1.
Kingdom of Rarotonga
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The Kingdom of Rarotonga, named after the island of Rarotonga, was an independent kingdom established in the present-day Cook Islands in 1858. In 1888 it became a protectorate of the United Kingdom by its own request, in 1893 the name was changed to the Cook Islands Federation. After the early conversion of a number of important ariki support for Christianity increased rapidly throughout the Southern Group, working through the ariki the missionaries drew up draft legal codes which together with the abolition of violence as a means of dispute settlement, led to unprecedented political stability. This Resident was also to act as adviser to the ariki in drafting and administering laws and he would also have the right to reject proposed legislation. In 1888 Queen Makea Takau formally petitioned the British to set up a Protectorate to head off what she believed to be imminent invasion by the French. The British Government agreed to permit its then vice-consul in Rarotonga to declare a Protectorate over the Southern Group islands to protect pro-British islanders, the Colonial Office also decided that certain other Northern Group islands should be annexed for possible future use as trans-Pacific cable stations. The following year representatives of the ariki from Rarotonga and the Southern Group islands agreed to form the first federal legislature in the islands. However the path through the last decade of the 19th century was far from smooth, the British were reluctant administrators and continued pressure was applied to them from New Zealand and from European residents of the islands to pass the Cook Islands over to New Zealand. On 27 September 1900, the Parliament of New Zealand approved the annexation of the islands to New Zealand, on 11 June 1901 the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands, and the power of the ariki was removed
2.
Rarotonga
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Rarotonga is the most populous island of the Cook Islands, with a population of 10,572, out of the countrys total resident population of 14,974. Captain John Dibbs, master of the colonial brig Endeavour, is credited as the European discoverer on 25 August 1823, the Cook Islands Parliament buildings and international airport are on Rarotonga. Because it is the most populous island, Cook Islanders may often be referred to as Rarotongan, Rarotonga is a very popular tourist destination with many resorts, hotels and motels. The chief town, Avarua, on the north coast, is the capital of the Cook Islands, the volcanic island of Rarotonga stands over 14,750 feet above the ocean floor. It is 32 km in circumference and has an area of 67.19 km2, at a depth of 4,000 m the volcano is nearly 50 km in diameter. Te Manga, at 658 m above sea level, is the highest peak on the island, the island is surrounded by a lagoon, which often extends more than a hundred metres to the reef, then slopes steeply to deep water. This part of the island is the most popular with tourists for swimming, snorkelling and boating, agricultural terraces, flats and swamps surround the central mountain area. Along the southeast coast off Muri Beach are four small islets within a few hundred metres of the shore. Paved and unpaved roads allow access to valleys but the interior of the island remains largely unpopulated due to forbidding terrain and lack of infrastructure. A large tract of land has set aside in the south east as the Takitumu Conservation Area to protect native birds and plants, especially the endangered kakerori. On May 30,1965, five sounding rockets were launched from Rarotonga for studying a solar eclipse, Rarotonga is divided into three main districts or vaka. Te Au O Tonga on the side of the island, Takitumu on the eastern and southern side. On the other hand, the island is divided into five Land Districts. In 2008, the three councils of Rarotonga were abolished. It passes the Te Rua Manga, the prominent needle-shaped rock visible from the air, hikes can also be taken to the Raemaru, or flat-top mountain. Other stops should include Wigmore Falls and the ancient marae, Arai te Tonga, there are many churches open for service on Sunday, with a cappella singing. The pace of life is so relaxed that at night people congregate at the sea wall that skirts the end of the runway to be jetblasted by incoming planes. Large cruise ships have to anchor off shore, Rarotonga is encircled by a main road, Ara Tapu, that traces the coast
3.
Ngamaru Rongotini Ariki
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Ngamaru Rongotini Ariki was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Ngamaru dynasty on the island of Atiu, one of the chiefdoms of Ngaputoru, in the 1860s he married Makea Takau, a princess of Rarotonga. In 1871 Makea Takau became ariki of Rarotonga and queen regnant of the newly established Kingdom of Rarotonga and he was Representative of Atiu, Mitiaro and Mauke in the Federal Council and also a native Judge of the Arikis Court at Avarua. Ngamaru was a man of personal character, and had the happy knack of settling troublesome matters with a jocular remark. He was also a power to his people, being an inter-island trader with a schooner of his own. Prince Ngamaru died of poisoning after an injury to his hand. He was buried in Queen Makeas private graveyard at Para O Tane Palace, Kingdom of Rarotonga History of the Cook Islands House of Ariki Grimshaw, Beatrice Ethel. Hutchinson & Co.1907 Gilson, Richard Philip, victoria University of Wellington,1980, ISBN0705507351 Craig, Robert D. ISBN0810867729, p.154 Te Papa Museum of New Zealand collections Land Tenure in the Cook Islands Prince Ngamarus involvement of Takutea land ownership News of the Waikares Excurtion
4.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
5.
London Missionary Society
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The London Missionary Society was a missionary society formed in England in 1795 by evangelical Anglicans and various nonconformists. It was largely Reformed in outlook, with Congregational missions in Oceania and Africa, although there were also Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists and it now forms part of the Council for World Mission. In 1793, Edward Williams, then minister at Carrs Lane, Birmingham, wrote a letter to the churches of the Midlands, expressing the need for world evangelization and it was effective and Williams began to play an active part in the plans for a missionary society. He left Birmingham in 1795, becoming pastor at Masbrough, Rotherham, also in 1793, the Anglican cleric John Eyre of Hackney founded the Evangelical Magazine. He had the support of the presbyterian John Love, and congregationalists Edward Parsons and this aimed to overcome the difficulties that establishment of overseas missions had faced. Edward Williams continued his involvement and, in July 1796, gave the charge to the first missionaries sent out by the Society, the society aimed to create a forum where evangelicals could work together, give overseas missions financial support and co-ordination. It also advocated againt opponents who wanted unrestricted commercial and military relations with peoples throughout the world. After Ryland showed Carey’s letter to Henry Overton Wills, a campaigner in Bristol. Scottish ministers in the London area, David Bogue and James Steven, as well as other such as John Hey. Bogue wrote an appeal in the Evangelical Magazine for September 1794, Ye were once Pagans, living in cruel. The servants of Jesus came from lands, and preached His Gospel among you. John Eyre responded by inviting a leading and influential evangelical, Rev. Thomas Haweis, the Cornishman sided firmly with Bogue, and immediately identified two donors, one of £500, and one of £100. From this start, a campaign developed to raise money for the proposed society, eighteen supporters showed up and helped agree the aims of the proposed missionary society – to spread the knowledge of Christ among heathen and other unenlightened nations. By Christmas over thirty men were committed to forming the society, in the following year,1795, Spa Fields Chapel was approached for permission to preach a sermon to the various ministers and others by now keenly associated with the plan to send missionaries abroad. Hundreds of evangelicals attended, and the newly launched society quickly began receiving letters of financial support, the Missionary Societys board quickly began interviewing prospective candidates. In 1800 the society placed missionaries with the Rev. David Bogue of Gosport for preparation for their ministries, a Captain James Wilson offered to sail the missionaries to their destination unpaid. The society was able to afford the small ship Duff, of 267 tons and it could carry 18 crew members and 30 missionaries. Seven months after the crew left port from the Woolwich docks in late 1796 they arrived in Tahiti, the missionaries were then instructed to become friendly with the natives, build a mission house for sleeping and worship, and learn the native language
6.
Uchter Knox, 5th Earl of Ranfurly
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Uchter John Mark Knox, 5th Earl of Ranfurly GCMG PC JP DL was a British politician and colonial governor. He was Governor of New Zealand from 1897 to 1904, Lord Ranfurly was born in Guernsey, the second son of Thomas Knox, 3rd Earl of Ranfurly, by his wife Harriet, daughter of John Rimmington, of Broomhead Hall, Yorkshire. Becoming a cadet on board H. M. S, britannia, he passed for the Royal Navy, but, giving up a naval career, entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of eighteen. He succeeded in the earldom in May 1875 when his brother died on a shooting expedition in Abyssinia. Ranfurly served as a Lord-in-Waiting under Lord Salisbury between 1895 and 1897 and was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and he was appointed to succeed The Earl of Glasgow as Governor of New Zealand on 6 April 1897, assuming office on 10 August. Lord Ranfurly became Honorary Colonel of the 1st Wellington Battalion and of the 1st South Canterbury Mounted Rifles. He was created a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George in June 1901, on the occasion of the visit of TRH the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York to New Zealand. His term ended on 19 June 1904, when he handed over office to Lord Plunket. He is remembered for his donation of the Ranfurly Shield, a New Zealand sporting trophy, on his return to England Ranfurly was made an Irish Privy Counsellor, then for a time he returned to farm in Mildura, Victoria, Australia. But he soon devoted more and more time to his great interest. In 1914 he was a Knight of Justice, and Registrar of the Order in London, in 1919 the French Government made him an Officer of the Legion of Honour for his services in this connection during the war. After the partition of Ireland, Lord Ranfurly was made a Privy Counsellor for Northern Ireland in 1923, also serving as Deputy Lieutenant and he continued his association with the Order of St. John, becoming Bailiff Grand Cross in 1926. Lord Ranfurly died on 1 October 1933, aged 77, and was succeeded by his grandson, Daniel Knox, Lord Ranfurly married the Honourable Constance Caulfeild, only child of James Alfred Caulfeild, 7th Viscount Charlemont, on 10 February 1880. C. Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John, Deputy Lieutenant and Justice of the Peace, County Tyrone by Bernard John Foster, research Officer, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Earl of Ranfurly Media related to Uchter Knox, 5th Earl of Ranfurly at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Cook Islands
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The Cook Islands is a self-governing island country in the South Pacific Ocean in free association with New Zealand. It comprises 15 islands whose total area is 240 square kilometres. The Cook Islands Exclusive Economic Zone, however, covers 1,800,000 square kilometres of ocean, the Cook Islands defence and foreign affairs are the responsibility of New Zealand, but they are exercised in consultation with the Cook Islands. In recent times, the Cook Islands have adopted an independent foreign policy. Although Cook Islanders are citizens of New Zealand, they have the status of Cook Islands nationals, the Cook Islands main population centres are on the island of Rarotonga, where there is an international airport. There is a population of Cook Islanders in New Zealand. In the 2006 census,58,008 self-identified as being of ethnic Cook Islands Māori descent, the Cook Islands are in the South Pacific Ocean, northeast of New Zealand, between French Polynesia and American Samoa. There are 15 major islands spread over 2,200,000 km2 of ocean, the islands were formed by volcanic activity, the northern group is older and consists of six atolls, which are sunken volcanoes topped by coral growth. The climate is moderate to tropical, palmerston Island sometimes grouped with the Northern Group. Manuae Winslow Reef The Cook Islands were first settled in the 6th century by Polynesian people who migrated from Tahiti, in 1813 John Williams, a missionary on the Endeavour made the first recorded sighting of Rarotonga. The first recorded landing on Rarotonga by Europeans was in 1814 by the Cumberland, the islands saw no more Europeans until missionaries arrived from England in 1821. Christianity quickly took hold in the culture and many continue to be Christian believers today. The Cook Islands became a British protectorate in 1888, due largely to community fears that France might occupy the territory as it had Tahiti, on 6 September 1900, the leading islanders presented a petition asking that the islands should be annexed as British territory. These instruments did not include Aitutaki and it appears that, though the inhabitants regarded themselves as British subjects, the Crowns title was uncertain, and the island was formally annexed by Proclamation dated 9 October 1900. The islands were included within the boundaries of the Colony of New Zealand in 1901 by Order in Council under the Colonial Boundaries Act,1895 of the United Kingdom. The boundary change became effective on 11 June 1901 and the Cook Islands have had a relationship with New Zealand ever since. When the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 came into effect on 1 January 1949, the country remained a New Zealand dependent territory until 1965, when the New Zealand Government decided to offer self-governing status to its colony. In that year, Albert Henry of the Cook Islands Party was elected as the first Premier, Henry led the country until he was accused of vote-rigging
8.
Ariki
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An ariki, ‘ariki, aliki, ali‘i, arii, aiki or hakaiki, akariki or ‘eiki is or was a member of a hereditary chiefly or noble rank in Polynesia. Political leadership or governance in Māori society has come from two different groups of people – the ariki and the rangatira. The ariki are the persons of the highest rank and seniority, as the high-ranking first-born children of first-born children, ariki inherit their positions from their forebears. In particular, their rank from the conjunction of a number of senior descent lines from founding ancestors. Although most ariki in the past have been male, women, many positions overlap with ariki holding multiple roles, including head of an iwi, the rangatira of a hapu and the kaumatua of a whanau. Similarly, in times past, a tohunga may have also been the head of a whanau but quite often was also a rangatira, the Māori King Movement is headed by the Māori King or Queen, who bears the title Te Arikinui, literally The big Ariki. Each island in the Cook Islands was ruled by a number of ariki, Rarotonga had about five or six, and most of the other islands had about three. Each ariki ruled an ivi or ngati, beneath each ariki in the social hierarchy were a number of mataiapo and rangatira of noble rank. A chiefs control over his people was related to his mana, which not only from his birth but also from his achievements and status. An ariki who lost popularity with his people could also be seen as having a decline in mana, having a control of tapu was a powerful weapon for the ariki. For supernatural reasons, certain activities were forbidden and since the ariki had control over what was or was not forbidden, this gave him considerable power. It was the strong belief in an arikis mana and control over all things tapu that allowed them to take control of their people without the need for physical enforcement. The ariki, mataiapo and rangatira titles are passed down through the family to the present day, some of the ancient ceremonies and traditions are still being practiced in the Cook Islands. The House of Ariki is a body in the Cook Islands. It was established in 1967 shortly after self-government and it is composed of the Cook Islands high chiefs and was created to marginalize the ariki, giving them dignity but very limited power. Alii Paramount chief Arai-te-tonga, the ancient marae at Rarotonga, journal of the Polynesian Society Tribal organisation - Social rank. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
9.
Annexation
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Annexation is the political transition of land from the control of one entity to another. It is also the incorporation of unclaimed land into a states sovereignty, in international law it is the forcible transition of one states territory by another state or the legal process by which a city acquires land. Usually, it is implied that the territory and population being annexed is the smaller, more peripheral and it can also imply a certain measure of coercion, expansionism or unilateralism on the part of the stronger of the merging entities. Because of this, more positive euphemisms like political union/unification or reunification are sometimes seen in discourse, during World War II, the use of annexation deprived whole populations of the safeguards provided by international laws governing military occupations. The Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 amplified the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 with respect to the question of the protection of civilians, the team cemented in a brass plaque on Halls Ledge and hoisted the Union Flag to stake the UKs claim. One example of a claimed annexation after World War II is the Kingdom of Norways southward expansion of the dependent territory Queen Maud Land. On most maps there had been an area between Queen Maud Lands borders of 1939 and the South Pole until June 12,2015 when Norway formally claimed to have annexed that area. The Antarctic Treaty, however, states, The treaty does not recognize, dispute, nor establish territorial sovereignty claims, within countries that are subdivided noncontiguously, annexation can also take place whereby a lower-tier subdivision can annex territory under the jurisdiction of a higher-tier subdivision. An example of this is in the United States, where incorporated cities, municipalities can also annex or be annexed by other municipalities, though this is less common in the United States. Laws governing the ability and the extent cities can expand in this fashion are defined by the individual states constitutions, annexation of neighbouring communities occurs in Canada. Irredentism List of national border changes since World War I Texas annexation Adam Roberts, transformative military occupation, applying the laws of war and human rights,100 The American Journal of International Law
10.
Makea Pori Ariki
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Makea Pori Ariki was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Makea Nui dynasty, one of the three chiefdoms of the Te Au O Tonga tribe on the island of Rarotonga and he succeeded his father Makea Tinirau Ariki after his death in 1823. In the same year, the English missionary John Williams arrived at Rarotonga, after agreeing to destroy their temple and the pagan idols of his tribe, Makea Pori Ariki was baptized in 1825. He died on 28 October 1839 and was succeeded by his eldest son Makea Davida
11.
Atiu
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Atiu, also known as Enuamanu, is an island 187 km northeast of Rarotonga, in the Southern Islands group of the Cook Islands Archipelago. Atiu is a volcanic island surrounded by a reef from which rise 6-metre-high cliffs of fossilized coral. The makatea cliff forms a ring round the island, creating a virtual plateau. Erosion at the innerside of the ring has formed dip of about 30 metres into fertile land, administratively, Takutea is considered part of Atiu. Atiuans trace their ancestry from Tangaroa, the god of Atiu. Atius area is about half that of Rarotonga, the low swampy land consists of taro plantations, marshes and a lake, Te Roto. This fertile area also grows bananas, citrus fruits, pawpaws, breadfruit, the ancient name of the island was Enuamanu, meaning the island of insects and animals, although there is some dispute over whether animals includes insects. The Atiuans understand it as meaning there were no previous inhabitants, the Atiuans call themselves worms of Enuamanu because they were born on Atiu and hope to be buried there. There was once a custom on Atiu similar to that of New Zealand Maori of burying a newborn childs placenta under a newly planted tree and this is the origin of the Atiuan saying, We come from the land and go back to the land. The first recorded European to arrive to Atiu was Captain Cook and he sighted the island on March 31,1777 and made tentative contact with some of the people over the next few days. In common with most islands in the group, Atiu has only a small. It compensates, however, with many picturesque, sandy beaches, as is usual with the makatea islands of the southern group, the fossilised coral limestone abounds with caves filled with stalactites and stalagmites. One in particular, the Anatakitaki Cave, is inhabited by tiny kopeka birds which navigate in the dark using sonar, male visitors can enjoy the esoteric delights of the tumunu or bush beer party. Technically illegal and banned ever since the missionaries arrived on these beautiful islands, however, they have survived and invitations can be arranged for visiting enthusiasts. When Ngakaara’s power had waned Ngamaru Povaru was the dominant of the three kings of Atiu. He was a pacifist and ruled with a hand and the people called his rule Te Au Maru. One of the first tasks he did was to build a wall around his part of the settlement, at the northern end of the wall he had three monuments built, each capped in a different fashion. These three monuments were to represent the three kings – Ngamaru, Rongomatane and Parua, beside his house he built a small marae at which he and his nine mataiapos conducted meetings
12.
Mauke
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Mauke is an island of the Cook Islands archipelago, lying in the central-southern Pacific Ocean. Its geography is characterized by a volcanic plateau, deep underground caves and lakes. Mauke has four districts, Areora, Makatea, Ngatiarua, and it has a population of 300. Media related to Mauke at Wikimedia Commons Official website
13.
Mitiaro
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Mitiaro, the fourth island in the Cook Islands group, is of volcanic origin. Standing in water 14,750 feet deep it is four miles across at its widest point, Mitiaro, also known as Nukuroa, is part of the Nga-Pu-Toru island group formerly, a volcano that became a coral atoll. The coral died forming fossilised coral, the island is surrounded by a belt of this makatea, between 20 and 40 feet high and characteristic of islands in the southern group. Beaches are limited but there are crystal-clear pools ideal for swimming in the limestone caves. The island has four villages, located together on the western side, from north to south, Taurangi Atai Auta Mangarei Takaue The high school is located in the principal village. Takaue is the second largest village, Mitiaro Airport is located at the northern end of the island. The native islanders had a history of harassment and subjugation by the warlike Atiuans. The island was discovered by missionary John Williams on 20 June 1823 who brought Christian beliefs, the estimated population at that time was less than 100 inhabitants. During the 1840s the island was attacked again by Atiuans, on 31 October 1888 HMS Hyacinth commanded by Captain Bourke, hoisted the United Kingdom flag in the island. It was later merged to the Cook Islands until its annexation to New Zealand in 1901, map of Mitiaro History of villages and districts
14.
Beatrice Grimshaw
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Beatrice Ethel Grimshaw was a writer and traveller of Irish origin, for many years based in Papua New Guinea. She was born in Cloona House in Dunmurry, County Antrim and her family were members of the Church of Ireland, but she converted to Catholicism after leaving home. She worked for various shipping companies and then as a freelance journalist in Dublin, after contacting Richard J. Mecredy, the proprietor of the Dublin-based Irish Cyclist, in 1891 expressing her interest in cycling and journalism, she became a contributor to the magazine. Two years later she became sub-editor, and then took over the sister publication, the Social Review. She was commissioned to write publicity for Cook Islands, Fiji, Niue, Samoa, in 1907 she sailed to Papua on a commission from The Times and the Sydney Morning Herald, but remained for twenty-seven years, much of the time at Rona Falls. She became a friend of Sir Hubert Murray and his unofficial publicist. She joined exploration parties and managed plantations, including one with her brother Ramsay and she also corresponded with Alfred Deakin- Australias second, fifth and seventh Prime Minister regarding her work in the pacific. In 1936, in company with brothers Ramsay and Osborne she retired to Kelso, New South Wales, Ltd.1920 The Little Red Speck Hurst and Blackett, Ltd. Melbourne,1922 The Sands of Oro Conn of the Coral Seas Hurst and Blackett, Ltd
15.
Tahiti
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Tahiti is the largest island in the Windward group of French Polynesia, this overseas collectivity of the French Republic is sometimes referred to as a French overseas country. The island was formed from volcanic activity and is high and mountainous with surrounding coral reefs, the population is 183,645 inhabitants, making it the most populous island of French Polynesia and accounting for 68.5 percent of its total population. Tahiti is the economic, cultural and political centre of French Polynesia, the capital, Papeete, is located on the northwest coast with the only international airport in the region, Faaā International Airport, situated 5 km from the town centre. Tahiti was originally settled by Polynesians between 300 and 800 CE and they represent about 70 percent of the islands population with the rest made up of Europeans, Chinese and those of mixed heritage. The island was part of the Kingdom of Tahiti until its annexation by France in 1880, when it was proclaimed a colony of France, French is the only official language although the Tahitian language is widely spoken. Tahiti is the highest and largest island in French Polynesia lying close to Moorea island and it is located 4,400 kilometres south of Hawaii,7,900 km from Chile and 5,700 km from Australia. The island is 45 km across at its widest point and covers an area of 1,045 km2, the highest peak is Mont Orohena. Mount Roonui, or Mount Ronui in the southeast rises to 1,332 m, the island consists of two roughly round portions centred on volcanic mountains and connected by a short isthmus named after the small town of Taravao, situated there. The northwestern portion is known as Tahiti Nui, while the much smaller portion is known as Tahiti Iti or Taiarapū. Tahiti Nui is heavily populated along the coast, especially around the capital, the interior of Tahiti Nui is almost entirely uninhabited. Tahiti Iti has remained isolated, as its half is accessible only to those travelling by boat or on foot. The rest of the island is encircled by a road which cuts between the mountains and the sea. A scenic and winding road climbs past dairy farms and citrus groves with panoramic views. Tahitis landscape features lush rainforests and many rivers and waterfalls, including the Papenoo River on the side. November to April is the wet season, the wettest month of which is January with 13.2 in of rain in Papeetē, August is the driest with 1.9 inches. The average temperature ranges between 21 and 31 °C with little seasonal variation, the lowest and highest temperatures recorded in Papeete are 16 and 34 °C, respectively. The first Tahitians arrived from Southeast Asia in about 200 BCE and this hypothesis of an emigration from Southeast Asia is supported by a number of linguistic, biological and archaeological proofs. For example, the languages of Fiji and Polynesia all belong to the same Oceanic sub-group, Fijian-Polynesian, in 1769, for instance, James Cook mentions a great traditional ship in Tahiti that was 33 m long, and could be propelled by sail or paddles
16.
Society Islands
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The Society Islands includes a group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean. It is, politically and legally, part of French Polynesia and they have a population of 235,295 inhabitants. They cover an area of 1,590 square kilometres. The islanders explain their origins in term of a myth, the feathered god Taaroa lay in his shell. He called out but no-one answered, so he went back into his shell, when he came out he changed his body into the multi-layered dome of the sky. Other parts of his body he transformed into Papa-fenua, the earth, other parts he made into Te Tuma, the ata, or shadow of his phallus. Taaroa said, Cast your eyes on my phallus, gaze upon it and insert it in the earth. He came down to earth at Opoa in Havaii, one of the most sacred places in the Society Islands, other gods were created, and these ran directly into the time of the people. The high chiefs or arii rahi were descendants from the gods, in their presence commoners showed respect by stripping to the waist. The high chiefs erected marae as places of worship, in the generations before Europeans arrived, a cult called Oro-maro-ura developed, the cult of the red-feathered girdle. This became a symbol of the chiefs power. Key followers of the Oro cult were the arioi, who lived separately from the common people and they wore scented flowers and adorned themselves with scents and scarlet-dyed cloth. The head of each group was heavily tattooed from ankle to thigh. Both male and female blacklegs were a group but they were forbidden to have children. Their babies were all killed at birth and they received and gave lavish presents. They had a range of artistic skills and could be priests, navigators. Only good-looking men or women could become arioi and they played a crucial role in ceremonies associated with birth, deaths and marriage. The first European explorers arrived in 1722, jacob Roggeveens Dutch West Indian Expedition was shipwrecked on Takapoto
17.
George Grey
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Sir George Grey, KCB was a British soldier, explorer, Governor of South Australia, twice Governor of New Zealand, Governor of Cape Colony, the 11th Premier of New Zealand and a writer. By political philosophy a Gladstonian liberal and Georgist, Grey eschewed the class system for the life of Aucklands new governance he helped to establish. Grey was born in Lisbon, Portugal, the son of Bvt. Lieutenant-Colonel George Grey, of the 30th Regiment of Foot, who was killed at the Battle of Badajoz in Spain just a few days before. His mother, Elizabeth Anne née Vignoles, on the balcony of her hotel in Lisbon and she was the daughter of a retired soldier turned Irish clergyman, Major later Rev. John Vignoles. Greys grandfather was Owen Wynne Gray, Greys uncle was John Gray, who was Owen Wynne Grays son from his second marriage. Grey was sent to the Royal Grammar School, Guildford in Surrey, early in 1830, he was gazetted ensign in the 83rd Regiment of Foot. In 1830, his regiment having been sent to Ireland, he developed much sympathy with the Irish peasantry whose misery made an impression on him. He was promoted lieutenant in 1833 and obtained a certificate at the examinations of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In 1837, at the age of 25, Grey led a catastrophically ill-prepared expedition of exploration of north-west Australia – only one man of his party had seen northern Australia before. It was at that time believed that a great river entered the Indian Ocean from the north-west of Australia, others joined the party at Cape Town, and early in December they landed at Hanover Bay. Wrecked, almost drowned, and completely lost, with Grey speared in the hip in a skirmish with Aborigines and they were picked up by the Beagle and Lynher and taken to Mauritius to recover. At about this time, Grey became one of the few Europeans to learn the Noongar language of south-west Western Australia, on 2 November 1839 at King George Sound, Grey married Eliza Lucy Spencer, daughter of the late Government Resident. Their only child, born in 1841 in South Australia, died aged 5 months and it was not a happy marriage. She lived a life of misery until old age brought a formal reunion, Grey adopted Annie Maria Matthews in 1861, following the death of her father, his half-brother, Sir Godfrey Thomas. She married Seymour Thorne George on 3 December 1872 on Kawau Island, Grey was the third Governor of South Australia, from 1841 to 1845, as a replacement for George Gawler, under whose stewardship the colony had become bankrupt. Gawler was also responsible for the illegal retribution exacted by Major OHalloran on an Aboriginal tribe. Grey served as Governor of New Zealand twice, from 1845 to 1853 and he was arguably the most influential figure during the European settlement of New Zealand during much of the 19th century
18.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
19.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
20.
Resident (title)
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A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are seen as a form of indirect rule. Residents could also be posted with shadowy governments, even after the Congress of Vienna restored the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1815, the British posted a mere Resident to Florence. Some official representatives of European colonial powers, while in theory diplomats, a trusted Resident could even become the de facto prime minister to a native ruler. In other respects they acted as an ambassador of their own government, instead of being a representative to a single ruler, a Resident could be posted to more than one native state, or to a grouping of states which the European power decided for its convenience. This could create a geographical unit, as in Residency X in some parts of the British Indian Empire. Similar positions could carry alternative titles, such as Political Agent and Resident Commissioner, a Residents real role varied enormously, depending upon the underlying relationship between the two parties and even upon the personalities of the Resident and the ruler. In French protectorates, such as those of Morocco and Tunisia, the Residents of the governments of the United Kingdom and the dominions to a variety of protectorates include, In the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the second homeland of the Omani dynasty, since 1913. From 1913 to 1961 the Residents were also the Sultans vizier, there were Consuls and Consuls-general until 1963. In present-day Kenya, in the Sultanate of Witu, after the British took over the protectorate from the German Empire, which had itself posted a Resident. In British Cameroon, since 1916, in 1949 restyled Special Resident for Edward John Gibbons, in kwaZulu, which since 1843 was under a British protectorate, after it became the Zulu Native Reserve or Zululand Province on 1 September 1879, two British Residents. In the Dutch East Indies, Dutch residents and lower ranks such as assistant residents were posted alongside a number of the native princes in present Indonesia. For example, on Sumatra, there were Dutch Residents at Palembang, at Medan in Deli sultanate, another was posted with the Sultan of and on Ternate, france also maintained Residents, the French word being Résident. However the Jacobine tradition of state authority didnt agree well with indirect rule. Many were part of a white colonial hierarchy, rather than truly posted with a ruler or chieftain. A single post of Resident was also created in Côte dIvoire, the Resident-Superior of Cambodia answered to the Governor-General of Indochina, however. In the German colonies, the title was also Resident, the post was called Residentur. e, such function could also be performed under another title, such as Commissioner or High Commissioner. John Bridger Philby August 1924 – March 1939 Henry Cox March 1939 –17 June 1946 Alec Seath Kirkbride Also after World War II, in the colony of Western Australia regional administration was conducted under instruction of the Governor in Council by Government Residents
21.
Frederick Moss
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Frederick Joseph Moss was a 19th-century Member of Parliament from Auckland, New Zealand. He was born in Longwood, Saint Helena in 1827 or 1828 and he returned to Saint Helena in 1847. There, he married Emily Ann Carew in 1853 or 1854, in 1857, he went back to South Africa, intending to settle in Natal, but locusts had destroyed agricultural prospects. He decided to emigrate to New Zealand instead and the couple, in Lyttelton, Moss supported the rail tunnel project and established himself as a trader. He was instrumental in forming a company and became captain. With the discovery of gold in Otago, he moved to Dunedin in 1862 and he entered various business partnerships, including with Thomas Dick. He became captain of the local volunteers and founded a newspaper, the Otago Daily Mail. In Dunedin, he was elected to the Otago Provincial Council in 1863 and he was secretary for public works and served as provincial treasurer. He and Dick, who had been elected onto the Provincial Council in 1859, were opponents of Julius Vogel, when Vogel became leader of the provincial executive in 1866 and then treasurer, Moss resigned the following year. He represented the Parnell electorate from 1878 to 1890, when he retired and he was a liberal and a supporter of Sir George Grey and provincialism. His son Edward George Britton Moss was the Member of Parliament for Ohinemuri from 1902 to 1905, Moss died in Auckland on 8 July 1904. He was survived by his wife and six of his eight children
22.
Walter Edward Gudgeon
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Walter Edward Gudgeon CMG was born in London, England. He was a farmer, soldier, historian, land court judge, Walter Gudgeon was the first child of Thomas Wayth Gudgeon, an upholsterer, and his first wife, Mary Johnston. The family emigrated to New Zealand in 1850 and settled in New Plymouth, Walter left school to work on the family farm at the age of 11. Conscious all his life of his lack of education, he made up for it by reading voraciously. After leaving home at 16 he became a shepherd and drover. Gudgeon was managing a farm near Wanganui when fighting broke out in the area, in March 1865 he joined the Wanganui Bushrangers, and three months later became second-in-command of the Wanganui Native Contingent under Thomas McDonnell. Gudgeon was next given command of the Runanga redoubt, one of a string of forts built between Tapuaeharuru and Napier to restrict Te Kootis movements, with the guerrilla leader on the run, the duties of the Armed Constabulary focused on drilling and road making. In February 1874 Gudgeons tedium was relieved when he was put in charge of the sensitive Poverty Bay district, based at Ormond, he made typically astute land purchases and also met Edith Maria Best, whom he married in Wellington on 16 January 1875. She was to die of tuberculosis on 21 March 1879 after bearing three children, Hilda, Constance and Westwood, by May 1880 Gudgeon had been transferred back to Taranaki to join the forces being concentrated against Parihaka. When the settlement was invaded on 5 November 1881 he led the company that arrested Te Whiti, posted to Manaia, he built a sophisticated redoubt, grew ornamental trees and supervised road making. He also courted Emily Bertha Tuke, the daughter of his commanding officer. They married at Napier on 24 January 1882, and were to have two sons, Herman and Melville, and two daughters, Gladys and Beryl, Gudgeon now became a judge of the Native Land Court, sitting most notably in the King Country on the Rohe Potae case. He was also made a judge of the Validation Court and a trust commissioner under the Native Lands Frauds Prevention Act 1881 and this work enabled him to pursue a long-standing interest in Maori language and history. In 1892 he was one of the founders of the Polynesian Society and he contributed a number of articles to its journal, one of which was described by Edward Tregear as Absolutely and entirely valueless. …All the old stuff…we left behind 20 years ago. In August 1898 Gudgeon, now a lieutenant colonel, was appointed British Resident in the Cook Islands, in April 1900 the Rarotonga ariki consented to annexation, but to Great Britain, not New Zealand. In reality, the island became New Zealand territory, in 1909 the increasingly cantankerous Gudgeon was retired by Prime Minister Joseph Ward, according to Gudgeon because of his lapsed Catholicism. In 1914 he served briefly as censor of telegraphic messages before his career ended, appropriately. He died at his home in Devonport, Auckland, on 5 January 1920, NZETC – Lieutenant Colonel Walter Edward Gudgeon 1841–1920 – Victoria University of Wellington
23.
New Zealand Wars
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The New Zealand Wars were a series of armed conflicts that took place in New Zealand from 1845 to 1872 between the New Zealand government and the Māori. The colonial government summoned thousands of British troops to mount major campaigns to overpower the Māori King Movement and also acquire farming, guerilla-style tactics were used by both sides in later campaigns, often fought in dense bush. Over the course of the Taranaki and Waikato campaigns the lives of about 1800 Māori and 800 Europeans were lost, historians, however, have debated whether Māori signatories fully understood this last point, due to the possible mistranslation of the word sovereignty in the treaty copies. The majority of Māori wanted to sign in order to consolidate peace and they also wished to acquire the technological culture of the British. All pre-treaty colonial land-sale deals had taken place directly between two parties, in the early period of contact Māori generally sought trade with Europeans. The British and the French established mission stations, and missionaries received land from iwi for houses, schools, churches, as part of the Treaty of Waitangi, colonial authorities decreed that Māori could sell land only to the Crown. The various conflicts of the New Zealand wars span a period. The earliest conflicts in the 1840s happened at a time when Māori were still the predominant power, the first armed conflict between Māori and the European settlers took place on 17 June 1843 in the Wairau Valley, in the north of the South Island. The clash was sparked when settlers led by a representative of the New Zealand Company—which held a title deed to a block of land—attempted to clear Māori off the land ready for surveying. The party also attempted to arrest Ngāti Toa chiefs Te Rauparaha, fighting broke out and 22 Europeans were killed, as well as four to six Māori. Several Europeans were slain after being captured, in early 1844, the new Governor, Robert FitzRoy, investigated the incident and declared the settlers were at fault. The Wairau Affray—described as the Wairau Massacre in early texts—was the only armed conflict of the New Zealand Wars to take place in the South Island. The Flagstaff War took place in the far north of New Zealand, around the Bay of Islands, in 1845 George Grey arrived in New Zealand to take up his appointment as governor. At this time Hone Heke challenged the authority of the British, there were many causes of the Flagstaff War and Heke had a number of grievances in relation to the Treaty of Waitangi. Despite the fact that Tāmati Wāka Nene and most of Ngāpuhi sided with the government, after the Battle of Ruapekapeka Heke and Kawiti were ready for peace. It was Tāmati Wāka Nene they approached to act as the intermediary to negotiate with Governor Grey, the fighting in the north ended and there was no punitive confiscation of Ngāpuhi land. The Hutt Valley campaign of 1846 came as a sequel to the Wairau Affray, Ngāti Toa chief Te Rauparaha was also taken into custody during the campaign, he was detained without charge in Auckland for two years. The bloodshed heightened settlers fears in nearby Wanganui, which was given a military force to guard against attack
24.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
25.
Prime minister
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A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss members of the cabinet. In most systems, the minister is the presiding member. In parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system, the minister is the presiding and actual head of government. In such systems, the head of state or the head of states official representative usually holds a ceremonial position. The prime minister is often, but not always, a member of the Legislature or the Lower House thereof and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature. In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise powers that are constitutionally vested in the crown. The first actual usage of the prime minister or Premier Ministre was used by Cardinal Richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of France. Louis XIV and his descendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers, the term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the United Kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole. Over time, however, the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century, the monarchs of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII, William Cecil, Lord Burghley under Elizabeth I, Clarendon under Charles II and these ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were commonly known as the minister, the chief minister, the first minister and finally the prime minister. The power of ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament was among the skills of holding high office. Although there was a cabinet, it was appointed entirely by the monarch, when the monarch grew tired of a first minister, he or she could be dismissed, or worse, Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful, late in Annes reign, for example, the Tory ministers Harley and St John shared power. The monarch could no longer any law or impose any tax without its permission. It is at point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge. A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714, George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover, and had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of English government
26.
Richard Seddon
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Richard John Seddon PC is to date the longest-serving Prime Minister of New Zealand. He is regarded as one of New Zealands greatest political leaders, sometimes derisively known as King Dick for his autocratic style, Seddon dominated the Liberal government for thirteen years, achieving many social and economic changes. Seddon was born in Eccleston near St Helens, Lancashire, England in 1845 and his father Thomas Seddon was a school headmaster, and his mother Jane Lindsay was a teacher. They married on 8 February 1842 at Christ Church, Eccleston and their children were, Thomas born 1842, who died 1849 Phoebe Ellen born 1843 died 1925 in New Zealand. Despite this background, Seddon did not perform well at school, despite his parents attempt to give him a classical education, Seddon developed an interest in engineering, but was removed from school at age 12. After working on his grandfather Richards farm at Barrow Nook Hall for two years, Seddon was an apprentice at Daglishs Foundry in St Helens and he later worked at Vauxhall foundry in Liverpool, where he attained a Board of Trade Certificate as a mechanical engineer. On 15 June 1862, at the age of 16, Seddon decided to emigrate to Australia and he later provided his reasoning, A restlessness to get away to see new, broad lands seized me, My work was irksome. He entered the workshops at Melbourne, Victoria. He was caught by the fever and went to Bendigo. He did not meet with any great success, in either 1865 or 1866, he became engaged to Louisa Jane Spotswood, but her family would not permit marriage until Seddon was more financially secure. In 1866, Seddon moved to New Zealands West Coast, initially, he worked the goldfields in Waimea. He is believed to have prospered here, and he returned briefly to Melbourne to marry Louisa and he established a store, and then expanded his business to include the sale of alcohol, becoming a publican. He was followed to the West Coast by his older sister Phoebe, younger brothers Edward and Jim, Phoebe married William Cunliffe on 9 May 1863 at Holy Trinity Church Eccleston. Their son Bill was Labour MP David Cunliffes grandfather, making Richard Seddon David Cunliffes great-great-uncle, Seddons first real involvement with politics was with various local bodies, such as the Arahura Road Board. In 1874 elected to the council of Westland Province, representing Arahura and he lost this position with the abolition of the provinces in 1876. Gradually, Seddon became known along the West Coast as an advocate for rights and interests. In 1877, Seddon was elected as the first Mayor of Kumara and he had staked a claim in Kumara the previous year, and had shortly afterwards moved his business there. Despite occasional financial troubles, his career prospered
27.
Freedom of religion
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It also includes the freedom to change ones religion or belief. Freedom of religion is considered by people and most of the nations to be a fundamental human right. Historically, freedom of religion has been used to refer to the tolerance of different theological systems of belief, each of these have existed to varying degrees. Compare examples of individual freedom in Italy or the Muslim tradition of dhimmis, in Antiquity, a syncretic point of view often allowed communities of traders to operate under their own customs. When street mobs of separate quarters clashed in a Hellenistic or Roman city, Cyrus the Great established the Achaemenid Empire ca.550 BC, and initiated a general policy of permitting religious freedom throughout the empire, documenting this on the Cyrus Cylinder. Some of the exceptions have been in regions where one of the revealed religions has been in a position of power, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity. This was the core for resentment and the persecution of early Christian communities, Freedom of religious worship was established in the Buddhist Maurya Empire of ancient India by Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC, which was encapsulated in the Edicts of Ashoka. Greek-Jewish clashes at Cyrene in 73 AD and 117 AD and in Alexandria in 115 AD provide examples of cities as scenes of tumult. Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own systems in cases that did not involve other religious groups. ISIS re-established the punitive jizya tax and forbade Christians in Syria from building places of worship, ringing bells, wearing crosses or criticizing Islam, ancient Jews fleeing from persecution in their homeland 2,500 years ago settled in India and never faced anti-Semitism. Freedom of religion edicts have been written during Ashoka the Greats reign in the 3rd century BC. Freedom to practise, preach and propagate any religion is a right in Modern India. Most major religious festivals of the communities are included in the list of national holidays. Although India is an 80% Hindu country, India is a state without any state religions. Many scholars and intellectuals believe that Indias predominant religion, Hinduism, has long been a most tolerant religion, rajni Kothari, founder of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies has written, is a country built on the foundations of a civilisation that is fundamentally non-religious. The Dalai Lama, the Tibetan leader in exile, said that religious tolerance of Aryabhoomi, not only Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism which are the native religions but also Christianity and Islam have flourished here. Religious tolerance is inherent in Indian tradition, the Dalai Lama said, Freedom of religion in the Indian subcontinent is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi. One of King Ashokas main concerns was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a just and humane society
28.
Missionary
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A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
29.
Religious denomination
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A religious denomination is a subgroup within a religion that operates under a common name, tradition, and identity. The term refers to the various Christian denominations and it is also used to describe the four branches of Judaism. Within Islam, it can refer to the branches or sects, as well as their various subdivisions such as sub-sects, schools of jurisprudence, schools of theology, the worlds largest religious denomination is Sunni Islam, followed by Roman Catholicism. A Christian denomination is a term for a distinct religious body identified by traits such as a common name, structure, leadership. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, groups of denominations often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties are known as branches of Christianity. Jewish religious movements, sometimes called denominations or branches, include different groups which have developed among Jews from ancient times, today, the main division is between the Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative lines, with several smaller movements alongside them. This threefold denominational structure is present in the United States. The movements differ in their views on various issues and these issues include the level of observance, the methodology for interpreting and understanding Jewish law, biblical authorship, textual criticism, and the nature or role of the messiah. Across these movements there are marked differences in liturgy, especially in the language in services are conducted. In Hinduism, the deity or philosophical belief identifies a denomination. The major denominations include Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism, historically, Islam was divided into three major sects well known as Sunni, Khawarij and Shī‘ah. Nowadays, Sunnis constitute more than 85% of the overall Muslim population while the Shias are slightly more than 12%, today, many of the Shia sects are extinct. The major surviving Imamah-Muslim Sects are Usulism, Nizari Ismailism, Alevism, on the other hand, new Muslim sects like African American Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims, non-denominational Muslims, Quranist Muslims and Wahhabis were later independently developed. The term multi-denominational may describe an event that includes several religious denominations from sometimes unrelated religious groups. Many civic events include religious portions led by representatives from several denominations to be as inclusive or representational as possible of the expected population or audience. Schools of Buddhism Christian denomination Hindu denominations Islamic denominations Jewish denominations Non-denominational Schism Sociological classifications of religious movements
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Deed
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For the British cargo ship, see SS Deed. For the reality series, see The Deed. A deed is any instrument in writing which passes, affirms or confirms an interest, right, or property and that is signed, attested, delivered. It is commonly associated with transferring title to property, the deed has a greater presumption of validity and is less rebuttable than an instrument signed by the party to the deed. A deed can be unilateral or bilateral, deeds include conveyances, commissions, licenses, patents, diplomas, and conditionally powers of attorney if executed as deeds. The deed is the descendant of the medieval charter. The traditional phrase signed, sealed and delivered refers to the practice of seals, however, agreements under seal are also called contracts by deed or specialty, in the United States, a specialty is enforceable without consideration. Specialties, as a form of contract, are bilateral and can therefore be distinguished from covenants, which, being also under seal, are unilateral promises. At common law, to be valid and enforceable, a deed must fulfill several requirements, It must state on its face that it is a deed and it must indicate that the instrument itself conveys some privilege or thing to someone. The grantor must have the ability to grant the thing or privilege. It must be executed by the grantor in presence of the number of witnesses. In some jurisdictions, a seal must be affixed to it, originally, affixing seals made persons parties to the deed and signatures optional, but seals are now outdated in most jurisdictions, so the signatures of the grantor and witnesses are primary. It must be delivered to and accepted by the grantee, conditions attached to the acceptance of a deed are known as covenants. A deed indented or indenture is one executed in two or more according to the number of parties, which were formerly separated by cutting in a curved or indented line known as the chirograph. A deed poll is one executed in one part, by one party, having the edge polled or cut even, in the transfer of real estate, a deed conveys ownership from the old owner to the new owner, and can include various warranties. The precise name and nature of these differ by jurisdiction. Often, however, the differences between them is the degree to which the grantor warrants the title. The grantor may give a general warranty of title against any claims, the latter type of deed is usually known as a special warranty deed
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Marae
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A marae malaʻe, meʻae, malae and mālaʻe is a communal or sacred place that serves religious and social purposes in Polynesian societies. In all these languages, the word also means cleared, free of weeds, trees, in the Rapanui culture of Easter Island ahu has become a synonym for the whole marae complex). In some modern Polynesian societies, notably that of the Māori of New Zealand, however, in tropical Polynesia, most marae were destroyed or abandoned with the arrival of Christianity in the 19th century and some of them have become an attraction for tourists or archaeologists. Nevertheless, the place where the marae were built are still considered as tapu in most islands, the word has been reconstructed by linguists to Eastern Oceanic *malaqe with the meaning open, cleared space used as meeting-place or ceremonial place. Like the related institutions of old Polynesia, the marae is a wāhi tapu, in Māori usage, the marae atea is the open space in front of the wharenui or meeting house. However, the marae is generally used to refer to the whole complex, including the buildings. This area is used for pōwhiri – welcome ceremonies featuring oratory, some marae do not allow women to perform oratory there. The meeting house is the locale for important meetings, sleepovers, the wharekai is used primarily for communal meals, but other activities may be carried out there. Many of the associated with marae in tropical Polynesia are retained in the Māori context. For example, the word refers to the bench where the speakers sit. Marae occur in various sizes, with some wharenui being a bit bigger than a double garage, a marae is a meeting place registered as a reserve under the Te Ture Whenua Māori Act 1993. Each marae has a group of trustees who are responsible for the operations of the marae, the Act governs the regulation of marae as reservations and sets out the responsibilities of the trustees in relation to the beneficiaries. Generally each marae has a charter which the trustees have negotiated with the beneficiaries of the marae, the New Zealand Māori Arts and Crafts Institute Act,1963 was passed and the institute built to maintain the tradition of Whakairo. The NZMACI is responsible for the restoration and building of over 40 marae around New Zealand, like in pre-European times, marae continue to be the location of many ceremonial events, including birthdays, weddings, and anniversaries. The most important event located at marae is the tangihanga, tangihanga are the means by which the dead are farewelled and the surviving family members supported in Māori society. As indicated by Kaai and Higgins, the importance of the tangihanga, most iwi, hapū, and even many small settlements have their own marae. An example of such a settlement with its own marae is at Hongoeka Bay, Plimmerton. Since the second half of the 20th century, Māori in urban areas have been establishing intertribal marae such as Maraeroa in eastern Porirua, for many Māori, the marae is just as important to them as their own homes
32.
Lying in state
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Lying in state is the tradition in which the body of a dead official is placed in a state building, either outside or inside a coffin, to allow the public to pay their respects. It traditionally takes place in the government building of a country, state. While the practice differs among countries, a viewing in a other than the principal government building may be referred to as lying in repose. In Canada, official lying in state is a part of a state funeral and it is held in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill, in the national capital, Ottawa. Ex-governors general lie in state in the Senate Chamber while former prime ministers lie in the Hall of Honour, guards stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted with their backs turned towards the casket. Provinces may also mount state funerals and have a lying in state for a former resident. For instance, Maurice Richard, nationally known player, was given a state funeral by the province of Quebec when he died in 2000. This process was repeated for fellow Canadiens legend Jean Béliveau in December 2014, municipalities may offer civic funerals to prominent deceased current or former politicians. An honor guard armed with an AK-47 was present, jong-ils father Kim Il-sung, the founding president, is on display elsewhere in the palace. They took place in Moscow, beginning with a lying in state of the deceased in the House of the Unions. For the lying in state at the House of the Unions, the coffin would be placed on display in the Column Hall, the mourners, which usually would be brought in by the thousands, shuffled up a marble staircase beneath chandeliers draped in black gauze. On the stage at the side of the Column Hall. A small guard of honour would be in attendance in the background, at the right side of the hall, seats were placed for guests of honour, with the front row reserved for the dead leaders family. On the day of the funeral, a military funeral parade would take place during which the coffin would be conveyed from the House of the Unions to Red Square where burial would take place. Lenin and Stalin were placed inside the Lenin Mausoleum, while Brezhnev, Andropov, at state funerals in Singapore, the national flag is put on the coffin. The vigil guard may be deployed during the lying in state of the deceased person at Parliament House. The deployment of the guard is the highest form of respect accorded by the nation to the deceased. One of the five officers stands facing outward at each of the four corners of the casket, while the fifth and most senior one stands in front and their heads are bowed and their ceremonial swords are inverted
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History of the Cook Islands
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The Cook Islands are named after Captain James Cook, who visited the islands in 1773 and 1777. The Cook Islands became a British protectorate in 1888, by 1900, the islands were annexed as British territory. In 1901, the islands were included within the boundaries of the Colony of New Zealand, the Cook Islands contain 15 islands in the group spread over a vast area in the South Pacific. The majority of islands are low coral atolls in the Northern Group, with Rarotonga, the main Cook Islands language is Rarotongan Māori. There are some variations in dialect in the outer islands and it is thought that the Cook Islands may have been settled between the years 900 -1200 AD. Early settlements suggest that were great warriors migrating from Tahiti. The Cook Islands continue to hold important connections with Tahiti, and it is also thought that the early settlers were true Tahitians, who landed in Rarotonga. There are notable historic epics of great warriors that travel between the two nations for a variety of reasons. These missions are still unclear but recent research indicate that large to small groups often flee their island due to local wars being forced upon them, for each group to travel and to survive, they would normally rely on a warrior to lead them. Outstanding warriors are mentioned in the countries traditions and stories. These arrivals are evidenced by a road in Toi, the Ara Metua, which runs around most of Rarotonga. This 29 km long, paved road is an achievement of ancient engineering. The islands of Manihiki and Rakahanga trace their origins to the arrival of Toa, an outcast from Rarotonga, and Tupaeru, the remainder of the northern islands were probably settled by expeditions from Samoa. Portuguese-Spaniard Pedro Fernández de Quirós made the first recorded European landing in the islands when he set foot on Rakahanga in 1606, Captain Cook navigated and mapped much of the group. Surprisingly, Cook never sighted the largest island, Rarotonga, the first recorded landing by Europeans was in 1814 by the Cumberland, trouble broke out between the sailors and the Islanders and many were killed on both sides. The islands saw no more Europeans until missionaries arrived from England in 1821, Christianity quickly took hold in the culture and remains the predominant religion today. In 1823, Captain John Dibbs of the colonial barque Endeavour made the first official sighting of the island Rarotonga, the Endeavour was transporting Rev. John Williams on a missionary voyage to the islands. Brutal Peruvian slave traders, known as blackbirders, took a toll on the islands of the Northern Group in 1862 and 1863
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House of Ariki
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The House of Ariki is a parliamentary body in the Cook Islands. It is composed of Cook Islands high chiefs, appointed by the Queens Representative, there are up to twenty four members, representing different islands of the Cooks. It was established in 1967 by Prime Minister Albert Henry, shortly after the country obtained self-government from New Zealand, Henry stated that the ariki were the Cook Islands royal heritage. The House of Ariki was intended to confer additional legitimacy and strength to the newly self-governing nation, Henry stated, The ariki and their tribes are the backbone of all nations in this world. For any nation to allow this backbone to be broken or to disappear would mean that they are relying on a backbone for their survival. The vice-president is Kainuku Kapiriterangi Ariki, according to Ron Crocombe and Jon Tikivanotau Jonassen, The House of Ariki was created to marginalize the ariki. Most of them had opposed the party won the election at self-government, so it created and quarantined them in a House with dignity. To marginalize ariki further, that party later created a Koutu Nui of mataiapo, on 13 June 2008, a small majority of members of the House of Ariki attempted a coup, claiming to dissolve the elected government and to take control of the countrys leadership. Basically we are dissolving the leadership, the minister and the deputy prime minister. The Cook Islands Herald suggested that the Ariki were attempting thereby to regain some of their traditional prestige or mana, Prime Minister Jim Marurai described the take-over move as ill-founded and nonsensical. Police commissioner Pat Tasker added that it was laughable, and that the police did not intend to take it seriously, by 23 June, the situation appeared to have normalised, with members of the House of Ariki accepting to return to their regular duties. List of Presidents of the House of Ariki House of Lords Chamber of Peers NZ Māori stirs Cooks sovereignty stoush
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
