1.
Hungarians
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Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 13. 1–14.7 million Hungarians, of whom 8. 5–9.8 million live in todays Hungary, the Hungarians own ethnonym to denote themselves in the Early Middle Ages is uncertain. The Magyars/Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority, in the Early Middle Ages the Hungarians had many names, including Ungherese, Ungar, and Hungarus. The H- prefix is an addition of Medieval Latin, another possible explanation comes from the Old Russian Yugra. It may refer to the Hungarians during a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the borders of Europe. The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym Magyar rather than Hungarian, Magyar is Finno-Ugric from the Old Hungarian mogyër. Magyar possibly derived from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the tribal name Megyer became Magyar in reference to the Hungarian people as a whole. Magyar may also derive from the Hunnic Muageris or Mugel, the Greek cognate of Tourkia was used by the scholar and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio of c. AD950, though in his use, Turks always referred to Magyars, the historical Latin phrase Natio Hungarica had a wider meaning because it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity. During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central, some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards. From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugrian speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community, judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture. In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved from the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers, meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241. The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar khaganate and their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov Culture, i. e. Bulgars and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes, the names of the seven tribes were, Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék, and Tarján. Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate, as a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854, the new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians, the tribe called Magyar was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin
2.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
3.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
4.
Animism
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Animism is the worlds oldest religion. Animism teaches that objects, places, and creatures all possess distinctive spiritual qualities, potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and perhaps even words—as animate and alive. Animism is the oldest known type of system in the world that even predates paganism. It is still practiced in a variety of forms in traditional societies. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples spiritual or supernatural perspectives. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century by Sir Edward Tylor, Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Some members of the world also consider themselves animists. Earlier anthropological perspectives – since termed the old animism – were concerned with knowledge surrounding what is alive, the old animism assumed that animists were individuals who were unable to understand the difference between persons and things. Critics of the old animism have accused it of preserving colonialist and dualist worldviews, according to Tylor, animism often includes an idea of pervading life and will in nature, i. e. a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by Auguste Comte as fetishism, thus, for Tylor, animism was fundamentally seen as a mistake, a basic error from which all religion grew. The earliest known usage in English appeared in 1819, Tylors definition of animism was a part of a growing international debate on the nature of primitive society by lawyers, theologians, and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science – anthropology and their religion was animism – the belief that natural species and objects had souls. With the development of property, these descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of developed religions, in 1869, the Edinburgh lawyer, John Ferguson McLellan, argued that the animistic thinking evident in fetishism gave rise to a religion he named Totemism. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended of the species as their totemic animal. Subsequent debate by the armchair anthropologists remained focused on totemism rather than animism, indeed, anthropologists have commonly avoided the issue of Animism and even the term itself rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich ethnographies. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the Australian Aboriginals are more typically totemic, stewart Guthrie saw animism – or attribution as he preferred it – as an evolutionary strategy to aid survival. He argued that humans and other animal species view inanimate objects as potentially alive as a means of being constantly on guard against potential threats
5.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
6.
Dhaulagiri
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The Dhaulagiri massif in Nepal extends 120 km from the Kaligandaki River west to the Bheri. This massif is bounded on the north and southwest by tributaries of the Bheri River, Dhaulagiri I is the seventh highest mountain in the world at 8,167 metres above sea level. It was first climbed on May 13,1960 by a Swiss/Austrian/Nepali expedition, the mountains name is धौलागिरी in Nepali. This comes from Sanskrit where धवल means dazzling, white, beautiful, Dhaulagiri I is also the highest point of the Gandaki river basin. Annapurna I is 34 km. east of Dhaulagiri I, the Kali Gandaki River flows between the two in the Kaligandaki Gorge, said to be the worlds deepest. The town of Pokhara is south of the Annapurnas, an important regional center, in 1808 A. D. survey computations showed it to be the highest mountain yet surveyed. This lasted until 1838 when Kangchenjunga took its place, followed by Mount Everest in 1858, Dhaulagiri Is sudden rise from lower terrain is almost unequaled. It rises 7,000 m from the Kali Gandaki River 30 km to the southeast, the south and west faces rise precipitously over 4,000 m. The south face of Gurja Himal in the massif is also notably immense. Most ascents have followed the northeast ridge route of the first ascent, as of 2007 there had been 358 successful ascents and 58 fatalities. Between 1950 and 2006,2. 88% of 2,016 expedition members and staff going above base camp on Dhaulagiri I died. On all 8,000 metre peaks in Nepal the death rate was 1. 63%,1950 – Dhaulagiri I reconnoitered by a French expedition led by Maurice Herzog. They do not see a feasible route and switch to Annapurna, 1953–1958 – Five expeditions attempt the north face, or Pear Buttress, route. 1959 – Austrian expedition led by Fritz Moravec makes the first attempt on the northeast ridge. 1960 – Swiss-Austrian expedition led by Max Eiselin, successful ascent by Kurt Diemberger, P. Diener, E. Forrer, A. Schelbert, Nyima Dorje Sherpa, Nawang Dorje Sherpa on May 13. First Himalayan climb supported by an aircraft, which eventually crashed in Hidden Valley north of the mountain during takeoff and was abandoned. 1969 – American team led by Boyd Everett attempt southeast ridge, seven team members,1970 – second ascent, via the northeast ridge by a Japanese expedition led by Tokufu Ohta and Shoji Imanari. Tetsuji Kawada and Lhakpa Tenzing Sherpa reach the summit,1973 – American team led by James Morrissey makes third ascent via the northeast ridge
7.
Himalayas
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The Himalayas, or Himalaya, form a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The Himalayan range has the Earths highest peaks, including the highest, the Himalayas include over a hundred mountains exceeding 7,200 metres in elevation. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia – Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961 metres tall. The Himalayas are spread across five countries, Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, the Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Some of the major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges, and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, rise in the Himalayas. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia, many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism. Lifted by the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate under the Eurasian Plate and its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river. Its eastern anchor, Namcha Barwa, is just west of the bend of the Tsangpo river. The range varies in width from 400 kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in the east, the name of the range derives from the Sanskrit Himā-laya, from himá and ā-laya. They are now known as the Himalaya Mountains, usually shortened to the Himalayas, formerly, they were described in the singular as the Himalaya. This was also previously transcribed Himmaleh, as in Emily Dickinsons poetry and Henry David Thoreaus essays. The mountains are known as the Himālaya in Nepali and Hindi, the Himalaya or The Land of Snow in Tibetan, the Hamaleh Mountain Range in Urdu, the flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice, the amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant. The extremes of high altitude combined with extreme cold favor extremophile organisms, the unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations, the oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some species, especially rhododendron, apple. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica located at 4,900 metres in Southeastern Tibet, the Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock
8.
Kali Gandaki River
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The Gandaki River is one of the major rivers of Nepal and a left bank tributary of the Ganges in India. In Nepal the river is notable for its gorge through the Himalayas. It has a catchment area of 46,300 square kilometers. The basin also contains three of the worlds 14 mountains over 8,000 metres, Dhaulagiri, Manaslu and Annapurna I, Dhaulagiri is the highest point of the Gandaki basin. It lies between the similar Kosi system to the east and the Karnali system to the west, the Kali Gandaki river source is at the border with Tibet at an elevation of 6,268 metres at the Nhubine Himal Glacier in the Mustang region of Nepal. The headwaters stream on some maps is named the Chhuama Khola and then, nearing Lo Manthang, in Kagbeni a major tributary named Johng Khola, Kak Khola or Krishnaa descends from Muktinath. If one measures the depth of a canyon by the difference between the height and the heights of the highest peaks on either side, this gorge is the worlds deepest. The portion of the river directly between Dhaulagiri and Annapurna I,7 kilometres downstream from Tukuche), is at an elevation of 2,520 metres, the river is older than the Himalayas. As tectonic activity forces the mountains higher, the river has cut through the uplift, south of the gorge, the river is joined by Rahughat Khola at Galeshwor, Myagdi Khola at Beni, Modi Khola near Kushma and Badigaad at Rudrabeni above Ridi Bazaar. The river then turns east to run along the edge of the Mahabharat Range. The largest hydroelectricity project in Nepal is located along this stretch of the river, the Gandaki then crosses the outermost foothills of the Himalayas—Sivalik Hills—into the Terai plains of Nepal. From Devighat, the river flows southwest of Gaindakot town, the river later curves back towards the southeast as it enters India where it is called the Gandak. Below Gaindakot the river is known as the Narayani or Sapt Gandaki and these are the Kali Gandaki, the Trishuli River, and the five main tributaries of the Trishuli known as the Daraudi, Seti, Madi, Marsyandi and Budhi. The entry point of the river at the Indo–Nepal border is also the confluence called Triveni with rivers Pachnad, pandai river flows into Bihar from Nepal in the eastern end of the Valmiki Sanctuary and meets Masan. The Gandak flows southeast 300 kilometres across the Gangetic plain of Bihar state through West Champaran, Gopalganj, Saran and it joins the Ganges near Patna just downstream of Hajipur at Sonepur. Its drainage area in India is 7,620 square kilometres, from its exit from the outermost Siwaliks foothills to the Ganges, the Gandak has built an immense megafan comprising Eastern Uttar Pradesh and North Western Bihar in the Middle Gangetic Plains. The megafan consists of sediments eroded from the rapidly uplifting Himalaya, the rivers course over this structure is constantly shifting. It is said that the river has shifted 80 kilometres to the east due to tectonic tilting in the last 5,000 years, the Gandaki river basin is reported to contain 1025 glaciers and 338 lakes
9.
Gandaki River
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The Gandaki River is one of the major rivers of Nepal and a left bank tributary of the Ganges in India. In Nepal the river is notable for its gorge through the Himalayas. It has a catchment area of 46,300 square kilometers. The basin also contains three of the worlds 14 mountains over 8,000 metres, Dhaulagiri, Manaslu and Annapurna I, Dhaulagiri is the highest point of the Gandaki basin. It lies between the similar Kosi system to the east and the Karnali system to the west, the Kali Gandaki river source is at the border with Tibet at an elevation of 6,268 metres at the Nhubine Himal Glacier in the Mustang region of Nepal. The headwaters stream on some maps is named the Chhuama Khola and then, nearing Lo Manthang, in Kagbeni a major tributary named Johng Khola, Kak Khola or Krishnaa descends from Muktinath. If one measures the depth of a canyon by the difference between the height and the heights of the highest peaks on either side, this gorge is the worlds deepest. The portion of the river directly between Dhaulagiri and Annapurna I,7 kilometres downstream from Tukuche), is at an elevation of 2,520 metres, the river is older than the Himalayas. As tectonic activity forces the mountains higher, the river has cut through the uplift, south of the gorge, the river is joined by Rahughat Khola at Galeshwor, Myagdi Khola at Beni, Modi Khola near Kushma and Badigaad at Rudrabeni above Ridi Bazaar. The river then turns east to run along the edge of the Mahabharat Range. The largest hydroelectricity project in Nepal is located along this stretch of the river, the Gandaki then crosses the outermost foothills of the Himalayas—Sivalik Hills—into the Terai plains of Nepal. From Devighat, the river flows southwest of Gaindakot town, the river later curves back towards the southeast as it enters India where it is called the Gandak. Below Gaindakot the river is known as the Narayani or Sapt Gandaki and these are the Kali Gandaki, the Trishuli River, and the five main tributaries of the Trishuli known as the Daraudi, Seti, Madi, Marsyandi and Budhi. The entry point of the river at the Indo–Nepal border is also the confluence called Triveni with rivers Pachnad, pandai river flows into Bihar from Nepal in the eastern end of the Valmiki Sanctuary and meets Masan. The Gandak flows southeast 300 kilometres across the Gangetic plain of Bihar state through West Champaran, Gopalganj, Saran and it joins the Ganges near Patna just downstream of Hajipur at Sonepur. Its drainage area in India is 7,620 square kilometres, from its exit from the outermost Siwaliks foothills to the Ganges, the Gandak has built an immense megafan comprising Eastern Uttar Pradesh and North Western Bihar in the Middle Gangetic Plains. The megafan consists of sediments eroded from the rapidly uplifting Himalaya, the rivers course over this structure is constantly shifting. It is said that the river has shifted 80 kilometres to the east due to tectonic tilting in the last 5,000 years, the Gandaki river basin is reported to contain 1025 glaciers and 338 lakes
10.
Bhutia
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The Bhutia བོད་རིགས are a community of people of Tibetan ancestry, who speak Sikkimese, a Tibetan dialect fairly mutually intelligible to standard Tibetan. In 2001, the Bhutia numbered around 70,300, the language spoken by the Bhutias in Sikkim is Sikkimese, which is 85% mutually intelligible with Tibetan and Dzongkha, the language of Bhutan. Most Bhutias practice the Nyingma school, followed by the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism, the Bhutias are spread out over Nepal, Bhutan, and in northern West Bengal, especially in the towns of Kalimpong and Darjeeling. The ancestors of the Bhutia migrated from Tibet to north eastern Nepal, Sikkim, Darjeeling, Kalimpong and they migrated through the different passes in the Himalayas. Geographical indications in the name of Bhutias last names are common, in Northern Sikkim, for example, where the Bhutias are the majority inhabitants, they are known as the Lachenpas or Lachungpas, meaning inhabitants of Lachen or Lachung respectively. Bhutia aristocrats were called Kazis after similar landlord titles in neighboring regions, among the Bhutias, the Lachenpas and Lachungpas have their own traditional legal system called the Dzumsa which means the meeting place of the people. The Dzumsa is headed by the village known as the Pipon. People of North Sikkim have been given protection by the state government by deeming a status of Panchayat ward and the Pipon. The traditional outfit of Bhutias is the bakhu, which is a loose cloak type garment fastened at the neck on one side, male members array the bakhu with loose trousers. Womenfolk wear the bakhu with a full sleeve blouse called a honju. In the front portion, a sheet of multicolored woolen cloth with exotic geometric designs is tied. This is called the pangden and is a symbol of a married woman and this traditional outfit is complemented by embroidered leather boots worn by both men and women. Bhutia women enjoy a higher status than their counterparts from other communities. Both women and men have a weakness for gold in its purest form and, in Sikkim, the Bhutias are mostly employed in the government sector, in agriculture, and increasingly in the business arena as well. In the district of Darjeeling, Bhutias are often employed in government, Bhutias practise intermarriage within their clans and follow a very hierarchical system of bride and groom selection. Clan discrimination is widespread, and marriage outside the community is looked down upon, the Bhutias are followers of Vajrayana Buddhism, mainly the Nyingma and Kagyu schools. The main festivals observed by them are Losar and Losoong, the first week of February is usually the time of Losar as it marks the start of the Tibetan New Year. Fire dances are common in the evenings during Losar, Losoong is usually celebrated as the end of the Tibetan year and falls at the end of the tenth Tibetan lunar month
11.
Vassal
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A vassal or feudatory is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain privileges, the term is applied to similar arrangements in other feudal societies. It is like a land lord some one who own and lets you live on it, in contrast, a fidelity, or fidelitas, was a sworn, unconditional loyalty to a monarch. Such refinements were not included from the outset when it was time of crisis, war, hunger, under feudalism, those who were weakest needed the protection of the knights who owned the weapons and knew how to fight. Feudal society was based on the concept of lordship, which was one of the distinguishing features of the Early Middle Ages and had evolved from times of Late Antiquity. In the time of Charlemagne, the connection slowly developed between vassalage and the grant of land, the form of wealth at that time. Contemporaneous social developments included agricultural manorialism and the social and legal structures labelled — and these developments proceeded at different rates in various regions. In Merovingian times, monarchs would reward only the greatest and most trusted vassals with lands, even at the most extreme devolution of any remnants of central power, in 10th-century France, the majority of vassals still had no fixed estates. The stratification of a band of vassals into distinct groups might roughly correlate with the new term fief that had started to supersede benefice in the 9th century. An upper group comprised great territorial magnates, who were strong enough to ensure the inheritance of their benefice to the heirs of their family, a lower group consisted of landless knights attached to a count or duke. This social settling process also received impetus in fundamental changes in the conduct of warfare, as co-ordinated cavalry superseded disorganized infantry, armies became more expensive to maintain. A vassal needed economic resources to equip the cavalry he was bound to contribute to his lord to fight his frequent wars. Such resources, in the absence of an economy, came only from land and its associated assets. Many empires have set up states, based on tribes, kingdoms, or city-states. In these cases a state has retained internal autonomy, but has lost independence in foreign policy, while and, in many instances. In this framework, a colony or junior ally might also be regarded as a vassal state in terms of international relations. The concept of a state uses the concept of personal vassalry to theorize formally hegemonic relationships between states – even those using non-personal forms of rule. Imperial states to which this terminology has been applied include, for instance, Ancient Rome, the Mongol Empire, and the British Empire
12.
Gulmi District
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Gulmi District, a part of Province No. 5, is one of the districts of Nepal. The district, with Tamghas as its headquarters, covers an area of 1,149 km², had a population of 296,654 in 2001,280,160 in 2011 and 268,597 in 2016, the Gulmi District is renowned for coffee farming. Ruru, now known as Ridi, is a market center where many temples are situated. Maghe Sankranti and other festivals are celebrated here, and is popular among tourists and locals. Landmarks include Dhurkots Bichitra Cave, Resunga, with its biodiversity and historic value. The district government offices are in Tamghas, a small town, there are only 75 VDCs along with one Municipality, Resunga. Gulmi is rich with resources such as cobalt as well as naturally beautiful views that favour tourism. There are total of 76 post offices in the district including 1 main district post office and 14 ilaka police offices, there are nine telecenters, six FM radio stations, and eight cable TV networks. According to Nepal Telecom, there are 82,318 GSM mobile subscribers in the district as of 2015
13.
Palpa District
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Palpa District (Nepali, पाल्पा जिल्ला Listen, a part of Province No. 5, is one of the districts of Nepal, a landlocked country of South Asia. The district, with Tansen Municipality as its headquarters, covers an area of 1,373 km² and has a population of 261,180, ramdi is a religious place in the bank of Kali Gandaki River. On the 1st of Baisakh there is a festival in this area, ranighat Palace is also called Tajmahal of Nepal due to similar stories behind the construction of this palace. It was constructed by General Khadka for her wife Tejkumari in 1893 AD, Rishikesh Complex of Ruru Kshetra Hindu pilgrimage and cremation site Rishikesh Temple was built by the King Manimukunda Sen. According to Hindu mythology, this is the place where part of body of Satidevei was cremated. It is famous for festival which occurs in 1st of Magh month when hidus come to take bath in Kali Gandaki River, shrinagar Hill is spot for viewing high Himalayas. Dhawalagiri, Tukuche, Nilgiri, Annapurana, Himchuli and other mountains can be viewed from this place, Tansen is a historic city with palaces, temples, stupas and historic architecture. Vhairabsthan Temple is a Shiva temple with huge trident, believed to be largest in Asia, people have a saying that it looks similar to Nepal in term of its geographical borders. Zones of Nepal Rampur, Palpa Districts of Nepal, UN map of VDC boundaries, water features and roads in Palpa
14.
Parbat
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Parbat District (Nepali, पर्वत जिल्ला Listen, is a hilly area of Nepal. It is a part of Province No.4 and one of the districts of Nepal. The district, with Kusma as its headquarters, covers an area of 494 km² and has a population of 157,826. It is the fourth smallest district of Nepal with 47 VDCs currently and it is mainly famous for the Gupteshwar Cave, which is visited by thousands of pilgrims during Shivaratri. Patheshwari Temple is the most famous temple of Kushma located at Katuwa Chaupari of Kushma-13, patheshwori Mandir has lots of sub-temples inside like Ram Janaki Mandir, Bhagwati, Devi, Hanuman, and others. Alapeshwar cave is also the famous cave of this district, here is many popular places such as Dhairing. From dhairing you can see view of most of mountain of this side. Parbat is a tourism, parbats biggest playground is lies in Phalewas village named majhi chour and Indra chour. Parbat district is a district with diversified geographical features. kushmaparbat. com parbatdistrict. blogspot. com parbatjilla. com Districts of Nepal
15.
Salyan District, Nepal
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Salyan District, is a hill district some 320 km west of Kathmandu in Province No.6 in midwestern Nepal. Salyan covers an area of 1,462 km² with a population of 213,500 in 2001 and 241,716 in 2011, the districts administrative center is named Salyan or Salyan Khalanga. The district is known for its Hindu temples including Shiva temples in Chhayachhetra and Laxmipur, Salyan was one of the Baise Rajya, a confederation of 22 petty kingdoms in the Karnali region. About 1760 AD all these kingdoms were annexed by the Shah Dynasty during the unification of Nepal, Salyan derives from the Nepali word sallo which means pine tree or conifer. Although Salyan is considered a district, its southwest salient is actually outside the Pahari-inhabited hill region. The Babai River flows through the southwestern Siwaliks section after draining Dang Valley, a tributary Sharad Khola drains the eastern half of Salyans hill region—including the district center, then exits these hills by cutting through the Mahabharat Range to its confluence with the Babai. The western half of Salyans hill region is drained by the Bheri, japan International Cooperation Agency substituted for FinnMap in Lumbini Zone. Topographic sheets at 1,25,000 scale covering 7.5 minutes latitude and longitude map the Terai, less populated high mountain regions are on 15 minute sheets at 1,50,000. JPG scans can be downloaded here, These sheets cover Salyan District, Districts of Nepal
16.
Prithvi Narayan Shah
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Prithvi Narayan Shah, King of Gorkha was the first King of unified Nepal. He is credited for starting the campaign for a unified Nepal and he was the ninth generation descendant of Dravya Shah, the founder of the ruling house of Gorkha. Prithvi Narayan Shah succeeded his father, King Nara Bhupal Shah, to the throne of the Gorkha Kingdom in 1743, Prithvi Narayan Shah was born as a prince in the Gorkha Kingdom. Chandra Pravawati raised him, although his mother was Kaushalyavati Devi. From a young age, he took interest in the affairs of his fathers state, Prithivi Narayan Shah had an early dream of conquering Nuwakot, partially as his father had lost it to the Mallas of Kathmandu in an earlier war. After the death of his father in 1743, Prithivi Narayan Shah ascended to the throne of Gorkha at the age of 20, as king, he valued his people and enjoyed talking to his subjects about their general concerns. This practice helped him to build a rapport with his people, King Shah sealed his borders and maintained a peaceful environment except for distant relations with the British, who were refusing to trade with Nepal at the time. Prithvi Narayaṇ was succeeded by his son, Pratap Singh, King Prithvi Narayan Shahs reign began with an immediate military defeat, his invasion of Nuwakot in 1743 CE failed. Conquering Nuwakot was essential for the unification, as it lay between Kathmandu and the Gorkha District, making it a trading route to Tibet. However, he successfully conquered Nuwakot in a subsequent attack in 1744 CE, after capturing Nuwakot, he took possession of the strategic locations in the hills surrounding the Kathmandu Valley. The valley was cut off from the outside world and was controlled solely by Shah. He also occupied the Kuti Pass in c.1756 CE, halting all trade through the pass, after two humiliating defeats in Kirtipur, King Prithvi Narayan conquered the ancient city on his third attempt. Consequently, Jaya Prakash Malla of Kathmandu fled with his wife and took asylum in Patan and he eventually began to unify his conquered lands. King Prithvi Narayaṇ Shah was ultimately able to capture small principalities and this expansion was crucial as the British colonial forces had already begun colonizing the small kingdoms that form present-day India. Shah was convinced that the British forces would eventually approach his kingdom and he believed that 50 small principalities would easily be conquered by the British as part of their colonization strategy. Expanding his kingdom made it difficult for British forces to make their move. His expansion campaign was very ambitious, especially as he was the king of a small kingdom surrounded by strong. In January 1775, at the age of 52, Prithvi Narayan Shah died before he could organise the administration of his new country at Devighat
17.
Rana (title)
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Rana is a historical title of Rajput origin, denoting an absolute monarch. Today, it is used as a name in South Asia. Rani is the title for the wife of a rana or a female monarch and it also applies to the wife of a raja. Compound titles include rana sahib, ranaji, rana bahadur, Rana was formerly used as a title of martial sovereignty by Rajput kings in India. Today, members of some Rajput clans in Indian subcontinent use it as a hereditary title, in Pakistan, mostly Muslims—but also some Hindus in Sindh —use it as a hereditary title. Umerkot, a state in Sindh, had a Hindu Rajput ruler who used the title. In the 16th century, Rana Prasad, the monarch of Umerkot, gave refuge to the Mughal prince Humayun and his wife, Hamida Banu Begum and their son Akbar was born in the fort of the Rana of Umerkot
18.
Nepali language
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Nepali, originally known as Khas Kura, Parbate Bhasa or Gorkhali, is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the language and de facto lingua franca of Nepal. It is also spoken in parts of India, particularly by Indian Gorkha. In India, Nepali language is listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India having a status in the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepali developed in proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages, most notably the Pahari languages and Magahi, however, owing to Nepals geographical area, it has also been influenced by Tibeto-Burman languages. Nepali is mainly differentiated from Central Pahari, both in grammar and vocabulary, by Tibeto-Burman idioms owing to close contact with the language group. Nepali language shares 40% lexical similarity with the Bengali language, in the nineteenth century, the British resident at Kathmandu Brian Houghton Hodgson observed that it was, in eight-tenths of its vocabulary, substantially Hindi. Historically, the language was first called the Khas language, then Gorkhali or Gurkhali before the term Nepali was adopted, in 1920, during Rana regime in Nepal, the term Nepal which resembled the Nepal Mandala was taken from its people. Soon after that, Nepal Bhasa was renamed into Newari and Parbate/Khas language took over as Nepali language, other names include Parbatiya and Dzongkha Lhotshammikha. It is also known as the Khey language or Partya language among the Newar people and Pahari language among Madhesi, however, due to protests for identity, Newars have restored their languages name as Nepal Bhasa and voices have been raise to re-instate Parbate language in its original name. Nepali developed a significant literature within a period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fueled by Adhyatma Ramayana, Sundarananda Bara, Birsikka, a collection of folk tales. The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal, Laxmi Prasad Devkota, the contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India, is also notable. In the past decade, there have been many contributions to Nepali literature from the Nepali diaspora in Asia, Europe, America, according to the 2011 national census,44.6 percent of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as a first language. The Ethnologue website reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal, Nepali is traditionally spoken in the Hill Region of Nepal, especially in the western part of the country. Although the Newar language dominated the Kathmandu valley, Nepali is currently the most dominant, Nepali is used in government and as the everyday language of a growing portion of the local population. Nevertheless, the use of Nepali in the courts and government of Nepal is being challenged. Recognition of other languages in Nepal was one of the objectives of the Communist Party of Nepals long war
19.
Bodic languages
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The conception of the relationship, or if it is even a valid group, varies between researchers. Within Benedicts conception, Tibeto-Kanauri is one of seven linguistic nuclei, or centers of gravity along a spectrum, matisoff includes Bodish and West Himalayish with the Lepcha language as a third branch. He unites these at a level with Mahakiranti as Himalayish. Van Driem notes that the Bodish, West Himalayish, and Tamangic languages appear to have a common origin, bradley takes much the same approach but words things differently, he incorporates West Himalayish and Tamangic as branches within his Bodish, which thus becomes close to Tibeto-Kanauri. This and his Himalayan family constitute his Bodic family, medieval Tibeto-Burman languages, proceedings of a symposium held in Leiden, June 26,2000, at the 9th Seminar of the International Association of Tibetan Studies. Annual Review of South Asian Languages and Linguistics,2009, trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs
20.
Kangchenjunga
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Kangchenjunga, also spelled Kanchenjunga, is the third highest mountain in the world, and lies partly in Nepal and partly in Sikkim, India. Mount Kangchenjunga lies about 125 km east-south-east of Mount Everest and it is the second highest mountain of the Himalayas. Three of the five peaks – Main, Central and South – are on the border between North Sikkim and Nepal, two peaks are in Nepals Taplejung District. Kangchenjunga Main is the highest mountain in India, and the easternmost of the higher than 8,000 m. It is called Five Treasures of Snow after its five high peaks, allowing for further verification of all calculations, it was officially announced in 1856 that Kangchenjunga is the third highest mountain in the world. Kangchenjunga was first climbed on 25 May 1955 by Joe Brown and George Band and they stopped short of the summit as per the promise given to the Chogyal that the top of the mountain would remain inviolate. Every climber or climbing group that has reached the summit has followed this tradition, other members of this expedition included John Angelo Jackson and Tom Mackinon. Kangchenjunga is the spelling adopted by Douglas Freshfield, Alexander Mitchell Kellas. Freshfield referred to the used by the Indian Government since the late 19th century. There are a number of spellings including Kangchendzönga, Khangchendzonga. It means The Five repositories or ledges of great snow and is descriptive of its five peaks. Kangchenjungas name in the Limbu language is Senjelungma or Seseylungma, and is believed to be an abode of the omnipotent goddess Yuma Sammang. The Kangchenjunga transboundary landscape is shared by Bhutan, China, India and Nepal, the Kangchenjunga Himal section of the Himalayas lies both in Nepal and India, and encompasses 16 peaks over 7,000 m. In the north, it is limited by the Lhonak Chu, Goma Chu and Jongsang La, the western limit runs from the Jongsang La down the Gingsang and Kangchenjunga glaciers and the rivers of Ghunsa and Tamur. Kanchenjunga rises about 20 km south of the alignment of the Great Himalayan range about 125 km east-south-east of Mount Everest as the crow flies. South of the face of Kanchenjunga runs the 3, 000–3,500 m high Singalila Ridge that separates Sikkim from Nepal. Kangchenjunga and its satellite peaks form a mountain massif. The massifs five highest peaks are listed in the following table, the main ridge of the massif runs from north-north-east to south-south-west and forms a watershed to several rivers
21.
Tansen
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Tansen, also referred to as Tan Sen or Mian Tansen, was a prominent figure of North Indian classical music. Born in a Hindu family, he learnt and perfected his art in the northwest region of modern Madhya Pradesh. He began his career and spent most of his life in the court and patronage of the Hindu king of Rewa State, Ram Chand. This reputation brought him to the attention of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, Tansen did not want to go, Ram Chand encouraged him to gain wider audience, and sent him along with gifts to Akbar. In 1562, about the age of 60, the Vaishnava musician Tansen joined the Akbar court, numerous legends have been written about Tansen, mixing facts and fiction, and the historicity of these stories is doubtful. Akbar considered him as a Navaratnas, and gave him the title Mian, Tansen was a composer, musician and vocalist, to whom a large number of compositions have been attributed in northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. He was also an instrumentalist who popularised and improved musical instruments and he is among the most influential personalities in North Indian tradition of Indian classical music, called Hindustani. His 16th century studies in music and compositions inspired many, Tansen is remembered for his epic Dhrupad compositions, creating several new ragas, as well as for writing two classic books on music Sri Ganesh Stotra and Sangita Sara. Tansens date and place of birth is unclear, but most sources place his birth about 1500 CE and his biography is also unclear and many conflicting accounts exist, with some common elements. Historical facts about Tansen are difficult to extract from the extensive, according to the common elements in the various stories, Tansens name as a child was Ramtanu. His father Mukund Pandey was a poet and accomplished musician. Tansen learnt and perfected his art in the region around Gwalior and he was a close confidant of Ram Chand, and they used to make music together. Tansens reputation brought him to the attention of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, Tansen initially refused to go, sought to retire instead into solitude, but Ram Chand encouraged him to gain wider audience, and sent him along with gifts to Akbar. In 1562, about the age of sixty, Tansen still a Vaishnava musician arrived for the first time in Akbars court, Tansens influence was central to create the Hindustani classical ethos as we know today. A number of descendants and disciples trace him to be their lineage founder, many gharanas of Hindustani classical music claim some connection to his lineage. To these gharanas, Tansen is the founder of Hindustani classical music, the legendary oral versions about Tansens early life and schooling particularly differ depending on whether the story has origins in Hindu legends or Muslim legends. In Hindu versions, the Hindu bhakti saint and poet-musician Swami Haridas was the influence on Tansen. In Islamic biographies, the Sufi Muslim mystic named Muhammad Ghaus is said to have influenced Tansen, Tansen showed musical talent at the age of 6
22.
Doti
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Doti division covers the nine districts of Seti and Mahakali Zone, four in Mahakali and five in Seti Zone respectively. The name Doti is believed to have originated form the word Dovati, other view is that the original name of Doti was devatavi= dev+aatavi or aalaya. Doti was an ancient kingdom in far western region of Nepal which was formed after the disintegration of the Katyuri Kingdom of Kumaon around 13th century, Doti was one of eight different princely states Katiyuri Kingdom was divided into Eight for their eight Prince and became different independent Kingdom. Brahma Dev Mandi at Kanchanpur District of Mahakali Zone was established by Katyuri king Brahma Dev, Niranjan Malla Dev was the founder of Doti Kingdom around 13th century after the fall of the Katyuri Kingdom. He was the son of Last Katyuris of united Katyuris kingdom, kings of Doti were called Raikas. Later on Raikas, after defeating the Khas Malla of Karnali Zone, were able to establish a strong Raikas Kingdom in Far Western Region and Kumaun which was Doti. So far, the evidences of following Raikas have been discovered, Niranjan Malla Dev Nagi Malla Ripu Malla Nirai Pal. In the war with the Gorkhalis, the Doti kingdom was defeated, during the period of Akbars rule in the 16th century, the Moguls had attacked the Raikas of Doti. They invaded Ajemeru, capital of the Raika Kingdom, Ajemeru is now in Dadeldhura District of far western region of Nepal. Hussain Khan, army chief of Akbar residing in Lucknow had led the attack, raja Deep Shahi was expelled from Nepal in 1790 A. D and on arriving to Terai of Oudh he established Khairgarh-Singhai State in Khairigarh under British India. Kanchanpur Praganna was also the parts of his State or Zamindari and he succeeded in defeating the Banjaras rural of Khairigarh and establishing himself not only in that Pargana but also in parts of Bhur. His state was merged with India In 1947 after Indian Independence, raja Akshya Vikram Shah,37, is the present ruler of Khairigarh. The Far-Western Development Region has the Mid-Western Development Region to the east, Uttar Pradesh to the south, Uttarakhand to the west, the highest mountain in the region is the Api Peak, with 7,132 m high, it is in the Darchula district. Other high mountain is Saipal,7,031 m high, the most important rivers in the Far-Western Development Region are the Seti and the Mahakali rivers, both rivers are tributaries of the Ghaghara or Karnali river.6 persons/km2. Dotiyali or Dotyali and Kumauni is the language spoken in Doti region or far western region of Nepal. Dotiyali which is similar to Kumauni language is one of language of Indo-European family, according to Rahul Sankrityayan, Dotiyali is the dialect of Kumauni language which was brought in Doti by section of Katyuri dynasty of kumaoun which had ruled over Doti till 1790. Local intellectuals and people speaking Dotiyali language were increasingly demanding that their language be recognized as one of the national languages of Nepal. Inhabitants of two terai districts Kailali District and Kanchanpur District speak different languages, rana-tharu and Dangaura-tharu speaks their own language
23.
Shamanism
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The word shaman probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia. The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Mircea Eliade writes, A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be, shamanism = technique of religious ecstasy. Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul, alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community, Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The word shaman probably originates from the Evenki word šamán, most likely from the dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples. The Tungusic term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum, adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China, a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ša- to know, other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language. This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917, ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an anachronism and an impossibility that is nothing more than a far-fetched etymology. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, there is no single agreed-upon definition for the word shamanism among anthropologists. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, the first of these uses the term to refer to anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in a state of consciousness at the behest of others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be, the fourth definition identified by Hutton uses shamanism to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia. According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, Shamans are normally called by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be inherited, turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis
24.
Veneration of the dead
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The veneration of the dead, including ones ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, the social or non-religious function of ancestor veneration is to cultivate kinship values, such as filial piety, family loyalty, and continuity of the family lineage. Ancestor veneration occurs in societies with every degree of social, political, and technological complexity, ancestor reverence is not the same as the worship of a deity or deities. In some Afro-diasporic cultures, ancestors are seen as being able to intercede on behalf of the living, as spirits who were once human themselves, they are seen as being better able to understand human needs than would a divine being. In other cultures, the purpose of ancestor veneration is not to ask for favors, some cultures believe that their ancestors actually need to be provided for by their descendants, and their practices include offerings of food and other provisions. Others do not believe that the ancestors are even aware of what their descendants do for them, most cultures who practice ancestor veneration do not call it ancestor worship. In English, the word usually refers to the reverent love. However, in cultures, this act of worship does not confer any belief that the departed ancestors have become some kind of deity. Rather, the act is a way to respect, honor, in this regard, many cultures and religions have similar practices. Some may visit the graves of their parents or other ancestors, leave flowers and pray to them in order to honor and remember them, however, this would not be considered as worshipping them since the term worship shows no such meaning. This is consistent with the meaning of the veneration in English. Although there is no accepted theory concerning the origins of ancestor veneration. Although some historians claim that ancient Egyptian society was a “death cult” because of its tombs and mummification rituals. The philosophy that “this world is but a vale of tears” and this was not to say that they were unacquainted with the harshness of life, rather, their ethos included a sense of continuity between this life and the next. Tombs were housing in the Hereafter and so they were constructed and decorated. Mummification was a way to preserve the corpse so the ka of the deceased could return to receive offerings of the things s/he enjoyed while alive, if mummification was not affordable, a “ka-statue” in the likeness of the deceased was carved for this purpose. The Blessed Dead were collectively called the akhu, or “shining ones” and they were described as “shining as gold in the belly of Nut and were indeed depicted as golden stars on the roofs of many tombs and temples. If the heart was in balance with the Feather of Maat, at this point only was the ka deemed worthy to be venerated by the living through rites and offerings
25.
Bon
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Bon or Bön is a Tibetan religion, which self-identifies as being distinct from Tibetan Buddhism, although it shares the same overall teachings and terminology. It arose in the century and established its scriptures mainly from termas. Though Bon terma contain myths of Bon existing before the introduction of Buddhism in Tibet, in fact, the Bonpo religion only started to take shape alongside the revival of Buddhism in the eleventh century. And when the scriptures of the Bonpo started to appear in Tibet, three Bon scriptures—mdo dus, gzer mig, and gzi brjid—relate the mythos of Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche. The Bonpos regard the first two as gter ma rediscovered around the tenth and eleventh centuries and the last as nyan brgyud dictated by Loden Nyingpo, in the fourteenth century, Loden Nyingpo revealed a terma known as The Brilliance, which contained the story of Tonpa Shenrab. He was not the first Bonpo tertön, but his terma became one of the scriptures of Bon religion. It states that Shenrab established the Bon religion while searching for a horse stolen by a demon, tradition also tells that he was born in the land of Tagzig Olmo Lung Ring which is traditionally identified as Mount Yung-drung Gu-tzeg, possibly Mount Kailash, in western Tibet. Due to the sacredness of Tagzig Olmo Lungting and Mount Kailash, Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche visited Kongpo and found people whose practice involved spiritual appeasement with animal sacrifice. He taught them to substitute offerings with symbolic animal forms made from barley flour, Bon teachings feature Nine Vehicles, which are pathway-teaching categories with distinct characteristics, views, practices and results. Medicine, astrology, and divination are in the vehicles, then sutra and tantra. Traditionally, the Nine Vehicles are taught in three versions, as Central, Northern and Southern treasures, the Central treasure is closest to Nyingma Nine Yānas teaching and the Northern treasure is lost. Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche elaborated the Southern treasure with shamanism, “A Cavern of Treasures” is a Bon terma uncovered by Shenchen Luga in the early 11th century. The Dzungar people invaded Tibet in 1717 and deposed a pretender to the position of Dalai Lama who had been promoted by Lhabzang and this allowed them to pick the Nyingmapas and Bonpos, who recited many magic-mantras. A habit of sticking ones tongue out as a mark of respect on greeting someone has remained a Tibetan custom into modern times, in the 19th century, Shardza Tashi Gyaltsen, a Bon master whose collected writings comprise eighteen volumes significantly rejuvenated the tradition. His disciple Kagya Khyungtrul Jigmey Namkha trained many practitioners to be learned in not only the Bon religion, according to the Bonpo, eighteen enlightened entities will manifest in this aeon and Tönpa Shenrab Miwoche, the founder of Bon, is considered the enlightened Buddha of this age. The 33rd lineage holder of Menri Monastery, Menri Trizin Lungtog Tenpei Nyima, more than three hundred Bon monasteries had been established in Tibet prior to Chinese annexation. Of these, Menri Monastery and Shurishing Yungdrung Dungdrakling Monastery were the two principal monastic universities for the study and practice of Bon knowledge and science-arts, ethnic Tibet is not confined culturally to the Tibet Autonomous Region. Even parts of modern Bangladesh were once a part of this Greater Tibet, the average Tibetan house would have a number of houses or seats for the male god that protects the house
26.
Sari
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There are various styles of sari draping, the most common being the Nivi style, which originated in Andhra Pradesh. The sari is worn over a petticoat, with a fitted upper garment commonly called a blouse. The blouse has short sleeves and is cropped at the midriff. The sari is associated with grace and is regarded as a symbol of grace in cultures of the Indian subcontinent. The word sari described in Sanskrit शाटी śāṭī which means strip of cloth and शाडी śāḍī or साडी sāḍī in Pali, the word Sattika is mentioned as describing womens attire in ancient India in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist literature called Jatakas. This could be equivalent to modern day Sari, the term for female bodice, the choli evolved from ancient Stanapatta. Rajatarangini, a literary work by Kalhana, states that the choli from the Deccan was introduced under the royal order in Kashmir. In the history of Indian clothing the sari is traced back to the Indus Valley Civilisation, cotton was first cultivated and woven in Indian subcontinent around 5th millennium BC. Dyes used during this period are still in use, particularly indigo, lac, red madder, silk was woven around 2450 BC and 2000 BC. The earliest known depiction of the sari in the Indian subcontinent is the statue of an Indus Valley priest wearing a drape. The sari evolved from an ensemble comprising the Antariya, the lower garment, the Uttariya, a veil worn over the shoulder or the head, and the Stanapatta. This ensemble is mentioned in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist Pali literature during the 6th century B. C and this complete three-piece dress was known as Poshak, generic term for costume. Ancient Antariya closely resembled dothi wrap in the version which was passed through legs, covered the legs loosely and then flowed into a long. It further evolved into Bhairnivasani skirt, today known as ghagri, Uttariya was a shawl-like veil worn over the shoulder or head, it evolved into what is known today known as dupatta and ghoongat. Likewise, Stanapatta evolved into choli by 1st century A. D. Between 2nd century B. C to 1st century A. D, Antariya and Uttariya was merged to form a single garment known as sari mentioned in Pali literature, which served the purpose of two garments in one-piece. The ancient Sanskrit work, Kadambari by Banabhatta and ancient Tamil poetry, such as the Silappadhikaram, in ancient India, although women wore saris that bared the midriff, the Dharmasastra writers stated that women should be dressed such that the navel would never become visible. By which for some time the navel became a taboo
27.
Kantha
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Kantha is a type of embroidery typical of eastern South Asia, especially in the Indian states of West Bengal and Odisha, and in Bangladesh. In Odisha, old saris are stacked on each other and hand-stitched to make a piece of cushion. This is normally used above a bed cushion or instead of a cushion, Kantha saris are traditionally worn by women in Bengal. Kantha stitching is used to make simple quilts, commonly known as Nakshi Kantha. Women in Bengal typically use old saris and cloth and layer them with kantha stitching to make a blanket, throw, or bedspread. Kantha is very popular with tourists visiting Bengal and is a specialty of Bolpur, West Bengal, the traditional form of Kantha embroidery was done with soft dhotis and saris, with a simple running stitch along the edges. Depending on the use of the product they were known as Lepkantha or Sujni Kantha. The embroidered cloth has many uses including shawls, covers for mirrors, boxes, in some cases, the entire cloth is covered with running stitches, employing beautiful motifs of flowers, animals birds and geometrical shapes, as well as themes from everyday activities. The stitching on the cloth gives it a slight wrinkled, wavy effect, contemporary Kantha is applied to a wider range of garments such as sarees, dupatta, shirts for men and women, bedding and other furnishing fabrics, mostly using cotton and silk. Modern Katha-stitch craft industry involves a very complex multi-staged production model, Kantha is also used to describe a style of necklace that lies close to the throat, open at the back. Nakshi Kantha The Art of Kantha embroidery, by Niaz Zaman, Kantha, the embroidered quilts of Bengal, by Darielle Mason, Pika Ghosh, Katherine Hacker, Anne Peranteau. Kantha Embroidery of West Bengal List of Indian Kantha Works Embroidery of India
28.
Chandra
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In Hinduism, Chandra is a lunar god and a Graha. The Chandra is the lord of plants and vegetation, Chandra is described as young, beautiful, two-armed and having in his hands a club and a lotus. He rides his chariot across the sky night, pulled by ten white horses or an antelope. In Hindu mythology, Chandra is the father of Budha and he is married to 27 daughters of Daksha, after whom the Nakshatras in Hindu astrology are named. In Hindu mythology, there are versions of legends around Chandras family. In one, he meets Tara, the wife of Brihaspati, from their union, Tara became pregnant giving birth to Budha. Brihaspati becomes upset and declares a war, the Devas intervene, and Tara returns to Brihaspati. In another, Chandra marries the twenty-seven daughters of Daksha, the Moon favors Rohini – one of his wives, the others become upset and complain to Daksha. One popular story to account for the spot on the Moon is that Ganesha, once filled with food, fell from his mouse. Chandra laughed at this, for which Ganesha injured him by breaking off and throwing one of his tusks. Chandra is also the word in Sanskrit, Hindi and other Indian languages for the Moon and it is also a common Indian name, both male and female and exists as a name in many South East Asian languages that originate from Sanskrit. Indu, one of the names for Chandra, is also the name of the first chakra of Melakarta ragas in Carnatic music. The names of chakras are based on the associated with each name. In this case, there is one, the Moon and hence the first chakra is Indu, Chandra plays an important role in one of the first novel-length mystery stories in English, The Moonstone. The Sanskrit word Chandrayāna is used to refer to Indias lunar orbiters, navagraha Soma Media related to Chandra at Wikimedia Commons
29.
Gurkha
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The name may be traced to the medieval Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath who has a historic shrine in Gorkha. The word itself derived from Go-Raksha, raksha becoming rakha, rakhawala means protector and is derived from raksha as well. Ethnically, Chhetri or Khas, Thakuri, Gurung and Magar mainly were the Gorkha tribes who united erstwhile Gorkha kingdom, but today, Gorkha soldiers mostly belong to the Gurung, Chhetri, Magar, Rai, Limbu, Sunuwar there is no ethnicity based restriction to join. There are Gurkha military units in the Nepalese, British and the Indian army enlisted in Nepal, United Kingdom and India. Although they meet many of the requirements of Article 47 of Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions regarding mercenaries, Gurkhas are closely associated with the khukuri, a forward-curving Nepalese knife, and have a well known reputation for fearless military prowess. The former Indian Army Chief of Staff Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw, once stated that If a man says he is not afraid of dying, he is either lying or he is a Gurkha. During the Anglo-Nepalese War between the Gorkha Kingdom and the East India Company, the Gorkhali soldiers made an impression on the British and their war cry was and is to this very day, Jai Mahakali, Ayo Gorkhali. In the peace treaty the parties agreed that Gorkhalis could be recruited to serve under contract in the East India Companys army, once more I hear the laughter with which you greeted every hardship. Once more I see you in your bivouacs or about your fires, on forced march or in the trenches, now shivering with wet and cold, now scorched by a pitiless and burning sun. Uncomplaining you endure hunger and thirst and wounds, and at the last your unwavering lines disappear into the smoke, bravest of the brave, most generous of the generous, never had country more faithful friends than you. Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab started recruiting Gurkha soldiers in his army, the elite wing of his Sikh Khalsa Army, the Fauj-i-Khas had one rajman of Gurkhas. The rajman was known for its excellent morale, gallantry, discipline, the well-known Gurkha freedom-fighter Balbhadra Kunwar was an officer in the Gorkha rajman. One of the best battles in which the Gurkhas served was the Battle of Nowshera, even though the Sikhs were losing in the beginning, Maharaja Ranjit Singh launched a decisive charge at the Afghan positions. The Gurkhas climbed the Pir Saibak hill, and together with their Sikh comrades, after the battle, Ranjit Singh personally met and awarded the Gurkhas, and promoted Balbhadra Kunwar into the captain of the regiment. The Gurkhas served also during the Sino-Sikh War, where they were praised for their excellent skirmishing at the Tibetan Hills and they also fought the First Anglo-Sikh War, where the Dogra commanders of the Sikh Khalsa Army, betrayed their forces and delivered battle plans to British. After the Treaty of Lahore, this regiment was added into the Bengal Army, the Anglo-Nepalese war was fought between the Gurkha Kingdom of Nepal and the British East India Company as a result of border disputes and ambitious expansionism of both the belligerent parties. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, david Ochterlony and the British political agent William Fraser were among the first to recognize the potential of Gurkha soldiers in British service. During the war the British were keen to use defectors from the Gurkha army and his confidence in their loyalty was such that in April 1815 he proposed forming them into a battalion under Lieutenant Ross called the Nasiri regiment
30.
Kulbir Thapa
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Born on 15 December 1888 in Palpa, Nepal, to Haria Gulte. On 25 September 1915 in Fauquissart, France Rifleman Kulbir Thapa, having been wounded himself, although urged to save himself, the Gurkha stayed with the wounded man all day and night. He then went back, and, in daylight, fetched the British soldier. Only this time, the Gurkha walked right across the No-Mans-Land back to his own side, the Victoria Cross awarded to Kulbir Thapa was in the first group of awards for the Battle of Loos which were gazetted on 18 November 1915. Of the 18 VCs gazetted that day no less than 17 were presented by the King at Buckingham Palace in nine presentations between December 1915 and January 1917. Kulbir Thapa rejoined his battalion in Egypt on 4 January 1916 and he later achieved the rank of Havildar. His Victoria Cross is displayed at The Gurkha Museum in Winchester, Hampshire, the Royal Mail issued a 1st class stamp featuring his portrait in their second set of six stamps marking anniversaries of the First World War in May 2015. Monuments to Courage The Register of the Victoria Cross VCs of the First World War - The Western Front 1915 List of Brigade of Gurkhas recipients of the Victoria Cross
