1.
Melting point
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The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium, the melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of the change from liquid to solid. Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. For most substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal, for example, the melting point and freezing point of mercury is 234.32 kelvins. However, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures, for example, agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 31 °C to 40 °C, such direction dependence is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is close to 0 °C. In the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is the same as the melting point, the chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3687 K, this property makes tungsten excellent for use as filaments in light bulbs. Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points, a Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient. Any substance can be placed on a section of the strip revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point, differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion. A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of an oil bath with a transparent window, the several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated and with the aid of the melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. In large/small devices, the sample is placed in a heating block, the measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the point of diesel fuel online, meaning that the sample is taken from the process. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected, for refractory materials the extremely high melting point may be determined by heating the material in a black body furnace and measuring the black-body temperature with an optical pyrometer. For the highest melting materials, this may require extrapolation by several hundred degrees, the spectral radiance from an incandescent body is known to be a function of its temperature. An optical pyrometer matches the radiance of a body under study to the radiance of a source that has been previously calibrated as a function of temperature, in this way, the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the intensity of radiation is unnecessary. However, known temperatures must be used to determine the calibration of the pyrometer, for temperatures above the calibration range of the source, an extrapolation technique must be employed
2.
Occupational safety and health
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These terms of course also refer to the goals of this field, so their use in the sense of this article was originally an abbreviation of occupational safety and health program/department etc. The goals of occupational safety and health programs include to foster a safe, OSH may also protect co-workers, family members, employers, customers, and many others who might be affected by the workplace environment. In the United States, the occupational health and safety is referred to as occupational health and occupational and non-occupational safety. In common-law jurisdictions, employers have a common law duty to take care of the safety of their employees. As defined by the World Health Organization occupational health deals with all aspects of health, Health has been defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Occupational health is a field of healthcare concerned with enabling an individual to undertake their occupation. Health has been defined as It contrasts, for example, with the promotion of health and safety at work, since 1950, the International Labour Organization and the World Health Organization have shared a common definition of occupational health. It was adopted by the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its first session in 1950, the concept of working culture is intended in this context to mean a reflection of the essential value systems adopted by the undertaking concerned. Such a culture is reflected in practice in the systems, personnel policy, principles for participation, training policies. Professionals advise on a range of occupational health matters. The research and regulation of safety and health are a relatively recent phenomenon. As labor movements arose in response to concerns in the wake of the industrial revolution. The initial remit of the Inspectorate was to police restrictions on the hours in the textile industry of children. The commission sparked public outrage resulted in the Mines Act of 1842. Otto von Bismarck inaugurated the first social insurance legislation in 1883, similar acts followed in other countries, partly in response to labor unrest. Although work provides many economic and other benefits, an array of workplace hazards also present risks to the health. Personal protective equipment can protect against many of these hazards. Physical hazards affect many people in the workplace, Falls are also a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially in construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and maintenance
3.
Calcium chloride
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Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a salt with the chemical formula CaCl2. It is a crystalline solid at room temperature, highly soluble in water. Calcium chloride is commonly encountered as a solid with generic formula CaCl2x, where x =0,1,2,4. These compounds are used for deicing and dust control. Because the anhydrous salt is hygroscopic, it is used as a desiccant, by depressing the freezing point of water, calcium chloride is used to prevent ice formation and is used to deice. This application consumes the greatest amount of calcium chloride, Calcium chloride is relatively harmless to plants and soil. As a deicing agent, it is effective at lower temperatures than sodium chloride. When distributed for use, it usually takes the form of small, white spheres a few millimeters in diameter. Solutions of calcium chloride can prevent freezing at temperature as low as −52 °C, making it ideal for filling agricultural implement tires as a liquid ballast, also used in salt/chemical-based dehumidifiers in domestic and other environments to adsorb dampness/moisture from the air. The second largest application of calcium chloride exploits its hygroscopic properties, a concentrated solution keeps a liquid layer on the surface of dirt roads, which suppresses formation of dust. It keeps the finer dust particles on the road, providing a cushioning layer, if these are allowed to blow away, the larger aggregate begins to shift around and the road breaks down. Using calcium chloride reduces the need for grading by as much as 50% and this process reduces the erosion of the concrete in the pool. By Le Chateliers principle and the common ion effect, increasing the concentration of calcium in the water will reduce the dissolution of calcium compounds essential to the structure of concrete. As an ingredient, it is listed as a food additive in the European Union for use as a sequestrant. It is considered as generally recognized as safe by the U. S. Food and its use in organic crop production is generally prohibited under US National Organic Programs National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances. The average intake of calcium chloride as food additives has been estimated to be 160–345 mg/day for individuals, in marine aquariums, calcium chloride is added to introduce bioavailable calcium for calcium carbonate-shelled animals such as mollusks and some cnidarians. Calcium hydroxide or a calcium reactor can also be used to introduce calcium, however, as a firming agent, calcium chloride is used in canned vegetables, in firming soybean curds into tofu and in producing a caviar substitute from vegetable or fruit juices. It is commonly used as an electrolyte in sports drinks and other beverages, the extremely salty taste of calcium chloride is used to flavor pickles while not increasing the foods sodium content
4.
Pyridine
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Pyridine is a basic heterocyclic organic compound with the chemical formula C5H5N. It is structurally related to benzene, with one methine group replaced by a nitrogen atom, the pyridine ring occurs in many important compounds, including azines and the vitamins niacin and pyridoxine. Pyridine was discovered in 1849 by the Scottish chemist Thomas Anderson as one of the constituents of bone oil, two years later, Anderson isolated pure pyridine through fractional distillation of the oil. It is a colorless, highly flammable, weakly alkaline, water-soluble liquid with a distinctive, pyridine is used as a precursor to agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals and is also an important solvent and reagent. Pyridine is added to ethanol to make it unsuitable for drinking and it is used in the in vitro synthesis of DNA, in the synthesis of sulfapyridine, antihistaminic drugs tripelennamine and mepyramine, as well as water repellents, bactericides, and herbicides. Some chemical compounds, although not synthesized from pyridine, contain its ring structure and they include B vitamins niacin and pyridoxal, the anti-tuberculosis drug isoniazid, nicotine and other nitrogen-containing plant products. Historically, pyridine was produced from tar and as a byproduct of coal gasification. Pyridine is a liquid that boils at 115.2 °C. Its density,0.9819 g/cm3, is close to that of water, and its index is 1.5093 at a wavelength of 589 nm. Addition of up to 40 mol% of water to pyridine gradually lowers its melting point from −41.6 °C to −65.0 °C, the molecular electric dipole moment is 2.2 debyes. Pyridine is diamagnetic and has a susceptibility of −48.7 × 10−6 cm3·mol−1. The standard enthalpy of formation is 100.2 kJ·mol−1 in the phase and 140.4 kJ·mol−1 in the gas phase. At 25 °C pyridine has a viscosity of 0.88 mPa/s, the enthalpy of vaporization is 35.09 kJ·mol−1 at the boiling point and normal pressure. The enthalpy of fusion is 8.28 kJ·mol−1 at the melting point, pyridine crystallizes in an orthorhombic crystal system with space group Pna21 and lattice parameters a =1752 pm, b =897 pm, c =1135 pm, and 16 formula units per unit cell. For comparison, crystalline benzene is also orthorhombic, with space group Pbca, a =729.2 pm, b =947.1 pm, c =674.2 pm and this difference is partly related to the lower symmetry of the individual pyridine molecule. A trihydrate is known, it crystallizes in an orthorhombic system in the space group Pbca, lattice parameters a =1244 pm, b =1783 pm, c =679 pm. The critical parameters of pyridine are pressure 6.70 MPa, temperature 620 K, the optical absorption spectrum of pyridine in hexane contains three bands at the wavelengths of 195 nm,251 nm and 270 nm. The 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum of pyridine contains three signals with the intensity ratio of 2,1,2 that correspond to the three chemically different protons in the molecule
5.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D
6.
European Chemicals Agency
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ECHA is the driving force among regulatory authorities in implementing the EUs chemicals legislation. ECHA helps companies to comply with the legislation, advances the safe use of chemicals, provides information on chemicals and it is located in Helsinki, Finland. The Agency, headed by Executive Director Geert Dancet, started working on 1 June 2007, the REACH Regulation requires companies to provide information on the hazards, risks and safe use of chemical substances that they manufacture or import. Companies register this information with ECHA and it is freely available on their website. So far, thousands of the most hazardous and the most commonly used substances have been registered, the information is technical but gives detail on the impact of each chemical on people and the environment. This also gives European consumers the right to ask whether the goods they buy contain dangerous substances. The Classification, Labelling and Packaging Regulation introduces a globally harmonised system for classifying and labelling chemicals into the EU. This worldwide system makes it easier for workers and consumers to know the effects of chemicals, companies need to notify ECHA of the classification and labelling of their chemicals. So far, ECHA has received over 5 million notifications for more than 100000 substances, the information is freely available on their website. Consumers can check chemicals in the products they use, Biocidal products include, for example, insect repellents and disinfectants used in hospitals. The Biocidal Products Regulation ensures that there is information about these products so that consumers can use them safely. ECHA is responsible for implementing the regulation, the law on Prior Informed Consent sets guidelines for the export and import of hazardous chemicals. Through this mechanism, countries due to hazardous chemicals are informed in advance and have the possibility of rejecting their import. Substances that may have effects on human health and the environment are identified as Substances of Very High Concern 1. These are mainly substances which cause cancer, mutation or are toxic to reproduction as well as substances which persist in the body or the environment, other substances considered as SVHCs include, for example, endocrine disrupting chemicals. Companies manufacturing or importing articles containing these substances in a concentration above 0 and they are required to inform users about the presence of the substance and therefore how to use it safely. Consumers have the right to ask the retailer whether these substances are present in the products they buy, once a substance has been officially identified in the EU as being of very high concern, it will be added to a list. This list is available on ECHA’s website and shows consumers and industry which chemicals are identified as SVHCs, Substances placed on the Candidate List can then move to another list
7.
E number
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E numbers are codes for substances that are permitted to be used as food additives for use within the European Union and Switzerland. Commonly found on labels, their safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority. Having a single unified list for food additives was first agreed upon in 1962 with food colouring, in 1964, the directives for preservatives were added,1970 for antioxidants and 1974 for the emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners and gelling agents. They are increasingly, though rarely, found on North American packaging. In some European countries, E number is used informally as a pejorative term for artificial food additives. This is incorrect, because many components of foods have E numbers, e. g. vitamin C. NB, Not all examples of a fall into the given numeric range. Moreover, many chemicals, particularly in the E400–499 range, have a variety of purposes, the list shows all components that have or had an E-number assigned. Not all additives listed are still allowed in the EU, but are listed as they used to have an E-number, for an overview of currently allowed additives see here. Includes Lists of authorised food additives Food additives database
8.
Boiling point
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The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor. The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the environmental pressure. A liquid in a vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. For a given pressure, different liquids boil at different temperatures, for example, water boils at 100 °C at sea level, but at 93.4 °C at 2,000 metres altitude. The normal boiling point of a liquid is the case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level,1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure. The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar, the heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure. Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation, evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquids edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, a saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase, the liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of energy results in a phase transition. If the pressure in a system remains constant, a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy is removed, similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied. The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa, at higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, the boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached
9.
Crystal structure
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In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures occur from the nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric patterns that repeat along the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter. The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes the pattern is the unit cell of the structure. The unit cell completely defines the symmetry and structure of the crystal lattice. The repeating patterns are said to be located at the points of the Bravais lattice, the lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles between them are the lattice constants, also called lattice parameters. The symmetry properties of the crystal are described by the concept of space groups, all possible symmetric arrangements of particles in three-dimensional space may be described by the 230 space groups. The crystal structure and symmetry play a role in determining many physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure. The crystal structure of a material can be described in terms of its unit cell, the unit cell is a box containing one or more atoms arranged in three dimensions. The unit cells stacked in three-dimensional space describe the arrangement of atoms of the crystal. Commonly, atomic positions are represented in terms of fractional coordinates, the atom positions within the unit cell can be calculated through application of symmetry operations to the asymmetric unit. The asymmetric unit refers to the smallest possible occupation of space within the unit cell and this does not, however imply that the entirety of the asymmetric unit must lie within the boundaries of the unit cell. Symmetric transformations of atom positions are calculated from the group of the crystal structure. Vectors and planes in a lattice are described by the three-value Miller index notation. It uses the indices ℓ, m, and n as directional parameters, which are separated by 90°, by definition, the syntax denotes a plane that intercepts the three points a1/ℓ, a2/m, and a3/n, or some multiple thereof. That is, the Miller indices are proportional to the inverses of the intercepts of the plane with the unit cell, if one or more of the indices is zero, it means that the planes do not intersect that axis. A plane containing a coordinate axis is translated so that it no longer contains that axis before its Miller indices are determined, the Miller indices for a plane are integers with no common factors. Negative indices are indicated with horizontal bars, as in, in an orthogonal coordinate system for a cubic cell, the Miller indices of a plane are the Cartesian components of a vector normal to the plane. Likewise, the planes are geometric planes linking nodes
10.
Gibbs free energy
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Just as in mechanics, where the decrease in potential energy is defined as maximum useful work that can be performed, similarly different potentials have different meanings. The Gibbs energy is also the potential that is minimized when a system reaches chemical equilibrium at constant pressure and temperature. Its derivative with respect to the coordinate of the system vanishes at the equilibrium point. As such, a reduction in G is a condition for the spontaneity of processes at constant pressure and temperature. The Gibbs free energy, originally called available energy, was developed in the 1870s by the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs. The initial state of the body, according to Gibbs, is supposed to be such that the body can be made to pass from it to states of dissipated energy by reversible processes. In his 1876 magnum opus On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, according to the second law of thermodynamics, for systems reacting at STP, there is a general natural tendency to achieve a minimum of the Gibbs free energy. A quantitative measure of the favorability of a reaction at constant temperature and pressure is the change ΔG in Gibbs free energy that is caused by the reaction. As a necessary condition for the reaction to occur at constant temperature and pressure, ΔG must be smaller than the non-PV work, ΔG equals the maximum amount of non-PV work that can be performed as a result of the chemical reaction for the case of reversible process. The equation can be seen from the perspective of the system taken together with its surroundings. First assume that the reaction at constant temperature and pressure is the only one that is occurring. Then the entropy released or absorbed by the system equals the entropy that the environment must absorb or release, the reaction will only be allowed if the total entropy change of the universe is zero or positive. This is reflected in a negative ΔG, and the reaction is called exergonic, if we couple reactions, then an otherwise endergonic chemical reaction can be made to happen. In traditional use, the term free was included in Gibbs free energy to mean available in the form of useful work, the characterization becomes more precise if we add the qualification that it is the energy available for non-volume work. However, a number of books and journal articles do not include the attachment free. This is the result of a 1988 IUPAC meeting to set unified terminologies for the scientific community. This standard, however, has not yet been universally adopted. Further, Gibbs stated, In this description, as used by Gibbs, ε refers to the energy of the body, η refers to the entropy of the body
11.
Cadmium chloride
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Cadmium chloride is a white crystalline compound of cadmium and chlorine, with the formula CdCl2. It is a solid that is highly soluble in water. Although it is considered to be ionic, it has considerable covalent character to its bonding, the crystal structure of cadmium chloride, composed of two-dimensional layers of ions, is a reference for describing other crystal structures. Also known are CdCl2•H2O and CdCl2•5H2O, Cadmium chloride forms crystals with rhombohedral symmetry. Cadmium iodide, CdI2, has a similar crystal structure to CdCl2. The individual layers in the two structures are identical, but in CdCl2 the chloride ions are arranged in a CCP lattice, Cadmium chloride dissolves well in water and other polar solvents. In water, its solubility is due in part to formation of complex ions such as 2−. Because of this behavior, CdCl2 is a mild Lewis acid, CdCl2 +2 Cl− → 2− With large cations, it is possible to isolate the trigonal bipyramidal 3− ion. Anhydrous cadmium chloride can be prepared by the action of chlorine or hydrogen chloride gas on heated cadmium metal. Cd +2 HCl → CdCl2 + H2 Hydrochloric acid may be used to make hydrated CdCl2 from the metal, Cadmium chloride is used for the preparation of cadmium sulfide, used as Cadmium Yellow, a brilliant-yellow stable inorganic pigment. CdCl 2 + H 2S → CdS +2 HCl In the laboratory, anhydrous CdCl2 can be used for the preparation of compounds of the type R2Cd. Cadmium chloride is used for photocopying, dyeing and electroplating. International Chemical Safety Card 0116 IARC Monograph Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds National Pollutant Inventory - Cadmium and compounds
12.
Heat capacity
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Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a measurable physical quantity equal to the ratio of the heat added to an object to the resulting temperature change. The unit of capacity is joule per kelvin J K. Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of mass by 1 kelvin, Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. The molar heat capacity is the capacity per unit amount of a pure substance. In some engineering contexts, the heat capacity is used. Other contributions can come from magnetic and electronic degrees of freedom in solids, for quantum mechanical reasons, at any given temperature, some of these degrees of freedom may be unavailable, or only partially available, to store thermal energy. In such cases, the capacity is a fraction of the maximum. As the temperature approaches zero, the heat capacity of a system approaches zero. Quantum theory can be used to predict the heat capacity of simple systems. In a previous theory of common in the early modern period, heat was thought to be a measurement of an invisible fluid. Bodies were capable of holding an amount of this fluid, hence the term heat capacity, named. Heat is no longer considered a fluid, but rather a transfer of disordered energy, nevertheless, at least in English, the term heat capacity survives. In some other languages, the thermal capacity is preferred. In the International System of Units, heat capacity has the unit joules per kelvin, if the temperature change is sufficiently small the heat capacity may be assumed to be constant, C = Q Δ T. Heat capacity is a property, meaning it depends on the extent or size of the physical system studied. A sample containing twice the amount of substance as another sample requires the transfer of twice the amount of heat to achieve the change in temperature. For many purposes it is convenient to report heat capacity as an intensive property. In practice, this is most often an expression of the property in relation to a unit of mass, in science and engineering, International standards now recommend that specific heat capacity always refer to division by mass
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