1.
Italian Navy
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The Italian Navy is the maritime defence force of the Italian Republic. It is one of the four branches of Italian Armed Forces and was formed in 1946 from what remained of the Regia Marina after World War II. As of August 2014, the Italian Navy had a strength of 30,923 active personnel with approximately 184 vessels in service, the Regia Marina was formed on March 17,1861, after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy. The Italian Navy assumed its present name after the Italian monarchy was abolished following a referendum held on June 2,1946. At the end of its five years involvement in World War II, however, a large number of its naval units had survived the war, albeit in a low efficiency state, which was due to the conflict and the age of many vessels. A ban on owning Battleships, Aircraft carriers, Submarines and Amphibious Assault units, a ban on operating military installations on the islands of Pantelleria, Pianosa and on the archipelago of Pelagie Islands. The total displacement, battleships excluded, of the navy was not allowed to be greater than 67,500 tons. Some had already been dismantled in La Spezia between 1948 and 1955, including the aircraft carrier Aquila. However, the Soviet Union demanded the surrender of the battleship Giulio Cesare, the cruisers Attilio Regolo and Scipione Africano became the French Chateaurenault and Guichen, while Eugenio di Savoia became the Greek Helli. After break up and/or transfers, only a part of the fleet remained to be recommissioned into the Marina. With the new elections in 1946, the Kingdom of Italy became a Republic, the US government in Washington wished to keep its own installations on the Italian Peninsula and relaxed the Treaty restrictions by including Italy in the Mutual Defense Assistance Programme. Within NATO, the Marina Militare was assigned control of the Adriatic Sea and Strait of Otranto. This solution required a great effort to rebuild and transform the fleet. Progress was slow due to pressures on Italy and due to opposition from other European governments. These nations were concerned at seeing an Italian Navy capable of rivaling the Western naval forces, the ensign of the Italian Navy is the Italian tricolour defaced with the coat of arms of the Marina Militare. A further difference is that St, in 2012 the Navy began a restructuring process that will see a 21% decrease in personnel by 2025. A new structure was implemented in January 2014, the command structure is depicted below, Reporting to the Logistics Command is Maritime Command – divided into four areas who provide logistic support for their areas. The Corps of the Port Captaincies – Coast Guard is the coast guard of Italy and is part of the Italian Navy under the control of the Ministry of Infrastructures, in Italy, it is commonly known as simply the Guardia costiera
2.
Lupo-class frigate
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The Lupo class is a class of frigates built by Cantieri Navali Riuniti for the Italian Navy. Designed as multipurpose warships with emphasis on warfare, they have enjoyed some success in the export market, being acquired by the navies of Peru. A small run of an updated version is known as the Soldati class. To parry this menace, Italy started an expansion program which included frigates focused on ASuW. For the first part of the requirement, CNR presented a design for a 2, 500-ton frigate with a high speed, the ship employed a CODOG propulsion plant to achieve 35 knots, making it one of the fastest warships at the time. Armament included 8 SSMs,8 SAMs, several gun systems,2 triple torpedo tubes and an ASW helicopter, Lupo-class frigates have a crew of around 200. The Italian Navy commissioned four Lupo-class frigates between 1977 and 1980 and these ships were deployed to the Persian Gulf first as escorts for tankers during the last stages of the Iran–Iraq War and then as part of the Coalition forces during the 1990–1991 Gulf War. After this operations the class underwent modernization which included fitting an SPS-702 CORA surface search radar. After two decades in service, the four Italian Lupo-class frigates were decommissioned and sold to Peru in the early 2000s, in 1996 four new Lupo-class frigates which had been built for Iraq in 1985-87, were incorporated into the Italian Navy as the Artigliere class. These ships feature a telescopic hangar, they were refitted as patrol ships, the four ships are Artigliere, Aviere, Bersagliere and Granatiere, and are used in fleet escort or long range patrolling duties. Iraq ordered four Lupo-class frigates from CNR in 1980 as part of an expansion program just before the Iran–Iraq War. These ships, which feature a telescopic hangar were completed between 1985 and 1987, due to restrictions on arm sales to Iraq because of the Iran-Iraq War placed by the Italian prime minister Bettino Craxi, the ships remained interned in Italy until the end of that war in 1988. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein then tried to renegotiate the price of these ships, negotiations and court proceedings were still ongoing when Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 and a new arms embargo against Iraq was placed by the United Nations, again blocking the sale. In 1993 all of them were seized and, after being refitted as patrol ships, changes made for Italian service included the removal of all ASW equipment. The four ships are Artigliere, Aviere, Bersagliere and Granatiere, the Philippines considered acquiring the Soldati class in 2012. Artigliere has been placed in reserve, Peru became involved early in the Lupo-class frigate program, ordering four ships in 1973. The Peruvian ships were built to a design which included different radars, Aspide instead of Sea Sparrow SAMs. The first two were built by CNR at its shipyard in Riva Trigoso, Genoa, and commissioned in 1979, construction work for the second pair was carried out under license by SIMA at Callao, with the ships commissioning in 1984 and 1987
3.
FREMM multipurpose frigate
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The FREMM is a class of multi-purpose frigates designed by DCNS/Armaris and Fincantieri for the navies of France and Italy. The lead ship of the class, Aquitaine, was commissioned in November 2012 by the French Navy, in France the class is known as the Aquitaine class, while in Italy they are known as the Bergamini class. France has ordered six anti-submarine variants, and two air-defence variants, the land-attack variant was subsequently cancelled. A third anti-air warfare variant of FREMM was proposed by DCNS in repose to French requirements for a new air-defence frigate, the SYLVER A50 would allow it to fire the 120 kilometres -range Aster 30 missile, the towed array sonar would not be fitted. At Euronaval 2012 DCNS showed a new concept called FREMM-ER for the FREDA requirement, again based on the FREMM, FREMM-ER has a modified superstructure replacing Héraklès with the new Thales Sea Fire 500 radar, whose four fixed plates resemble those of the US Navys AN/SPY-1. However unlike the Héraklès and the SPY-1, the Sea Fire 500 has active electronically scanned array antennas, original plans were for 17 FREMM to replace the nine DEstienne dOrves-class avisos and nine anti-submarine frigates of the Tourville and Georges Leygues classes. In November 2005 France announced a contract of €3.5 billion for development and the first eight hulls, with options for nine more costing €2.95 billion split over two tranches. Expectations were that the last two ships of the 17 FREMM planned would be built to FREDA specifications, however, by 2008 the plan was revised down to just 11 FREMM at a cost of €8.75 billion. The 11 ships would cost €670 million each in FY2014, or €860m including development costs, the FTI will replace the La Fayette-class class, which will be fitted with a sonar as an interim measure. Planning assumptions for the Italian Navy are 10 FREMM-IT at a cost of €5.8 billion, FREMM-IT will replace the Maestrale and Lupo-class frigates in service with the Italian Navy. As of 16 April 2015, the Italian government has approved funding for all ten FREMM-IT to be delivered to the Italian Navy, in the 2013 Italian budget, the Italian government laid-out the necessary financing for two more GP variants and the contract was awarded in September 2013. On 15 April 2015, Italian Parliamentary confirmed the deal between OCCAR and Orizzonte Sistemi Navali Spa to beginning built units 9 and 10, for Euro 764 millions. FREMM-IT9 &10 would will have AAW & ATBM capabilities and will have A70 VLS for cruise & Aster Block 2 missiles, with new Leonardo Kronos Quad, C band, AESA, 3D radar. The Leonardo Kronos Quad will have four flat radar sensors, with three times the range and full ATBM capabilities. All 10 Italian FREMM-ITs have extended AAW capabilities, with SAAM-ESD CMS, SAAM-ESD CMS use Leonardo MFRA, a 3D active radar, an evolved version of the Leonardo EMPAR PESA radar. Since the 7th FREMM-IT, there will be updates, such as new conformal IFF antenna, the Moroccan ship is similar to the French anti-submarine version, without SYLVER A70 tubes for SCALP Naval, and cost €470m. On 22 January 2009 the Hellenic Navy announced an order for six FREMM to replace a number of Elli-class frigates. Germany objected to this deal in October 2011 and no deal has been signed, in April 2013, the French government showcased the FREMM class in Halifax with the hope of selling to the Royal Canadian Navy for the Single Class Surface Combatant Project
4.
Gas turbine
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A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a turbine. The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the power plant except that the working fluid is air instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure, energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust pressure, the turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, the purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators,50, Heros Engine — Apparently, Heros steam engine was taken to be no more than a toy, and thus its full potential not realized for centuries. 1000, The Trotting Horse Lamp was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the Northern Song dynasty. When the lamp is lit, the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse-riding figures attached on it,1629, Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear, developed by Giovanni Branca. 1678, Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a jet for power. 1791, A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman and his invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage,1861, British patent no.1633 was granted to Marc Antoine Francois Mennons for a Caloric engine. The patent shows that it was a gas turbine and the show it applied to a locomotive. Also named in the patent was Nicolas de Telescheff, a Russian aviation pioneer,1872, A gas turbine engine was designed by Franz Stolze, but the engine never ran under its own power. 1894, Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a turbine, and built a demonstration vessel. This principle of propulsion is still of some use,1895, Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city. 1899, Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas engine in the USA. 1900, Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines, in 1903, Moss became an engineer for General Electrics Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts
5.
Leonardo S.p.A.
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Leonardo S. p. A. formerly Leonardo-Finmeccanica and Finmeccanica, is an Italian multinational aerospace, defence and security company headquartered in Rome in Italy and with operations worldwide. It is the ninth-largest defence contractor in the based on applicable 2014 revenues. The company is owned by the Italian government through the Ministry of Economy and Finance. On 1 January 2016, Leonardo-Finmeccanica became an industrial company by integrating the activities of its subsidiaries AgustaWestland, Alenia Aermacchi, Selex ES, Oto Melara. Leonardo-Finmeccanica is listed on the Borsa Italiana and is a constituent of the FTSE MIB, the company changed its name to Leonardo S. p. A. on 1 January 2017, after the Italian inventor Leonardo Da Vinci. The company was established in 1948 as a subholding for mechanical industry of state owned IRI, Finmeccanica has held for years some historic Italian enterprises, such as Alfa Romeo, Aeritalia and Ansaldo. In 1989 an internal IRI reorganization process brought STET electronic enterprises to Finmeccanica, Finmeccanica, which was previously fully state owned by IRI, went under a privatization process in 1993, when it was listed in Milan Borsa Italiana. In 1992 Finmeccanicas Agusta became a 32% partner in NHIndustries, the contractor for NH90 helicopter. In July 2000 Finmeccanica and the British GKN agreed to merge their respective helicopter subsidiaries to form AgustaWestland, in July 2003 Finmeccanica and BAE Systems announced their intention to set up three joint venture companies, to be collectively known as Eurosystems. These companies would have pooled the avionics, C4ISTAR and communications businesses of the two companies, in March 2007 BAE Systems sold its 25% share to Finmeccanica for €400 million. In January 2013 the company merged with Finmeccanicas other defence electronics companies, SELEX Elsag and SELEX Sistemi Integrati, in May 2008 Finmeccanica announced its intention to purchase the U. S. defense contractor DRS Technologies for nearly $5.2 billion. On 22 October 2008 the sale of DRS Technologies was finalized, during 2011–2013, Finmeccanica emails were published by WikiLeaks and Finmeccanica was subject to judicial inquiries on several fronts and management changes. On 12 February 2013, the executive, Giuseppe Orsi, was arrested on corruption charges. Prosecutors alleged that he paid bribes to ensure the sale of 12 helicopters to the Indian government, in July 2013, the Letta government appointed former police chief Giovanni De Gennaro as Chairman of Finmeccanica. In December 2013 Finmeccanica sold 39. 55% of its capital in Ansaldo Energia to Fondo Strategico Italiano. The remaining 15% of Finmeccanicas share will be sold by December 31,2017, the goal was to create a more cohesive and efficient group in which all processes are centralized and integrated and can interact more effectively. This encompasses the 100% owned companies of the aerospace and defence business being transformed into seven new Finmeccanica divisions. At the end of 2014, Finmeccanica transferred its stake in BredaMenarinibus to the newco Industria Italiana Autobus, thereby taking a further step in the Groups portfolio rationalization process
6.
Raytheon
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The Raytheon Company is a major U. S. defense contractor and industrial corporation with core manufacturing concentrations in weapons and military and commercial electronics. It was previously involved in corporate and special-mission aircraft until early 2007, Raytheon is the worlds largest producer of guided missiles. Established in 1922, the company reincorporated in 1928 and adopted its present name in 1959, the company has around 63,000 employees worldwide and annual revenues of approximately US$25 billion. More than 90% of Raytheons revenues were obtained from military contracts and, as of 2012, as of 2015, it is the third largest defense contractor in the United States by defense revenue. Raytheons headquarters moved from Lexington, Massachusetts, to Waltham, Massachusetts and its focus, which was originally on new refrigeration technology, soon shifted to electronics. The companys first product was a rectifier that was based on Charles Smiths earlier astronomical research of the star Zeta Puppis. The electron tube was christened with the name Raytheon and was used in a battery eliminator and this made it possible to convert household alternating current to direct current for radios and thus eliminate the need for expensive, short-lived batteries. In 1925, the changed its name to Raytheon Manufacturing Company and began marketing its rectifier, under the Raytheon brand name. In 1928 Raytheon merged with Q. R. S, Company, an American manufacturer of electron tubes and switches, to form the successor of the same name, Raytheon Manufacturing Company. In 1933 it diversified by acquiring Acme-Delta Company, a producer of transformers, power equipment, by the 1930s, it had already grown to become one of the worlds largest vacuum tube manufacturing companies. Within a few months of being awarded the contract, Raytheon had already begun to mass manufacture magnetron tubes for use in radar sets, at wars end in 1945 the company was responsible for about 80 percent of all magnetrons manufactured. During the war Raytheon also pioneered the production of radar systems. Raytheon ranked 71st among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, Raytheons research on the magnetron tube revealed the potential of microwaves to cook food. In 1945, Raytheons Percy Spencer invented the microwave oven by discovering that the magnetron could rapidly heat food, in 1947, the company demonstrated the Radarange microwave oven for commercial use. In 1945, the company expanded its electronics capability through acquisitions that included the Submarine Signal Company, with its broadened capabilities, Raytheon developed the first guidance system for a missile that could intercept a flying target. In 1948, Raytheon began to manufacture guided missiles, in 1950, its Lark missile became the first such weapon to destroy a target aircraft in flight. Raytheon then received military contracts to develop the air-to-air Sparrow and ground-to-air Hawk missiles—projects that received impetus from the Korean War, in later decades, it remained a major producer of missiles, among them the Patriot antimissile missile and the air-to-air Phoenix missile. In the same year, it changed its name to Raytheon Company, in the 1950s, Raytheon began manufacturing transistors, including the CK722, priced and marketed to hobbyists
7.
M2 Browning
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The M2 Machine Gun or Browning.50 Caliber Machine Gun is a heavy machine gun designed toward the end of World War I by John Browning. Its design is similar to Brownings earlier M1919 Browning machine gun, the M2 uses the much larger and much more powerful.50 BMG cartridge, which was developed alongside and takes its name from the gun itself. It has been referred to as Ma Deuce, in reference to its M2 nomenclature, the design has had many specific designations, the official designation for the current infantry type is Browning Machine Gun, Cal.50, M2, HB, Flexible. It is effective against infantry, unarmored or lightly armored vehicles and boats, light fortifications, the M2 has been produced longer than any other machine gun. The Browning.50 caliber machine gun has been used extensively as a vehicle weapon and it was heavily used during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Falklands War, the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan in the 2000s and 2010s. It is the heavy machine gun of NATO countries, and has been used by many other countries as well. The M2 has been in use longer than any firearm in U. S. inventory except the.45 ACP M1911 pistol. The current M2HB is manufactured in the U. S. by General Dynamics, Ordnance for use by the U. S. government, and for allies via Foreign Military Sales, as well as foreign manufacturers such as FN Herstal. Machine guns were used in World War I, and weapons of larger than rifle caliber were appearing. Both the British and French had large caliber machine guns, the larger rounds were needed to defeat the armor that was being introduced to the battlefield. Armor was also appearing in the skies, during World War I, the Germans introduced a heavily armored airplane, the Junkers J. I. The armor made aircraft machine guns using conventional rifle ammunition ineffective, consequently, the American Expeditionary Forces commander General John J. Pershing asked for a larger caliber machine gun. Pershing asked the Army Ordnance Department to develop a gun with a caliber of at least 0.50 inches. U. S. Col. John Henry Parker, commanding a machine gun school in France, the Army Ordnance Department ordered eight experimental Colt machine guns rechambered for the French 11 mm cartridge. The French had developed a machine gun for an even larger caliber. The French 11 mm round was found to be unsuitable because its velocity was too low, Pershing wanted a bullet of at least 670 gr and a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s. Development with the French round was dropped, around July 1917, John M. Browning started redesigning his.30 caliber machine gun for a larger caliber. Winchester worked on the cartridge, which was a version of the. 30-06
8.
Bell UH-1N Twin Huey
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The Bell UH-1N Twin Huey is a twin-engine medium military helicopter. A member of the numerous Huey family, it first flew in 1969, the CUH-1N Twin Huey was the original version, first ordered by the Canadian Forces. The UH-1N has a configuration, with one pilot and fourteen passengers. In cargo configuration it has a capacity of 220 ft³. An external load of up to 5,000 lb can be carried, the UH-1N was later developed into the civil Bell 212. Based on the stretched fuselage Bell 205, the Bell 212 was originally developed for the Canadian Forces under the designation CUH-1N Twin Huey, later the CF adopted a new designation system and the aircraft was re-designated CH-135 Twin Huey. The CF approved the development of the aircraft on 1 May 1968 and purchased 50 aircraft, the US military came very close to not procuring the Twin Huey. The purchase of the aircraft for US military use was opposed by the Chairman of the House Armed Services Committee at the time, Rivers took this position because the aircraft powerplant, the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6T was produced in Canada. The Liberal Canadian government of the time had not supported US involvement in Vietnam and had opposed US policies in southeast Asia, Rivers was also concerned that procurement of the engines would result in a trade deficit situation with Canada. Congress only approved the purchase when it was assured that a US source would be found for the PT6T/T400 engines, as a result, the United States military services ordered 294 Bell 212s under the designation UH-1N, with deliveries commencing in 1970. The Bell 412 is a development of the Bell 212. The UH-1N has also developed into the upgraded, four-blade UH-1Y. The UH-1Ns main rotor is powered by a PT6T-3/T400 Turbo Twin Pac made up of two Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboshaft engines that drive a single output shaft and they are capable of producing up to 1,342 kW. Should one engine fail the remaining engine can deliver 671 kW for 30 minutes or 571 kW enabling the UH-1N to maintain cruise performance at maximum weight and this modification removed the gyroscopic Stabilization Bar on top of the main rotor head, instead relying on the computer system for stability. From late 1970, the UH-1N re-equipped the USAF 20th Special Operations Squadron in Vietnam, replacing the single-engined UH-1F and UH-1P. Armed with Miniguns and rocket pods, and painted camouflage with no US markings and only a Green Hornet insignia, by the end of the hostilities both aircraft were still intact but were dismantled by the Argentinians. USMC UH-1Ns were used by the USMC during its 2003 invasion of Iraq, UH-1Ns provided reconnaissance, and communications support to Marine ground troops. They were also called upon to close air support during heavy fighting in Nasiriyah
9.
Frigate
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A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
10.
La Spezia
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La Spezia, at the head of the Gulf of La Spezia in the Liguria region of Northern Italy is the capital city of the province of La Spezia. In terms of population, La Spezia is the city in the Liguria region. Located midway between Genoa and Pisa on the Ligurian Sea, it is one of the main Italian military and commercial harbours and it is important for its museums, for the Palio del Golfo, and for the railway and boat links with Cinque Terre. The area of La Spezia has been settled since pre-historic times, in Roman times the most important centre was Luni, now located in the vicinity of Sarzana. In fact, this Ligurian influence still is visible in the layout as well as in the types of buildings. La Spezia developed substantially after 1861 when the naval arsenal there was commissioned by the Royal government. In September 1943 after the Italian capitulation to the Allies, it was the port for the Italian Navy when it was ordered to steam into British hands at Malta. The Germans arrived too late to stop the departure of the fleet and it was sunk in the harbour in La Spezia in 1944. After the liberation, La Spezia became the point of departure for the survivors from the Nazi concentration camps, from the summer of 1945 to the spring of 1948 more than 23,000 Jewish displaced persons managed to leave Italy clandestinely for Mandate Palestine. After lengthy vicissitudes, the ships Fede, Fenice, and Komemiut managed to evacuate everyone from the Spezia gulf, to the point that on Israeli geographical maps, cristo Re dei Secoli, consecrated in 1975. The project was by Adalberto Libera, abbey church of Santa Maria Assunta. It houses a series of artworks, some of them coming from other suppressed religious institutes. They include an Incoronation of the Virgin by Andrea della Robbia and it has a single nave with eighteenth and nineteenth century decorations. Built in 1900 in the heart of the working-class neighborhood Quartiere Umbertino, in 1273 the Genoese destroyed it, and a new fortification, along with a new line of walls, was erected by the podesteria of La Spezia from 1371. Annexed to this edifice, the Republic of Genoa added a new castle starting from 1607, public Gardens Art Nouveau–style villas Futurist mosaic by Prampolini inside the Post Office La Spezia is a point of departure for the Cinque Terre, either by train or boat. The boat also serves Lerici and Portovenere before turning into the sea toward the Cinque Terre. These localities are accessible by transport,15 kilometres from the central railway station of the city. La Spezia has a humid subtropical and Mediterranean climate, since only one month receives less than 40 millimetres
11.
Anti-submarine warfare
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Anti-submarine warfare is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface warships, aircraft, or other submarines to find, track and deter, damage or destroy enemy submarines. Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of sensor and weapon technology, training, sophisticated sonar equipment for first detecting, then classifying, locating and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW. To destroy submarines both the torpedo and mine are used, launched from air, surface and underwater platforms, other means of destruction have been used in the past but are now obsolete. ASW also involves protecting friendly ships, the first self-propelled torpedo was invented in 1863 and launched from surface craft. The first submarine with a torpedo was Nordenfelt I built in 1884-1885, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, the submarine was a significant threat. By the start of the First World War nearly 300 submarines were in service, some warships were fitted with an armoured belt as protection against torpedoes. There were, however, no means to detect submerged U-boats, the Royal Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps, these sank four or five U-boats in the First World War. A similar approach featured a string of 70 lb charges on a cable, fired electrically. Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb hand-thrown guncotton bombs, the Lance Bomb was developed, also, this featured a 35–40 lb cone-shaped steel drum on a 5 ft shaft, intended to be thrown at a submarine. Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench mortars, was tried, use of nets to ensnare U-boats was also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starfish, fitted with a spar torpedo. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. The best concept arose in a 1913 RN Torpedo School report, describing a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the mine was a potential hazard to the dropping ship. During the First World War, submarines were a major menace and they operated in the Baltic, North Sea, Black Sea and Mediterranean as well as the North Atlantic. Previously they had limited to relatively calm and protected waters. The vessels used to them were a range of small, fast surface ships using guns. They mainly relied on the fact a submarine of the day was often on the surface for a range of reasons, the first approach to protect warships was chainlink nets strung from the sides of battleships, as defense against torpedoes. Nets were also deployed across the mouth of a harbour or naval base to stop submarines entering or to stop torpedoes of the Whitehead type fired against ships, British warships were fitted with a ram with which to sink submarines, and U-15 was thus sunk in August 1914
12.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
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