canoe. Ft. St. Josephs British commander, Charles Roberts, determined to recruit Native allies, with a single sailing vessel and a flotilla of war canoes, the expeditionary force arrived on the north shore of Mackinac Island on the night of July 16–17,1812. Full secrecy was maintained and the warriors landed without detection by the American army, the sailing vessel had brought one or more light cannon, which were wrestled ashore at British Landing and hauled up through the interior of the Island to a location above Fort Mackinac. On the morning of July 17, the British and Natives displayed their troops and cannon surrounding the fort, Fort Mackinac fell to the British without a single casualty. Unlike the British landing of 1812, the American landing of 1814 was not a surprise and was not successful, the 1814 amphibious operation was a failure and the American detachment was forced to re-embark on the same day. British Landing is now an important intersection on M-185, the highway that serves as a non-motorized road. Like the rest of Mackinac Island, M-185 is not open to motor vehicles, during the summer months, British Landing is frequented by visitors who have arrived by bicycle or horse-drawn carriage. British Landing was for years the home of noted Shakespearean. Much of the land in the British Landing area is located in Mackinac Island State Park, in 1958, British Landing was added to the list of registered Michigan historic sites as Registered Site SO187
35.
Anno Domini
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The terms anno Domini and before Christ are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means in the year of the Lord, There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, the Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the AD abbreviation before the year number, however, BC is placed after the year number, which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is widely used after the number of a century or millennium. Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes concluded that AD means After Death. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be included in either of the BC, astronomical year numbering and ISO8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years. The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was followed by the first year of his table. Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the year during which his birth or conception occurred. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC,1 BC, There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls There were confused summations of emperors regnal years It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesuss birth. It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the day of an event. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hegira, at the time, it was believed by some that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Anno Mundi 6000 was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius. The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. e. On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century
36.
Anishinaabe
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The Anishinaabeg speak Anishinaabemowin, or Anishinaabe languages that belong to the Algonquian language family. They traditionally have lived in the Northeast Woodlands and Subarctic, the word Anishinaabeg translates to people from whence lowered. Another definition refers to the humans, meaning those who are on the right road or path given to them by the Creator Gichi-Manidoo. The Ojibwe historian, linguist, and author Basil Johnston wrote that its literal translation is Beings Made Out of Nothing or Spontaneous Beings, Anishinaabe is often mistakenly considered a synonym of Ojibwe, however, it refers to a much larger group of tribes. The name Anishinaabe is shortened to Nishnaabe, mostly by Odawa people, the cognate Neshnabé comes from the Potawatomi, a people long allied with the Odawa and Ojibwe in the Council of Three Fires. Identified as Anishinaabe, but not part of the Council of Three Fires, are the Nipissing, Mississaugas, closely related to the Ojibwe and speaking a language mutually intelligible with Anishinaabemowin are the Oji-Cree. Their most common autonym is Anishinini and they call their language Anishininiimowin, Not all Anishinaabemowin-speakers call themselves Anishinaabeg. The Ojibwe people who moved to what are now the provinces of Canada call themselves Nakawē. Particular Anishinaabeg groups have different names from region to region, according to anishinabe tradition, and from records of wiigwaasabak, the people migrated from the eastern areas of North America, and from along the East Coast. In old stories, the homeland was called Turtle Island and this comes from the idea that the universe, the Earth, or the continent of North America are all sometimes understood as being the back of a great turtle, a mysterious natural consciousness. The Anishinaabe oral history considers the Anishinaabe peoples as descendents of the Abenaki people, another Anishinaabe oral history considers the Abenaki as descendents of the Lenape, thus refers to them as Grandfathers. However, Cree oral traditions consider the Anishinaabe as their descendants. A number of complementary origin concepts exist within the traditions of the Anishinaabe. According to the history, seven great miigis appeared to the Anishinaabe peoples in the Waabanakiing to teach the people about the midewiwin life-style. One great miigis was too powerful and would kill people in the Waabanakiing whenever they were in its presence. This being later returned to the depths of the ocean, leaving the six great miigis to teach the people, the Anishinaabe are one of the first nation in Canada. Each of the six miigis established separate doodem for the people, of these doodem, five clan systems appeared, Awaazisii, Baswenaazhi, Aanaawenh, Nooke, and Moozoonii. After founding the doodem, the six returned to the depths of the ocean as well
37.
Nanabozho
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In Anishinaabe aadizookaan, particularly among the Ojibwe, Nanabozho also known as Nanabush is a spirit, and figures prominently in their storytelling, including the story of the worlds creation. Nanabozho is the Ojibwe trickster figure and culture hero and he conquered or diminished these mythical animals to smaller size after killing or changing them with his trickery or shapeshifting. Among the Meskwaki, Wīsakehā serves a role, as does Wisakedjak among northern Algonquian peoples. The Abenaki-influenced Algonquin had a figure called Kanòjigàbe. In addition, depending on the story and the role in telling the story. Due to the way the two o sounds, they are often realized as oo. In some dialects, zh is reduced to z and these variations allow for associating the name with the word for rabbit. In addition, though the Fiero double-vowel system uses zh, the sound in other orthographies can be realized as j in the Algonquin system or š in the Saulteaux-Cree system. To this mix, depending on if the transcriber used French or English, Nanabozho is one of four sons from what Europeans will interpret as spirits of directions. A human mother, and E-bangishimog, a spirit father, Nanabozho most often appears in the shape of a rabbit and is characterized as a trickster. In his rabbit form, he is called Mishaabooz or Chi-waabooz and he was sent to Earth by Gitche Manitou to teach the Ojibwe. One of his first tasks was to all the plants. Nanabozho is considered to be the founder of Midewiwin and he is the inventor of fishing and hieroglyphs. This historical figure is a shapeshifter and a cocreator of the world, like the transcription variations found among Nanabozho, often Mishaabooz is transcribed into French as Michabous and represented in English as Michabou. Aayaase Glooscap Naniboujou Club Lodge Sleeping Giant Winneboujou, Wisconsin Wisakedjak Maymaygwashi Benton-Banai, the Mishomis Book, The Voice of the Ojibway. Hayward, WI, Indian Country Communications,1988, chamberlain, A. F. Nanibozhu amongst the Otchipwe, Mississagas, and other Algonkian tribes, Journal of American Folklore 4, 193-213. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press,1977, east Lansing, Michigan State University Press,2015. Manaboshos Hieroglyphics recorded by Seth Eastman at Northern Illinois University Nanabozo in The Canadian Encyclopedia Nanabozho in Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico,1907, reproduced in Handbook of Indians of Canada,1913
38.
Outburst flood
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In geomorphology, an outburst flood, which is a type of megaflood, is a high-magnitude, low-frequency catastrophic flood involving the sudden release of water. During the last deglaciation, numerous glacial lake outburst floods were caused by the collapse of ice sheets or glaciers that formed the dams of proglacial lakes. Examples of older outburst floods are known from the geological past of the Earth, landslides, lahars, and volcanic dams can also block rivers and create lakes, which trigger such floods when the rock or earthen barrier collapses or is eroded. Lakes also form behind glacial moraines, which can collapse and create outburst floods, megafloods are paleofloods that involved rates of water flow larger than those in the historical record. They are studied through the deposits and the erosional and constructional landforms that individual megafloods have created. Floods that are known to us through historical descriptions are related to meteorological events, such as heavy rains, rapid melting of snowpacks. In the geological past of the Earth, however, geological research has shown much larger events have occurred. In the case of outburst floods, such floods are typically linked to the collapse of the forming a lake. They fall in the classification according to the mechanism responsible. Rapid erosion, melting of ice sheets, Collapse of volcanic dams created by lava flows, lahars, or pyroclastic flows. Overtopping of earthen or rock barriers Lake overtopping, Ocean spilling over a dividing ridge into a landlocked basin. A smaller scale example would be the Pantai Remis landslide, a landslide dam on Sichuans Dadu River, created by an earthquake ten days earlier, burst and caused a flood that extended 1400 km downstream and killed 100,000 people. The marine incursion, caused by the level of the Mediterranean. In North America, during glacial maximum, there were no Great Lakes as we know them and they lay in the areas of the modern lakes, but their drainage sometimes passed south, into the Mississippi system, sometimes into the Arctic, or east into the Atlantic. The most famous of these lakes was Lake Agassiz. As ice-dam configurations failed, a series of floods were released from Lake Agassiz. The Missoula Floods of Oregon and Washington states were caused by breaking ice dams. Lake Bonneville was not a lake, but glacial age climate change determined the lake level
39.
Jean Nicolet
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Jean Nicolet, Sieur de Belleborne was a French coureur des bois noted for exploring Green Bay of Lake Michigan, in what is now the U. S. state of Wisconsin. Nicolet was born in Cherbourg-Octeville, France, in the late 1590s, the son of Thomas Nicollet and they were members of the Roman Catholic Church. He was a friend of Samuel De Champlain and Etienne Brule. He was attracted to Canada to participate in Samuel Champlains plan to train young French men as explorers and traders by having them live among Native Americans, the French were setting up fur trading under the Compagnie des Marchands. In 1618, Nicolet immigrated to Quebec as a clerk to train as an interpreter for the Compagnie des Marchands, as an employee, Jean Nicolet was a faithful supporter of the Ancien Régime. To learn the language of the First Nations, Nicolet was sent to live with the Algonquins on Allumette Island, upon his return to Quebec in 1620, he was assigned to live among the Odawa and Algonquin people in the Lake Nipissing region. During his nine-year stay, he ran a store and traded with the peoples in the area. He had a relationship with a Nipissing native, and they had a daughter, when Nicolet returned to Quebec, he brought his daughter Madeleine with him to educate her among the French. On July 19,1629, when Quebec fell to the Kirke brothers who took control for England and he worked from there against English interests until the French were restored to power. Nicolet is noted for being the first European to cross Lake Michigan, in 1634 he became the first European to explore what would become Wisconsin. Jean Nicolet landed at Red Banks, near modern-day Green Bay and he and other French explorers had learned from their native contacts that the people who lived along these shores were called Ho-Chunk, which the French translated as People of the Sea. In their language, it meant harvest the rice, as they used wild rice as a staple of their diet, Nicolet concluded that the people must be from or near the Pacific Ocean, and would provide a direct contact with China. Nicolet became the French ambassador to the Ho-Chunk people and he wore brightly colored robes and carried two pistols, to convey his authority. The Ho-Chunk people appreciated his ritual display, with some Ho-Chunk guides, Nicolet ascended the Fox River, portaged to the Wisconsin, and travelled down it until it began to widen. Jean Nicolet drowned after his boat capsized during a storm while traveling, the city of Nicolet, Quebec was named after him. Nicolet Area Technical College in Rhinelander, Wisconsin bears his name, Nicolet High School in suburban Milwaukee was named after him. In 1950, a statue of him was erected and is now located at Wequiock Falls County Park, about 10 miles northeast of Green Bay, nicolets landing at Red Banks is commemorated by a 1910 mural at the Neville Public Museum in Green Bay, Wisconsin. In 1906, the Jean Nicolet Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution was organized
40.
Coureur des bois
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A coureur des bois or coureur de bois was an independent entrepreneurial French-Canadian woodsman who traveled in New France and the interior of North America. They ventured into the woods usually to trade various European items for furs and these expeditions were fuelled by the beginning of the fur trade in the North American interior. Trade began with coat beaver, but as the market grew coureurs de bois were trapping and trading prime beavers to be felted in Europe. While Frenchmen had been trading and living among the natives since the earliest days of the colony, after 1681, the independent coureur was gradually replaced by the state-sponsored voyageurs, who were the canoe travel workers of licensed fur traders. Coureurs des bois had therefore lost their importance within the fur trade by the early 18th century. However, even while their numbers were dwindling, the coureur des bois developed as a symbol of the colony, shortly after founding a permanent settlement at Quebec City in 1608, Samuel de Champlain sought to ally himself with the local native peoples. He therefore decided to send young French boys to live among them to serve as interpreters and these boys learned native languages, customs, and skills, and tended to assimilate quickly to their new environments. Early explorers like Brûlé could educate the French on the trading networks used by the natives, serve as interpreters. Between 1610 and 1629, dozens of Frenchmen spent months at a living among the natives. Over time, these early explorers and interpreters played an active role in the fur trade. The term coureur des bois is most strongly associated with those who engaged in the fur trade in ways that were considered to be outside of the mainstream, early in the North American fur trade era this meant circumventing the normal channels by going deeper into the wilderness to trade. Traditionally, the government of New France preferred to let the natives supply furs directly to French merchants, by the mid-17th century, Montreal had emerged as the center of the fur trade, hosting a yearly fair in August where natives exchanged their pelts for European goods. Thus, while coureurs des bois never entirely disappeared, they were discouraged by French colonial officials. While this did not legally sanction coureurs des bois to trade independently with the natives, in the 1660s, several factors caused a sudden spike in the number of coureurs. First, the population of New France markedly increased during the late 17th century, of the new engagés, discharged soldiers, and youthful immigrants arriving in great numbers in the colony, the bravest, or perhaps foolhardiest, among them chose to become coureurs des bois. Furthermore, renewed relations with the Iroquois in 1667 made travelling into the interior of Canada much less perilous for the French. In addition, the companies that had been monopolizing and regulating the fur trade since 1645, the Cent Associés, the Compagnie des Indes occidentales, which replaced them, was much less restrictive of internal trade, allowing independent merchants to become more numerous. Finally, a fall in the price of beaver on the European markets in 1664 caused more traders to travel to the pays den haut, or upper country
41.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
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Jacques Marquette
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Father Jacques Marquette S. J. sometimes known as Père Marquette or James Marquette, was a French Jesuit missionary who founded Michigans first European settlement, Sault Ste. Marie, and later founded St. Ignace, Michigan, in 1673 Father Marquette and Louis Jolliet were the first Europeans to explore and map the northern portion of the Mississippi River. Jacques Marquette was born at Laon, France, on June 1,1637, after he worked and taught in France for several years, the Jesuits assigned him to New France in 1666 as a missionary to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. He showed great proficiency in learning the languages, especially Huron. In 1668 Father Marquette was moved by his superiors to missions farther up the St. Lawrence River in the western Great Lakes region and he helped found missions at Sault Ste. Marie in present-day Michigan in 1668, St. Ignace in 1671, at La Pointe he encountered members of the Illinois tribes, who told him about the important trading route of the Mississippi River. They invited him to teach their people, whose settlements were mostly farther south, leave was granted, and in 1673, Marquette joined the expedition of Louis Jolliet, a French-Canadian explorer. They departed from St. Ignace on May 17, with two canoes and five voyageurs of French-Indian ancestry and they followed Lake Michigan to Green Bay and up the Fox River, nearly to its headwaters. From there, they were told to portage their canoes a distance of less than two miles through marsh and oak plains to the Wisconsin River. Many years later, at point the town of Portage, Wisconsin was built. From the portage, they ventured forth, and on June 17, they entered the Mississippi near present-day Prairie du Chien, the Joliet-Marquette expedition traveled to within 435 miles of the Gulf of Mexico but turned back at the mouth of the Arkansas River. By this point they had encountered natives carrying European trinkets. They followed the Mississippi back to the mouth of the Illinois River and they reached Lake Michigan near the site of modern-day Chicago, by way of the Chicago Portage. In September Marquette stopped at the mission of St. Francis Xavier, located in present-day Green Bay, Wisconsin, Marquette and his party returned to the Illinois Territory in late 1674, becoming the first Europeans to winter in what would become the city of Chicago. As welcomed guests of the Illinois Confederation, the explorers were feasted en route, in the spring of 1675, Marquette traveled westward and celebrated a public mass at the Grand Village of the Illinois near Starved Rock. A bout of dysentery which he had contracted during the Mississippi expedition sapped his health, on the return trip to St. Ignace, he died at age 37 near the modern town of Ludington, Michigan. Marquette Transportation Company, a company using a silhouette of the Pere in his canoe as their emblem. Other types of memorials were erected, including those at his birthplace in Laon, France, the Legler Branch of the Chicago Public Library displays Wilderness, Winter River Scene, a restored mural by Midwestern artist R. Fayerweather Babcock
43.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
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