1.
Mining
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Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
2.
Cornwall
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Cornwall is a ceremonial county and unitary authority area of England within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, Cornwall has a population of 551,700 and covers an area of 3,563 km2. Cornwall forms the westernmost part of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and this area was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, there is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. In the mid-19th century, however, the tin and copper mines entered a period of decline, subsequently, china clay extraction became more important and metal mining had virtually ended by the 1990s. Traditionally, fishing and agriculture were the important sectors of the economy. Railways led to a growth of tourism in the 20th century, however, the area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes, its long and varied coastline, its attractive villages, its many place-names derived from the Cornish language, and its very mild climate. Extensive stretches of Cornwalls coastline, and Bodmin Moor, are protected as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. Some people question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, and a nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly. On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The modern English name Cornwall derives from the concatenation of two ancient demonyms from different linguistic traditions, Corn- records the native Brythonic tribe, the Cornovii. The Celtic word kernou is cognate with the English word horn. -wall derives from the Old English exonym walh, the Ravenna Cosmography first mentions a city named Purocoronavis in the locality. This is thought to be a rendering of Duro-cornov-ium, meaning fort of the Cornovii. The exact location of Durocornovium is disputed, with Tintagel and Carn Brea suggested as possible sites, in later times, Cornwall was known to the Anglo-Saxons as West Wales to distinguish it from North Wales. The name appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 891 as On Corn walum, in the Domesday Book it was referred to as Cornualia and in c.1198 as Cornwal. Other names for the county include a latinisation of the name as Cornubia, the present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age. The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods and it continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age people. The Common Brittonic spoken at the time developed into several distinct tongues
3.
Samson Pit
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The Samson Pit or Samson Mine is an historic silver mine in Sankt Andreasberg in the Upper Harz region of central Germany. The pit has one of the oldest man engines in the still working. The man engine, installed in the Samson Pit in 1837, the start of this ditch is the Oderteich reservoir, which is part of the Upper Harz Water Regale. The large water wheel, which drove the man engine until 1922, is powered by water today for demonstration purposes. When it was a mine the Samson Pit was, for a long time. Mining in Sankt Andreasberg began before 1487, the first definite record of the pit is dated 1537. The oldest, mining office records referring to the Samson Pit come from the year 1661, Mining in Sankt Andreasberg experienced its first boom during the 1560s. But times of high yield were frequently accompanied by sharp drops in output, the routine problem of water shortages caused by low precipitation or frost was solved by the construction of the New Rehberg Ditch to feed water to the wheel. From 1700 to 1730, mining in the Sankt Andreasberg area went through a boom with silver outputs of 1. On 12 December 1777 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe entered the Samson Pit as part of his first Harz visit and later noted in his diary Entered Samson in the evening, was very dismal to me this time. At the beginning of the 19th century, silver production almost always exceeded 2,000 kg per year, the last shift of 80 miners left the pit on 31 March 1910. The mine had 42 galleries and a depth of about 840 m. The mine was famous in the 18th century for its finds of rare and exotic minerals, the very rare mineral samsonite was named after the pit. In 1950 the Samson Pit Mining Museum opened and, since 2001, in 1987 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers placed the Samson Pit on the list of internationally historic engineering monuments. In the shaft of the Samson Pit today there are several turbines belonging to firm of Harz Energie and they supply the bulk of the electrical power needed by the mining town. At a depth of 130 m is the Grüner Hirsch Power Station, the Sieberstollen Power Station lies at a depth of 190 m and is drained by the 3.1 km long Sieber Adit into the Sieber. An Historical Perspective on Silver Mining in Germany, Mineralogical Record,17, official website Information on the mining town of St. Andreasberg
4.
Dolcoath mine
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Dolcoath mine (Cornish, Bal Dorkoth} was a copper and tin mine in Camborne, Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. Its name derives from the Cornish for Old Ground, and it was affectionately known as The Queen of Cornish Mines. The site is north-west of Carn Brea, Dolcoath Road runs between the A3047 road and Chapel Hill. The site is south of this road, the mineral rights were owned by the Basset family of Tehidy who are recorded on a deed in 1588 as leasing the ground to a family called Crane. By 1720 the mine was being worked for copper, and it was almost 300 feet deep in 1746, in 1778 it was nearly 600 feet deep, according to William Price. The mine closed in 1787 because the amount of copper ore that was being cheaply mined from Parys Mountain on Anglesey had depressed the price. However the price of copper recovered and the mine reopened in 1799. Of around 470 copper-producing mines in Cornwall and Devon, Dolcoath became the fifth largest, but as depth increased the copper died out, and by 1832 the mine was in danger of closing. By 1882 the mine had reached a depth of 2,160 feet and had 12 miles of tunnels passable by men, in 1893 there was a major accident at the 412-fathom level. In 1895 it took men employed in the levels between 2–3 hours to go down and return to the surface, so they could not work more than 4–5 hours a day. Dolcoath became the largest and deepest mine in Cornwall, with its shaft, known as New Sump Shaft. The pumping engine that worked this shaft dated from 1815, a piece of the cast iron bob from this engine is preserved in the collection of the Trevithick Society. This engine originally had a 76-inch-diameter cylinder, but this had to be replaced with an 85-inch cylinder when it was not powerful enough to cope with the deepening shaft. The rebuilt engine was so large there was not enough room in the engine house for the stairs. In 1895 it was decided to reconstruct the company as a limited company, a new shaft, named the Williams Shaft after the first chairman of the new company, was started in October 1895, intended to be the first 3, 000-foot vertical shaft in Cornwall. It was completed in 1910 and came into use the next year, in 1920 when the mine had become virtually worked out and following the tin price collapse Dolcoath finally closed. The company was reconstructed in 1923 when fresh capital was raised, the New Dolcoath Mine was actually an amalgamation of several smaller mines including Stray Park and Roskear. In 1936 Dolcoaths sett was purchased by South Crofty, on 20 September 1893 a party of miners was strengthening a large stull at the 412 level
5.
Harz
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The Harz is a Mittelgebirge that has the highest elevations in Northern Germany and its rugged terrain extends across parts of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia. The name Harz derives from the Middle High German word Hardt or Hart, the Brocken is the highest summit in the Harz with an elevation of 1,141.1 metres above sea level. The Wurmberg is the highest peak located entirely within the state of Lower Saxony, the Harz has a length of 110 kilometres, stretching from the town of Seesen in the northwest to Eisleben in the east, and a width of 35 kilometres. The following districts fall wholly or partly within the Harz, Goslar and Osterode am Harz in the west, Harz and Mansfeld-Südharz in the north and east, and Nordhausen in the south. The districts of the Upper Harz are Goslar and Osterode, whilst the Lower Harz is on the territory of Harz and Mansfeld-Südharz districts. The Upper Harz is generally higher and features fir forests, whilst the Lower Harz gradually descends into the area and has deciduous forests interspersed with meadows. The dividing line between Upper and Lower Harz follows approximately a line from Ilsenburg to Bad Lauterberg, which separates the catchment areas for the Weser. Only on the perimeter of the Upper Harz, which is also called the High Harz. Its highest peak is the Brocken, its peaks are the Heinrichshöhe to the southeast. Other prominent hills in the Harz are the Acker-Bruchberg ridge, the Achtermannshöhe, in the far east, the mountains merge into the East Harz foothills, which are dominated by the Selke Valley. Part of the south Harz lies in the Thuringian district of Nordhausen, the Harz National Park is located in the Harz, the protected area covers the Brocken and surrounding wilderness area. Approximately 600,000 people live in towns and villages of the Harz Mountains, because of the heavy rainfall in the region the rivers of the Harz Mountains were dammed from an early date. Examples of such dams are the two largest, the Oker Dam and the Rappbode Dam. The clear, cool water of the streams was also dammed by early mountain folk to form the various mountain ponds of the Upper Harz waterways. The 17 dams in the Harz block a total of twelve rivers, because the Harz is one of the regions of Germany that experiences the most rainfall, its water power was used from early times. Today the dams are used to generate electricity, to provide drinking water, to prevent flooding. Modern dam-building began in the Harz with the construction of the Söse Valley Dam, the dams of the Upper Harz lakes are some of the oldest dams in Germany that are still in operation. → See List of dams in the Harz The largest rivers in the Harz are the Innerste, the Oker and the Bode in the north, the Wipper in the east, the Innerste merges into the Leine and its tributaries are the Nette and the Grane
6.
Water wheel
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A water wheel is a machine for converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power, often in a watermill. A water wheel consists of a wheel, with a number of blades or buckets arranged on the outside rim forming the driving surface. Most commonly, the wheel is mounted vertically on a horizontal axle, vertical wheels can transmit power either through the axle or via a ring gear and typically drive belts or gears, horizontal wheels usually directly drive their load. Water wheels were still in use well into the 20th century. Uses included milling flour in gristmills, grinding wood into pulp for papermaking, hammering wrought iron, machining, some water wheels are fed by water from a mill pond, which is formed when a flowing stream is dammed. A channel for the water flowing to or from a wheel is called a mill race. The race bringing water from the pond to the water wheel is a headrace. In the mid to late 18th century John Smeatons scientific investigation of the water led to significant increases in efficiency supplying much needed power for the Industrial Revolution. Water wheels began being displaced by the smaller, less expensive and more efficient turbine, developed by Benoît Fourneyron, turbines are capable of handling high heads, or elevations, that exceed the capability of practical-sized waterwheels. The main difficulty of water wheels is their dependence on flowing water, modern hydroelectric dams can be viewed as the descendants of the water wheel, as they too take advantage of the movement of water downhill. The two main functions of water wheels were historically water-lifting for irrigation purposes and as a power source, when used for water-lifting power can be supplied by either human or animal force or by the water current itself. Water wheels come in two designs, either a vertical or a horizontal axle. The latter type can be subdivided, depending on where the hits the wheel. Engineers of the Hellenistic era Mediterranean region are credited with the development of the water wheel, Mediterranean engineers of the Hellenistic and Roman periods were also the first to use it for both irrigation and as a power source. The technological breakthrough occurred in the advanced and scientifically minded Hellenistic period between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. This is seen as an evolution of the paddle-driven water-lifting wheels that had appeared in ancient Egypt by the 4th century BCE. According to John Peter Oleson, both the wheel and the hydraulic Noria appeared in Egypt by the 4th century BCE. This is supported by finds at Faiyum, where the oldest archeological evidence of a water-wheel has been found
7.
Pumpjack
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A pumpjack is the overground drive for a reciprocating piston pump in an oil well. It is used to mechanically lift liquid out of the if not enough bottom hole pressure exists for the liquid to flow all the way to the surface. The arrangement is used for onshore wells producing little oil. Pumpjacks are common in oil-rich areas, depending on the size of the pump, it generally produces 5 to 40 litres of liquid at each stroke. Often this is an emulsion of oil and water. Pump size is determined by the depth and weight of the oil to remove. A pumpjack converts the motion of the motor to a vertical reciprocating motion to drive the pump shaft. The engineering term for this type of mechanism is a walking beam and it was often employed in stationary and marine steam engine designs in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the early days, pumpjacks worked by rod lines running horizontally above the ground to a wheel on an eccentric in a mechanism known as a central power. The central power, which operate a dozen or more pumpjacks. Among the advantages of this scheme was only having one motor to power all the pumpjacks rather than individual motors for each, however, among the many difficulties was maintaining system balance as individual well loads changed. Modern pumpjacks are powered by a prime mover, common off-grid pumpjack engines run on natural gas, often casing gas produced from the well, but pumpjacks have been run on many types of fuel, such as propane and diesel fuel. In harsh climates, such motors and engines may be housed in a shack for protection from the elements, engines that power water pumpjacks often receive natural gas from the nearest available gas grid. The cranks raise and lower one end of an I-beam which is free to move on an A-frame, on the other end of the beam is a curved metal box called a horse head or donkey head, so named due to its appearance. A cable made of steel—occasionally, fibreglass—called a bridle, connects the head to the polished rod. The cranks themselves also produce counterbalance due to their weight, so on pumpjacks that do not carry heavy loads. Sometimes, however, crank-balanced units can become prohibitively heavy due to the need for counterweights, currently, Lufkin Industries offer air-balanced units, where counterbalance is provided by a pneumatic cylinder charged with air from a compressor, eliminating the need for counterweights. The polished rod has a fit to the stuffing box, letting it move in
8.
Clausthal-Zellerfeld
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Clausthal-Zellerfeld is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located in the part of the Harz mountains. Clausthal-Zellerfeld was the seat of the former Samtgemeinde Oberharz, altenau-Schulenberg im Oberharz Buntenbock Clausthal-Zellerfeld Wildemann Clausthal-Zellerfeld originally consisted of two towns which were merged in 1924 to form an administrative unit. Clausthal is well known for the old Clausthal University of Technology and its magnificent buildings, while Zellerfeld is a typical tourist resort for hikers, Clausthal-Zellerfeld is the largest town in the area that is situated in the mountains rather than on the edge. Mining in the began in the 16th century. The Innerste Valley Railway was inaugurated in 1877 and extended to Altenau in 1914, the large station building and 70 other buildings in the town were destroyed in an air raid on 7 October 1944. Mining activity halted in 1930 because the ore deposits were exhausted, today, there are large remains of mines in the surrounding Harz region, some of which are now museums. The railway line was closed in 1976, the former railway station, which was rebuilt from 1961-1963 after being destroyed in 1944, houses the tourist information and the municipal library today. The Clausthal University of Technology was established in 1775 for the education of mining engineers, today, it is a technical university for teaching engineering. Tower dating from 1637. de Clausthal-Zellerfeld at DMOZ Clausthal
9.
Wilhelm Albert (engineer)
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Wilhelm August Julius Albert was a German mining administrator, best remembered as the first person to record observations of metal fatigue. Albert was born in Hanover and showed talent as a musician before embarking on the study of law in Göttingen in 1803. Experience in the Harz mountains awakened an interest in mining and, in 1806, he was appointed to the Mining, by 1836 he was directing the entire mining industry of the Harz region. In 1829, he observed, studied and reported the failure of iron mine hoist chains arising from repeated small loadings and he built a machine which repeatedly loaded a chain. His finding was that fatigue was not associated with an overload, but was dependent on load. He invented a twisted steel cable, later known as an Albert Rope, which was first used in the Clausthal Caroline mine in 1834 and was the forerunner of the modern wire rope
10.
Adit
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Adits are also used to explore for mineral veins. Adits are driven into the side of a hill or mountain, in cases where the mineral vein outcrops at the surface, the adit may follow the lode or vein until it is worked out, in which case the adit is rarely straight. The use of adits for the extraction of ore is called drift mining. Adits can only be driven into a mine where the topography permits. There will be no opportunity to drive an adit to a mine situated on a flat plain. Also if the ground is weak, the cost of shoring up a long adit may outweigh its possible advantages, access to a mine by adit has many advantages over the vertical access shafts used in shaft mining. Less energy is required to transport miners and heavy equipment into and it is also much easier to bring ore or coal out of the mine. Horizontal travel by means of narrow gauge tramway or cable car is much safer and can move more people. Most adits are designed to slope slightly upwards from the entrance so that water will flow out of the mine. Mines that have adits can be at least partly drained of water by gravity alone or power-assisted gravity, the depth to which a mine can be drained by gravity alone is defined by the deepest open adit which is known as the drainage adit. Workings above this level will remain unflooded as long as the adit does not become blocked, all mine workings below both the drainage adit and the water table will flood unless mechanical means are used for drainage. Until the invention of the engine this was the main restriction on deep mining. Of course, adits are still useful for deeper mines because the water needs to be raised to the drainage adit rather than to the surface. A side benefit of driving such extensive adits is that previously unknown ore-bodies can be discovered, great County Adit, a system of over 65 kilometres of adits used for dewatering the over 100 mines in the Gwennap area of Cornwall in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Milwr tunnel, a ten-mile -long drainage adit in North Wales, started in 1897, it still discharges an average of 23 million US gallons of water per day from the disused Halkyn District United Mines. The Snowy Hydro scheme in the Australian Snowy Mountains created during its construction and these adits are very large and used to access the central point from which the hydro tunnels were constructed. Black Trout Adit in Tarnowskie Góry, Poland and it is part of a former silver mine, the adit was used for removing the water out of the mine. Blue Hawk Mine near Kelowna, BC, Canada, nORCATs Underground Mine Centre, used for underground training and mining technology development in Onaping, ON, Canada
11.
Sankt Andreasberg
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Sankt Andreasberg is a town and a former municipality in the district of Goslar, in Lower Saxony, Germany. Since 1 November 2011, it is part of the town Braunlage and it is situated in the Harz, approximately 7 km west of Braunlage proper, and 20 km east of Osterode am Harz. Sankt Andreasberg was founded in the 1480s and it was first mentioned in a letter from the Count Heinrich zu Stolberg to Dietrich von Witzlebenon on 3 November 1487. The establishment of the village took place around the market, the first silver mines are assumed to be the St. Andrews Cross Mine at the foot of the Beerberg and the St. Andrews Mine by the market. In 1521, St. Andreasberg received the right to mine from Counts Heinrich and it was proclaimed in Mansfelder Land and in the mining areas of Saxony and miners were invited to dig for silver and other metals. The area around Sankt Andreasberg is especially rich in habitats worthy of protection in within the Harz National Park, in the national park north-northwest of Sankt Andreasberg are the Dreibrodesteine, three outsize blocks of granite that have been formed by spheroidal weathering. According to legend they originated as the three loaves of bread of a woman who would not help a starving miner. With the words Meine drei Brote sollen lieber zu Steinen werden she spurned the miner, whereupon the loaves grew into giant stones, the granite blocks were considered a warning against heartlessness. At the Dreibrodesteine is checkpoint no.154 in the Harzer Wandernadel hiking system, other natural monuments are a group of chestnuts on the market square and the diabase deposit in the village of Silberhütte. The boundary between the platform made of greywacke hornfels and the underlying fine-grained Brocken granite runs by the Hohe Klippen. The population of Sankt Andreasberg is mostly Protestant, as a result of their elevation, Sankt Andreasberg and Sonnenberg still have fairly guaranteed snow. Sankt Andreasberg is an Alpine Ski Centre of the Harz, with three T-bar lifts on the Sonnenberg as well as two double chair lifts and three T-bars at the Matthias Schmidt Mountain Centre, in the Teichtal there is the first snowtubing track in the Harz. The cross-country skiing trail network around Sankt Andreasberg has 40 km of tracks and is linked from the Sonnenberg to Oderbrück/Torfhaus, on Matthias Schmidt Mountain a Sommerrodelbahn is open during the summer. Nordic Walking, hiking, mountain biking and trekking are popular activities in the peaceful surroundings of the Sankt Andreasberg mountain town. In the spa park there is a course and climbing park. The southern part of the Oderteich reservoir in the Harz National Park is open to swimmers in the summer, coming from Torfhaus and Oderteich, the Brocken bypass section of the nearly 100 km long Harzer Hexenstieg hiking trail passes through the town and heads for Braunlage and Thale. Mountain rescue services are provided by the local Harz Mountain Rescue Club, several Sankt Andreasberg sports clubs enjoy a long tradition. These include the Sankt Andreasberg Shooting Club and the Sankt Andreasberg Gymnastics, following the success of the 1st Winterfest in 1896 the Upper Harz Ski Club was founded on the Brocken, it is now called the St. Andreasberg Ski Club 1896
12.
Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society
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The Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society is an educational, cultural and scientific charity, as well as a local arts and cinema venue, based in Falmouth, Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The Society exists to promote innovation in the arts and sciences, a prominent Quaker business family of Falmouth, founded the Cornwall Polytechnic Society, to promote the ideas and inventions of the workers in their Perran Foundry. This was the first use of the word ‘Polytechnic’ in Britain, in the same year the Polytechnic Hall was built, at 24 Church Street, Falmouth, being originally used for “objects connected with the sciences, arts and literature”, but not for theatrical purposes. This restriction was removed in 1889 to permit “dramatic plays”, the building was designed by George Wightwick. In all, there were 98 committee members, prentices gun cotton was also demonstrated. In 1858 the Society founded The Miners Association to better aid the mining industry, the first Secretary to the Poly was Thomas Brown Jordan. In 1840, Jordan was succeeded as Secretary by Robert Hunt, the presentation of the cutting edge of scientific knowledge resulted in large and enthusiastic audiences. The Society has had many notable presidents including the novelist Howard Spring who lived in Falmouth from 1947 to 1965, notable members and others associated with the Poly include, Jonathan Couch, physician and naturalist. Henry Letheby, analytical chemist and public health engineer, matthew Paul Moyle, surgeon and geologist. John Eastman Palmer, 19th-century photographer John Arthur Phillips, mining engineer, elizabeth Andrew Warren, botanist There is no serious overview of developments in the Poly from its 19th-century heyday. Peter Gilson, the Societys historian until his death in 2009, prepared a basic chronology, the Society was left with a substantial building, which could be used for films and, from the mid-Century, theatrical productions. Members kept up programmes of exhibitions and lectures, but there were financial problems caused by the need to maintain an ageing building. A Community-led campaign to Save Our Poly produced a revitalisation of the Society, the Society is also the owner of the biggest collection of pictures of Henry Scott Tuke. In 2012, the Society is benefitting from the health of the local Falmouth economy. This means that the Polys facilities in the heart of Falmouth are increasingly a major asset to both Town and Gown, as far as one can tell, the Poly was not only the first Polytechnic in the English-speaking world, but has now become the last one. The Hall was renovated, with renewed gallery seating and improved exits,1920 – 74th Exhibition at Camborne. 1922 – Art schools participate in Exhibition, scenes of old Falmouth presented by the Womens Institute at Rosehill. 1925 – Exhibition of Essays, Models, Art and Craftwork/Photography by children,1928 – W. Tregoning Hooper took over Obseervatory work
13.
Lanner, Cornwall
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Lanner is a village and civil parish in west Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is situated on the A393 about 2 miles south-east of Redruth, Lanner is in the St Day, Carharrack and Lanner ward which had a collective population of 5,438 in 2001. The population of Lanner civil parish was 2,493 in the 2001 census, the village has a primary school, Lanner School. The name Lanner comes from the Cornish Lannergh, which means a clearing, the village is a former tin and copper mining parish which grew rapidly in the 19th-century, but has been recorded as far back as 1542, and with settlement traces back to the Bronze Age. Michael Loam erected his first man engine at Tresavean mine, Lanner, the mine was, in its heyday, one of the most productive copper mines in Cornwall. The parish church, Christ Church, is in the Diocese of Truro and was consecrated on St Swithins day,1845 and it is a small stuccoed building and was restored in 1883. The foundation stone of the Anglican chapel in Lanner was laid on 20 April 1839, the Times reported that On Wednesday, the 20th ult. the first stone of a new chapel at Lanner, in Gwennap, was laid by the Venerable Archdeacon Sheepshanks. Until constituted a parish in 1844 Lanner was part of the parish of Gwennap, Lanner has a large Wesleyan Methodist chapel. The former Bible Christian chapel is now used as the Village Hall, Lanner lies in a valley with Carn Marth hill rising 235 metres north of the village. Lanner Hill is west of the village and Tresavean Hill is to the south, the village is centred on a square and straddles the A393 Redruth to Falmouth road. The village slopes down the valley, the west end is known as Lanner Hill, the village is well known for the Lanner and District Silver Band which is among the more prominent of the brass bands in Cornwall. The American countertenor Richard Jose was born in Lanner in 1862, he emigrated to the United States, electronic musician Richard D. James grew up in Lanner. Lanner RFU are a rugby club, founded in 2014. They won promotion in their first season in rugby and in 2016 came first in Cornwall 1 to win promotion to Tribute Cornwall/Devon. Schwartz, Sharron and Parker, Roger Lanner - A Cornish Mining Parish, Tiverton, Devon, Lanner Parish Council Lanner Village website - Historic Trail page
14.
Redruth
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Redruth is a town and civil parish in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The population of Redruth was 14,018 at the 2011 census, Camborne and Redruth together form the largest urban area in Cornwall and before local government reorganisation were an urban district. The name Redruth derives from its older Cornish name, Rhyd-ruth and it is the -ruth which means the colour red. Traditionally in the Penwith Hundred, the town has developed away from the original settlement and this location is a steeply wooded valley, with Carn Brea on one side and the now-called Bullers Hill on the other. The presence of shallow lodes of tin and copper lying east to west made it a site for extracting metals, including, tin, lead. The first settlers stayed by a crossing in the river and started extracting metal ores, historically, Redruth was a small market town overshadowed by its neighbours until a boom in the demand for copper ore during the 18th century. Copper ore had mostly been discarded by the Cornish tin-mining industry but was now needed to make brass, surrounded by copper ore deposits, Redruth quickly became one of the largest and richest mining areas in Britain and the towns population grew markedly, although most miners families remained poor. The Mining Exchange was built in 1880 as a place for the trading of mineral stock, Redruth was making its transition from a market town dominated by mines and industry to a residential centre. By the end of the 19th century, the Cornish mining industry was in decline, to find employment, many miners emigrated to the newer mining industries in the Americas, Australasia and South Africa. Cornwalls last fully operational mine, South Crofty at Pool between Redruth and Camborne, closed in March 1998, Redruth School, a Technology College, is a secondary school and sixth form college, for ages 11–18. Primary schools within the town include Pennoweth School, Treleigh School, Treloweth Community Primary School, Trewirgie Infant School, the Curnow Community Special School caters for students with special needs. The Parish Church of St Uny, which is distance from the town centre, is of Norman foundation but was rebuilt in 1756. The patron saint is also honoured at Lelant, the tower is two centuries earlier and the whole church is built of granite. A chapel of ease was built in the town in 1828, other places of worship include the Wesleyan Church of 1826, the Free Methodist Church of 1864 and the Quaker Meeting House of 1833. The former post office in Alma Place is now known as the Cornish Studies Centre, the Mining Exchange building is now used as a housing advice centre. The house now called Murdoch House in the middle of Cross Street was erected in the 1660s as a chapel, william Murdoch lived in it from 1782 to 1798. During this time, he worked on local tin and copper mines, erecting engines on behalf of Boulton and he fitted the house out with gas lighting from coal gas – this was the first house in the world with this type of lighting. In the 19th century, the house was used as a tea room, in 1931 Mr A. Pearce Jenkin, a leading citizen of Redruth purchased the house and gave it as a gift to the Society of Friends
15.
Gear
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A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source, Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape, two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack, the gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed, belt pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage, in transmissions with multiple gear ratios—such as bicycles, motorcycles, and cars—the term gear as in first gear refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term describes similar devices, even when the ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain gears. Early examples of gears date from the 4th century BC in China, examples of further development include, Ma Jun used gears as part of a south-pointing chariot. The Antikythera mechanism is an example of an early and intricate geared device. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC, the water-powered grain-mill, the water-powered saw mill, fulling mill, and other applications of watermill often used gears. The first mechanical clocks were built in AD725, the 1386 Salisbury cathedral clock may be the worlds oldest working mechanical clock. The definite ratio that teeth give gears provides an advantage over other drives in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio, an external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, a gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, a gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal, spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially, though the teeth are not straight-sided, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh together correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts, No axial thrust is created by the tooth loads. Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds, helical or dry fixed gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, since the gear is curved, this angling makes the tooth shape a segment of a helix
16.
Trunnion
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A trunnion is a cylindrical protrusion used as a mounting or pivoting point. First associated with cannon, they are an important military development, alternatively, a trunnion is a shaft that positions and supports a tilting plate. This is a misnomer, as in reality it is a cradle for the true trunnion, in mechanical engineering, it is one part of a rotating joint where a shaft is inserted into a full or partial cylinder. In a cannon, the trunnions are two projections cast just forward of the center of mass of the cannon and fixed to a two-wheeled movable gun carriage. As they allowed the muzzle to be raised and lowered easily, with the creation of larger and more powerful siege guns in the early 15th century, a new way of mounting them had to be specially designed. Stouter gun carriages were created with reinforced wheels, axles, guns would be up to eight feet in length and shoot iron projectiles weighing from twenty-five to fifty pounds. These wrought iron balls when discharged were comparable in range and accuracy with stone-firing bombards, trunnions were mounted near the center of mass to allow the barrel to be elevated to any desired angle, without having to dismount it from the carriage upon which it rested. Some guns had a set of trunnions placed several feet back from the first pair. The gun would recoil causing the carriage to move backwards several feet and it became easier to rapidly transport these large siege guns, maneuver them from transportation mode to firing position, and they could go wherever a team of men or horses could pull them. Due to its capabilities, the French- and Burgundy-designed siege gun, equipped with its trunnions, king Charles VIII and the French army used this new gun in the 1494 invasion of Italy. Although deemed masters of war and artillery at that time, Italians had not anticipated the innovations in French siege weaponry. Prior to this, field guns were huge, large-caliber bombards, superguns that. Cities that had proudly withstood sieges for up to seven years fell swiftly with the advent of new weapons. Defensive tactics and fortifications had to be altered since these new weapons could be transported so speedily and these towers would be deemed trace Italienne. Whoever could afford these new weapons had the advantage over their neighbors and smaller sovereignties. Smaller states, such as the principalities of Italy, began to conglomerate, preexisting stronger entities, such as France or the Habsburg emperors, were able to expand their territories and maintain tighter control. With the threat of their land and castles being seized, the nobility began to pay their taxes, on firearms, the barrel is sometimes mounted in a trunnion, which in turn is mounted to the receiver. This usage is common for tubular or pressed metal frame guns, such as the AK-47, PPSh-41, Uzi, Sten, and others
17.
Minecart
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The minecart or mine cart is a type of rolling stock found on a mine railway, used for moving ore and materials procured in the process of traditional mining. Shaped like large, rectangular buckets, minecarts ride on metal tracks and were pushed or pulled by men. These were also used to pull trains transporting miners to the workfaces, minecarts range in size and usage, and are usually made of steel for hauling ore. Throughout the world, there are different titles for such carts, in South Africa, for instance, a minecart is referred to as a cocopan. In Great Britain, restored mine carts containing floral displays can commonly be seen on village greens and outside pubs in former mining areas such as Northumberland. Mine carts were an important source of transportation of ore. In Wales, UK, minecarts are known as drams, in the U. S. and elsewhere the term skip is used. Minecarts were very important in the history of technology because they evolved into railroad cars, minecarts have been depicted as a type of thrill ride, for instance Indiana Jones uses one in an escape scene. A minecart is also featured in Hoodwinked, minecarts and tracks can be crafted by the player in Minecraft and used for transportation. They are also found in abandoned mineshafts that generate naturally as a part of the procedural generation. Mine car Corf Media related to Mining carts at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Bucket (machine part)
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A bucket is a specialized container attached to a machine, as compared to a bucket adapted for manual use by a human being. It is a material handling component. The bucket has a volume as compared to other types of machine attachments like blades or shovels. The name bucket may have been coined from buckets used in water wheels, buckets in mechanical engineering can have a distinct quality from the traditional bucket whose purpose is to contain things. Larger versions of type of bucket equip bucket trucks to contain human beings, buckets in water-hauling systems in mines or, for instance. Buckets exist in a variety of sizes or shapes and they can be quite large like those equipping Hulett cranes, used to discharge ore out of cargo ships in harbours or very small such as those used by deep-sea exploration vehicles. The shape of the bucket can vary from the conical shape of an actual bucket to more scoop-like or spoon-like shapes akin to water turbines. The cross section can be round or square and this is the same shape of a domestic form, the one-piece-standing single element, but often with an augmented size. In early developments of mining, a simple bucket allowed easy insertion of both miners and construction materials such as pit props, and later extraction of miners and ore. Common terms used in parts of the world include, Bowk, Kibble, Hoppit. Latterly they have been called sinking buckets, as they are now used when sinking new mine shafts before insertion of the cage. Concrete buckets help deliver concrete on a site of a building by the means of a tower crane. They have an opening to allow concrete to flow out of the bucket when in-place. They are placed at the end of an arm and have to be made from a material that provides isolation from electricity, like fiber glass. There may be a door on the side of the bucket, excavator buckets are made of solid steel and generally present teeth protruding from the cutting edge, to disrupt hard material and avoid wear-and-tear of the bucket. Subsets of the excavator bucket are, the bucket, trenching bucket, A ditching bucket is a wider bucket with no teeth, 5–6 feet used for excavating larger excavations. A trenching excavator bucket is normally 6 to 24 in wide, the design is used in bucket-wheel excavators. The buckets in the wheel have to be made of material to withstand the resistance of the material it cuts through
19.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
20.
Seesaw
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A seesaw is a long, narrow board supported by a single pivot point, most commonly located at the midpoint between both ends, as one end goes up, the other goes down. Mechanically, a seesaw is a lever and fulcrum, the most common playground design of seesaw features a board balanced in the center. A person sits on each end, and they take turns pushing their feet against the ground to lift their side into the air, playground seesaws usually have handles for the riders to grip as they sit facing each other. One problem with the design is that if a child allows himself/herself to hit the ground suddenly after jumping, or exits the seesaw at the bottom. For this reason, seesaws are often mounted above a surface such as foam or wood chips. Seesaws also are manufactured in shapes designed to look like other things, such as airplanes, helicopters, seesaws, and the eagerness of children to play with them, are sometimes used to aid in mechanical processes. For example, at the Gaviotas community in Colombia, a seesaw is connected to a water pump. Seesaws go by different names around the world. Seesaw, or its variant see-saw, is a direct Anglicisation of the French ci-ça, meaning literally, this-that, the term may also be attributable to the repetitive motion of a saw. It may have its origins in a combination of scie – the French word for saw with the Anglo-Saxon term saw, in most of the United States, a seesaw is also called a teeter-totter. According to linguist Peter Trudgill, the term originates from the Nordic language word tittermatorter, a teeter-totter may also refer to a two-person swing on a swing seat, on which two children sit facing each other and the teeter-totter swings back and forth in a pendulum motion. Both teeter-totter and seesaw demonstrate the process called reduplication, where a word or syllable is doubled. Reduplication is typical of words that indicate repeated activity, such as riding up, in the southeastern New England region of the United States, it is sometimes referred to as a tilt or a tilting board. Speakers in northeastern Massachusetts, United States, sometimes call them teedle boards, in the Narragansett Bay area the term changes to dandle or dandle board. This pattern suggests a New England term that spread down the coast, hickey-horse in the coastal regions of North Carolina is consistent with other linguistic and ethnic variations
21.
Cornish engine
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A Cornish engine is a type of steam engine developed in Cornwall, England, mainly for pumping water from a mine. It is a form of engine that uses steam at a higher pressure than the earlier engines designed by James Watt. Cornwall has long had tin, copper and other ore mines, but if mining is to take place at greater depths. This may be done using horse power or a waterwheel to operate pumps, accordingly, the conversion of coal into power to work pumps was highly desirable to the mining industry. Wheal Vor had one of the earliest Newcomen engines before 1714, the cost of fuel for pumping was thus a significant part of mining costs. Later, many of the more efficient early Watt engines were erected by Boulton and they charged the mine owners a royalty based on a share of the fuel saving. The fuel efficiency of an engine was measured by its duty, early Watt engines had a duty of 20 million, and later ones over 30 million. The Cornish cycle operates as follows, the pressure difference between the steam at boiler pressure above the piston and the vacuum below it drives the piston down. Part way down the stroke, the steam inlet valve is closed. At the bottom of the stroke, the exhaust valve to the condenser is closed and the equilibrium valve is opened. The weight of the pump draws the piston up, and as the piston comes up. When the piston reaches the top of the cylinder, the cycle is ready to repeat, the next stroke may occur immediately, or it may be delayed by a timing device such as a cataract. If it was not necessary for the engine to work at its maximum rate, the engine is single-acting, and the steam piston is pulled up by the weight of the pump piston and rodding. Steam may be supplied at a pressure of up to 50 pounds per square inch, the principal advantage of the Cornish engine was its increased efficiency, accomplished by making more economical use of higher-pressure steam. Increasing the boiler pressure above the low, virtually atmospheric pressure steam used by James Watt was an essential element of the improvement in efficiency of the Cornish engine. However, simply increasing the pressure would have made an engine more powerful without increasing its efficiency. The key advance was allowing the steam to expand in the cylinder, in a Watt engine, steam is admitted throughout the pistons power stroke. At the end of the stroke, the steam is exhausted, and any remaining energy is wasted in the condenser and this results in the capture of a greater proportion of its energy, and less heat being lost to the condenser, than in a Watt engine
22.
Whim (mining)
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A whim, also called a whim gin or a horse capstan, is a device similar to a windlass used in mining for hauling materials to the surface. It comprises a capstan or a drum with a vertical axle. A rope is wound around the drum, with both ends traversing several pulleys and hanging down the mine shaft. As the drum is turned around, one end of the rope is lowered, carrying an empty bucket, while the one is raised. The major benefit from using a whim is that its operation can be performed at a distance from the shaft, early whims were horse-powered, but later they were powered by waterwheels or steam engines, including the most advanced Cornish engines. Whims were used in coal mines until the end of the nineteenth century, horse whims were also used to power team boats. The Brendon Hills Iron Mines and the West Somerset Mineral Railway
23.
Kongsberg Silver Mines
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The silver mines of Kongsberg, in Buskerud county in Norway, constitute the largest mining field in Norway, with over 80 different mines. The town of Kongsberg houses the Norwegian Mining Museum, which houses collection of silver, tools, and machinery utilised by the miners, engineers, silver was first discovered between the 1 July and 5 July 1623. The story says that two small children - Helga and Jacob - were out shepherding their cattle at the top of Gruveåsen hill and they had an ox with them which scraped on the side of the mountain. They could see something shining and glimmering, and they picked it up, recognizing it as silver and quite valuable, he melted it and brought it to the town of Skien in Telemark county to sell it. In Skien he was arrested, the finding it suspicious that someone would attempt to sell silver at such a low price. Being convinced that he was a thief, he was given the choice between telling where he had found the silver, or being sentenced to hard labour and he chose to tell the authorities he had found the silver in Southern Sandsvær, which was the old name for Kongsberg. The king of Norway and Denmark at the time, Christian IV, came to Norway the following year, the silver mines are situated in Saggrenda, approximately 8 kilometres west of Kongsberg. The Kings Mine is the biggest mine in the Kongsberg area, visitors board the mining train which takes them through the 2,300 metres of the Christian VII Adit. The bottom of the mine is 1,070 metres below the surface, since its closure in 1958, the silver mine has been preserved. Some 40,000 visit the museum annually, the tour includes the first man engine in Kongsberg in action. Helleberg, Odd Arne, Kongsberg Sølvverk 1623-1958, media related to Category, Kongensgruve at Wikimedia Commons
24.
Levant Mine and Beam Engine
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Levant Mine and Beam Engine is a National Trust property at Trewellard, Pendeen, near St Just, Cornwall, England, UK. Its main attraction is that it has the worlds only Cornish beam engine operated by steam on its original site. There is also a centre, a short underground tour. Since 2006, the area has part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Cornwall. The property is on the site of the former Levant Mine, established in 1820 and closed in 1930, the mine reached a depth of about 600 metres. It got the mine under the sea, because tunnels were driven up to 2.5 km from the cliffs under the sea. The beam engine was built c. 1840 by Harveys of Hayle, man engine for an account of the accident in the mine on 20 October 1919. Geevor Tin Mine, just to the north-east of the Levant complex, Levant Mine and Beam Engine information at the National Trust Cornwall Record Office Online Catalogue for Levant Levant Mine Self-guided trail Historic England
25.
St Just in Penwith
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St Just is a town and civil parish in the Penwith district of Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It lies along the B3306 road which connects St Ives to the A30 road, the parish consists of 7,622 acres of land,12 acres of water and 117 acres of foreshore. The town of St Just is the most westerly town in mainland Britain and is situated approximately 8 miles west of Penzance along the A3071, St Just parish, which includes Pendeen and the surrounding area, has a population of 4690. An electoral ward exists, the population of this ward at the same census was 4,812. St Just lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation, with the same status and protection as a National Park. St Just is one of two towns included within the Cornwall AONB. The identity of Saint Just is not known, cornwalls long resistance to the edicts of Canterbury and Rome makes it most unlikely that the saint was Archbishop Justus of Canterbury, as some sources claim. Another possibility is the 6th- or 7th-century Saint Iestyn, said to be the son of a ruler of Dumnonia, in 1478 William of Worcester found that the church was believed to contain the bones of Justus of Trieste. Among the prehistoric antiquities nearby is Ballowall Barrow, a chambered tomb, St Just is one of the most ancient mining districts in Cornwall, and remains of ancient pre-industrial and more modern mining activity have had a considerable impact on the nearby landscape. The parish church of St Just is a fine 15th-century building, in 1336 the church was rebuilt and dedicated by John Grandisson, Bishop of Exeter, however only the chancel of this church survives and the nave and aisles are 15th-century in date. St Just is the home of Cape Cornwall School which also serves Sennen, Sancreed, Pendeen, St Buryan, there are seven Cornish crosses in the parish, there are two in the vicarage garden and one built into the church wall. Other crosses are at Leswidden, Nanquidno and Kenidjack, the ancient settlement has a strong mining history and was during the 19th century one of the most important mining districts in Cornwall both for copper and for tin. Mines within the area included Boscaswell Downs, Balleswidden, Parknoweth, Boscean, Wheal Owles, Wheal Boys, Levant, Botallack, Geevor mine is now a tourist attraction which allows visitors to explore Cornish Mining heritage. The town also suffered from the decision of the Great Western Railway to abandon its plans to make St Just the terminus of the London mainline to Cornwall. It was announced in July 2006 that the St Just mining district, the nearby Cot Valley has a stream which runs to the sea. The area has been mined, as was the area around St Just. The round boulders in the Cot Valley Cove here are of scientific interest. For the purposes of government classification St Just is a town
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
28.
Robert Hunt (scientist)
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Robert Hunt, a scientist and antiquarian, was born at Devonport, Plymouth, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. He was involved in statistical, mineralogical and other studies and he died in London on 17 October 1887. Hunts father, an officer, drowned while Robert was a youth. Robert began to study in London for the profession. In 1829, he published The Mount’s Bay, a descriptive poem. and other pieces, in 1840, Hunt became secretary to the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society at Falmouth. Here he met Robert Were Fox, and carried on some physical and chemical investigations with him, Hunt took up photography with great zeal, following Daguerres discovery, developed the actinograph and introducing business processes. His Manual of Photography was the first English treatise on the subject, Hunt also experimented generally on the action of light, and published Researches on Light. He was appointed Professor of Mechanical Science, Government School of Mines and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society in 1855. In 1858, he founded, with the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society and he was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1852. In 1884, he published a volume on British Mining in which the subject was dealt with very fully from an historical as well as a practical point of view. He also edited the fifth and some editions of Andrew Ures Dictionary of Arts. He also collected and wrote Popular Romances of the West of England, which included a record of myths and legends of old Cornwall and he died in London on 17 October 1887. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hunt. Photographic and manuscript collection of Robert Hunt at the Natural History Museum Rodolph Eric Raspe, by Robert Hunt,1885
29.
John Rogers (divine)
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John Rogers was an English Anglican priest, mine-owner, botanist, mineralogist, and scholar of Hebrew and Syriac. He was born at Plymouth on 17 July 1778, the eldest son of John Rogers, Rogers was educated at Helston grammar school, at Eton College, and at Trinity College, Oxford. He matriculated on 8 April 1797, graduated B. A. as a passman in 1801, and M. A. in 1810. Having been ordained to the curacy of St Blazey, he became rector of St Mawnan and St Stephens Church, Mawnan, in 1820 he was appointed Canon Residentiary of Exeter. The Penrose lands had been acquired in 1770 by his grandfather, Hugh Rogers, Rogers resigned his rectory in 1838. He died at Penrose on 12 June 1856, and was buried at Sithney, Rogers married his first wife, Mary, on 14 June 1814, Mary. By his first wife Rogers had issue five sons and a daughter, John Jope Rogers, inherited the Penrose Estate and was elected M. P. for Helston from 1859 to 1865. William, succeeded his father as Rector of Mawnan, reginald, inherited the Carwinion Estate and developed a fine garden there. Saltren Henry Mary Rogers was a popular and energetic landlord, the installation cost was £2500, and it saved £125 per month in time and labour, as well as improving the safety of the mine. He contributed several papers to the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall and he was, however, chiefly distinguished as a Hebrew and Syriac scholar. His own works, in addition to sermons and occasional papers, were, scripture Proofs of the Catechism, London,1832. Remarks on Bishop Lowths Principles in correcting the Text of the Hebrew Bible, the Book of Psalms in Hebrew, with Selections from various Readings and from the ancient Versions, Oxford and London, 1833–4. On the Origin and Regulations of Queen Annes Bounty, London,1836, reasons why a new Edition of the Peschito Version should be published, Oxford and London,1849. A few days before his death he completed his last article on ‘Variæ Lectiones of the Hebrew Bible’ for the Journal of Sacred Literature, obituary in the Journal of Sacred Literature Revised DNB article in ODNB, E. C. Robert Brown, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,2004, accessed 15 Dec 2007, seems little different from the original article
30.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
31.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
32.
Pickaxe
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A pickaxe, pick-axe, or pick is a hand tool with a hard head attached perpendicular to the handle. The head is made of metal, and the handle is most commonly wood. The head is an ending in a sharp point, may curve slightly. The stronger the spike, the effectively the tool can pierce the surface. Rocking the embedded spike about and removing it can break up the surface. The counterweight nowadays is always a second spike, often with a flat end for prying. The pointed edge is most often used to break up rocky surfaces or other surfaces such as concrete or hardened dried earth. The large momentum of a pickaxe on a small contact area makes it very effective for this purpose. The chiseled end, if present, is used for purposes including cutting through roots, originally used as agricultural tools as far back as prehistoric cultures, picks have also served for tasks ranging from traditional mining to warfare. The design has evolved into other tools such as the plough. During war in times, the pickaxe was used as a weapon. Unicode 5.2 in the Miscellaneous Symbols block introduces the glyph ⛏, representable in HTML as ⛏, or ⛏, to represent this tool. The term pickaxe is a folk etymology alteration of Middle-English picas via Anglo-French piceis, Old French pocois, a pickaxe handle without the head is sometimes used, often unofficially, as a baton, for example it is officially sometimes used as a baton in the British Army. In The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck, pick handles featured prominently as a weapon used against the migrant farmers, a normal pickaxe handle is made of ash or hickory wood and is about three feet long and weighs about 2.5 pounds. British Army pickaxe handles must, by regulation, be three feet long, for use in measuring in the field. New variant designs are, With a plastic casing on the thick end, made of carbon fibre In former times they were sometimes made with a steel casing on the thick end
33.
Shovel
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A shovel is a tool for digging, lifting, and moving bulk materials, such as soil, coal, gravel, snow, sand, or ore. Most shovels are hand tools consisting of a blade fixed to a medium-length handle. Shovel blades are made of sheet steel or hard plastics and are very strong. Shovel handles are made of wood or glass-reinforced plastic. Hand shovel blades made of sheet steel usually have a seam or hem at the back to make a socket for the handle. This fold also commonly provides extra rigidity to the blade, the handles are usually riveted in place. A T-piece is commonly fitted to the end of the handle to aid grip and control where the shovel is designed for moving soil and these designs can all be easily mass-produced. The term shovel also applies to larger excavating machines called power shovels, which serve the same purpose—digging, lifting, modern power shovels descend from steam shovels. Loaders and excavators perform similar work, etically speaking, but are not classified as shovels emically, hand shovels have been adapted for many different tasks and environments. They can be optimized for a task or designed as cross-over or compromise multitaskers. In neolithic times and earlier a large animals scapula was used as a crude shovel or spade. It is via this connection between shoulder blades and digging blades that the words spatula and spade both have etymologic connection with scapulas, manual shoveling was the chief means of excavation in construction until mechanization via steam shovels and later hydraulic equipment gradually replaced most manual shoveling. The same is true of the history of mining and quarrying. Railroad cars and cargo holds containing ore, coal, gravel, sand and these industries did not always rely exclusively on such work, but such work was a ubiquitous part of them. Until the 1950s, manual shoveling employed large numbers of workers, thus the cost of labor, even when each individual worker was poorly paid, was a tremendous expense of operations. Productivity of the business was tied mostly to labor productivity and it still often is even today, but in the past it was even more so. In industrial and commercial materials handling, hand shoveling was later replaced not only with loaders, Taylor, with his focus on time and motion study, took an interest in differentiating the many motions of manual labor to a far greater degree than others tended to. Taylor realized that failing to analyze shoveling practice represented an opportunity to discover or synthesize best practices for shoveling
34.
Crowbar (tool)
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The term jammy or jimmy most often refers to the tool when used for burglary. It is used as a lever either to force apart two objects or to remove nails, crowbars are commonly used to open nailed wooden crates, remove nails, or pry apart boards. Crowbars can be used as any of the three lever classes but the end is usually used as a first-class lever, and the flat end as a second class lever. In mining, crowbars are used to break and remove rock, normally made of medium-carbon steel, they can alternatively be made from titanium, which has the advantages of being lighter and nonmagnetic. The least expensive, most common crowbars are forged from hexagonal or sometimes cylindrical stock, more expensive designs may be forged with an I-shaped cross-section shaft. The accepted etymology identifies the first component of the word crowbar with the bird-name crow, the first attestation of the word is circa 1400
35.
Sledgehammer
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A sledgehammer is a tool with a large, flat, often metal head, attached to a lever. The size of its head allows a sledgehammer to apply more force than other hammers of similar size, along with the mallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types of hammers, which concentrate force in a small area. The word sledgehammer is derived from the Anglo Saxon slægan, which, in its first sense, the English words slag, slay, and slog are cognates. The handle can range from 50 centimetres to a full 1 metre long, depending on the mass of the head, the head mass is usually 1 to 3 kilograms. Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with 10 to 20 pounds heads, sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entire torso, in contrast to smaller hammers used for driving in nails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, sledgehammers are often used in destruction work, for breaking through drywall or masonry walls. Sledgehammers are seldom used in mining operations, particularly hand steel. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object, another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by forces in raids on property to gain entry by force. They were and still are used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The British SAS counter terrorist team used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980 Iranian Embassy Siege, however, today they use a tool called a dynamic hammer. Another iconic use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into wooden sleepers during rail construction, when the two ends of the Union Pacific railroad were joined at Promontory, Utah, Leland Stanford hammered a golden spike into a tie with a silver hammer. Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved heads that came down to a beak that was only one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the hit was often not much larger than a dime. Anything larger would hit the plate or the tie, the curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often called spike mauls, a drilling hammer, club hammer, lump hammer, crack hammer, mini-sledge or thor hammer is a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow single-handed use. It is useful for demolition work, driving masonry nails
36.
Jackhammer
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A jackhammer is a pneumatic or electro-mechanical tool that combines a hammer directly with a chisel. It was invented by William Mcreavy, who sold the patent to Charles Brady King. Hand-held jackhammers are generally powered by compressed air, but some are powered by electric motors. Larger jackhammers, such as rig mounted hammers used on machinery, are usually hydraulically powered. They are typically used to break up rock, pavement, a jackhammer operates by driving an internal hammer up and down. The hammer is first driven down to strike the back and then back up to return the hammer to the position to repeat the cycle. The effectiveness of the jackhammer is dependent on how much force is applied to the tool and it is generally used like a hammer to break the hard surface or rock in construction works and it is not consider under earth moving equipment, along with its accessories. In British English, electromechanical versions are known as Kangos. Pneumatic drills were developed in response to the needs of mining, quarrying, excavating, in 1838 Isaac Singer invented a steam driven drill. A pneumatic drill was proposed by a C, the first percussion drill was made in 1848 and patented in 1849 by Jonathan J. Couch of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In this drill, the drill bit passed through the piston of a steam engine, the piston snagged the drill bit and hurled it against the rock face. In 1849, Couchs assistant, Joseph W. Fowle, filed a patent caveat for a drill of his own design. In Fowle’s drill, the bit was connected directly to the piston in the steam cylinder, specifically. The drill also had a mechanism for turning the drill bit around its axis between strokes and for advancing the drill as the hole deepened, by 1850 or 1851, Fowle was using compressed air to drive his drill, making it the first true pneumatic drill. By contrast, compressed air could be conveyed over distances without loss of its energy. The need for a rock drill was obvious and this sparked research on pneumatic rock drills in Europe. A Frenchman, Cavé, designed, and in 1851 patented, a drill that used compressed air. In 1854, in England, Thomas Bartlett made and then patented a rock drill whose drill bit was connected directly to the piston of a steam engine, in 1855 Bartlett demonstrated his drill, powered by compressed air, to officials of the Mt. Fréjus tunnel project
37.
Drilling and blasting
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Drilling and Blasting is the controlled use of explosives and other methods such as gas pressure blasting pyrotechnics, to break rock for excavation. It is practiced most often in mining, quarrying and civil engineering such as dam or road construction, the result of rock blasting is often known as a rock cut. Drilling and Blasting currently utilizes many different varieties of explosives with different compositions, for instance, an early 20th-century blasting manual compared the effects of black powder to that of a wedge, and dynamite to that of a hammer. The most commonly used explosives in mining today are ANFO based blends due to lower cost than dynamite, before the advent of tunnel boring machines, drilling and blasting was the only economical way of excavating long tunnels through hard rock, where digging is not possible. Even today, the method is used in the construction of tunnels. The decision whether to construct a tunnel using a TBM or using a drill and this means that shorter tunnels tend to be less economical to construct with a TBM and are therefore usually constructed by drill and blast. Managing ground conditions can also have a significant effect on the choice with different methods suited to different hazards in the ground. The use of explosives in mining goes back to the year 1627, the innovation spread quickly throughout Europe and the Americas. In 1990,2.1 million tonnes of explosives were consumed in the United States. Australia had the highest explosives consumption that year at 500 million tonnes, as the name suggests, drilling and blasting works as follows, A number of holes are drilled into the rock, which are then filled with explosives. Detonating the explosive causes the rock to collapse, rubble is removed and the new tunnel surface is reinforced. Repeating these steps until desired excavation is complete, during operation, blasting mats may be used to contain the blast, suppress dust and noise, for fly rock prevention and sometimes to direct the blast. As a tunnel or excavation progresses the roof and side walls of need to be supported to stop the falling into the excavation. Demolition Building implosion Persson, Per-Anders, Roger Holmberg, Jaimin Lee, notes Air Curtain Fences Blast Popular Mechanics, August 1954, pp. 96–97, the delicate controlled blast in 1954 to connect the two reservoirs at a Canadian Niagara Falls power station. This is a survey of techniques used in the early 20th century
38.
Blasting machine
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A blasting machine or shot exploder is a portable source of electric current to reliably fire a blasting cap to trigger a main explosive charge. It is mostly used in mining and demolition, the use of the term machine dates from early designs that used an electrical generator operated by winding a rotary handle or pushing down a T-handle. Modern blasting machines are battery-powered and operated by key switches and push-buttons, the machines also typically include an abort feature to discharge the internal capacitor without firing the cap. The first satisfactory magnetic induction blasting machine was constructed in 1878 by Henry Julius Smith of Mountain View, New Jersey
39.
Detonator
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A detonator, frequently a blasting cap, is a device used to trigger an explosive device. Detonators can be chemically, mechanically, or electrically initiated, the two being the most common. The commercial use of explosives uses electrical detonators or the capped fuse which is a length of safety fuse to which an ordinary detonator has been crimped, many detonators primary explosive is a material called ASA compound. This compound is formed from lead azide, lead styphnate and aluminium and is pressed into place above the charge, usually TNT or tetryl in military detonators. Other materials such as DDNP are also used as the charge to reduce the amount of lead emitted into the atmosphere by mining and quarrying operations. Old detonators used mercury fulminate as the primary, often mixed with potassium chlorate to yield better performance. A blasting cap is a small sensitive primary explosive device used to detonate a larger, more powerful and less sensitive secondary explosive such as TNT, dynamite. Blasting caps come in a variety of types, including caps, electric caps. They are used in mining, excavation, and demolition. Electric types are set off by a short burst of current conducted from a machine by a long wire to the cap to ensure safety. Traditional fuse caps have a fuse which is ignited by a flame source, the need for detonators such as blasting caps came from the development of safer explosives. Different explosives require different amounts of energy to detonate, most commercial explosives are formulated with a high activation energy, to make them stable and safe to handle so they will not explode if accidentally dropped, mishandled, or exposed to fire. However they are difficult to detonate intentionally, and require a small initiating explosion. This is provided by a detonator, a detonator contains an easy-to-ignite primary explosive that provides the initial activation energy to start the detonation in the main charge. Explosives commonly used in detonators include mercury fulminate, lead azide, lead styphnate and tetryl, Blasting caps and some detonators are stored separately and not inserted into the main explosive charge until just before use, keeping the main charge safe. Detonators are hazardous for untrained personnel to handle since they contain primary explosive and they are sometimes not recognized as explosives due to their appearance, leading to injuries. Ordinary detonators usually take the form of ignition-based explosives, whilst they are mainly used in commercial operations, ordinary detonators are still used in military operations. This form of detonator is most commonly initiated using safety fuse, well known detonators are lead azide, Pb2, silver azide and mercury fulminate
40.
Dynamite
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Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht and it rapidly gained wide-scale use as a safer alternative to gun powder and nitroglycerin. Dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder, Nobel obtained patents for his invention in England on 7 May 1867, in Sweden on 19 October 1867. After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained wide-scale use as an alternative to black powder. Nobel tightly controlled the patents, and unlicensed duplicating companies were shut down. However, a few American businessmen got around the patent by using a different formula. Nobel originally sold dynamite as Nobels Blasting Powder but decided to change the name to dynamite, from the Ancient Greek word δύναμις dýnamis, an industrialist, engineer, and inventor, Alfred Nobels father, Immanuel Nobel, built bridges and buildings in Stockholm. His construction work inspired him to new methods of blasting rock. Immanuels work with later on inspired Alfred to make explosives safer. Today dynamite is used in the mining, quarrying, construction. Dynamite is still the product of choice for trenching applications, Dynamite is occasionally used as an initiator or booster for AN and ANFO explosive charges. Nitroglycerin by itself is a strong explosive, but is extremely shock-sensitive, and degrades over time to even more unstable forms. Dynamite combines nitroglycerin with absorbents and stabilizers, rendering it safe to use, the original composition of dynamite consisted of three parts Explosive Oil, one part diatomaceous earth as the absorbent, and a small admixture of sodium carbonate antacid as the stabilizer. Diatomaceous earth is not usually used today as an absorbent medium and it has replaced by cheaper media like sawdust, wood pulp, flour. Other stabilizers like calcium carbonate or zinc oxide can be used in the place of sodium carbonate, sodium nitrate is added to the medium as an oxidizer that improves the dynamites brisance. Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about 20 cm long and about 3.2 cm in diameter, a stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ of energy. Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion or by weight, Dynamite is usually rated by weight strength, usually from 20% to 60%. For example, 40% dynamite is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and 60% dope, the maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin-based dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of manufacture under good storage conditions
41.
Gunpowder
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Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate, the sulfur and charcoal act as fuels, and the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Black powder firearms are in limited use today in hunting, shooting, Black powder has been replaced for most industrial uses by high explosives such as dynamite. Black powder is assigned the UN number UN0027 and has a class of 1. 1D. It has a point of approximately 427–464 °C. The specific flash point may vary based on the composition of the gunpowder. Gunpowders specific gravity is 1. 70–1.82 or 1. 92–2.08, Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate at subsonic speeds, whereas high explosives detonate, ignition of the powder packed behind a bullet must generate enough pressure to force it from the muzzle at high speed, but not enough to rupture the gun barrel. Gunpowder thus makes a good propellant, but is suitable for shattering rock or fortifications. Gunpowder was widely used to fill artillery shells and in mining and civil engineering to blast rock until the half of the 19th century. Black powder is used as a delay element in various munitions where its slow-burning properties are valuable. The spread of gunpowder across Asia from China is widely attributed to the Mongols, the earliest record of a written formula for gunpowder appears in the 11th century Song dynasty text, Wujing Zongyao. This discovery led to the invention of fireworks and the earliest gunpowder weapons in China, in the centuries following the Chinese discovery, gunpowder weapons began appearing in the Muslim world and Europe. The technology spread from China through the Middle East or Central Asia, the earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appear in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The most ardent protagonists were Nathaniel Halhad, Johann Backmann, Quintin Craufurd, however, due to lack of sufficient proof, these theories have not been widely accepted. A major problem confronting the study of the history of gunpowder is ready access to sources close to the events described. The translation difficulty has led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence, early writings potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by a linguistic process where old words acquired new meanings. For instance, the Arabic word naft transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations
