1.
Manco Inca Yupanqui
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Manco Inca Yupanqui was the founder and monarch of the independent Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, although he was originally a puppet Inca Emperor installed by the Spaniards. He was also known as Manco II and Manco Cápac II and he was one of the sons of Huayna Cápac and a younger brother of Huascar. Túpac Huallpa was a puppet ruler crowned by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, after his death, Manco Inca joined Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in Cajamarca. When Pizarros force arrived in Cusco, he had the caciques acknowledge Manco as their Inca, Manco Inca then joined Almagro and Hernando de Soto in pursuit of Quizquiz. The Pizarro brothers so mistreated Manco Inca that he tried to escape in 1535. He failed, was captured and imprisoned, Hernando Pizarro released him to recover a golden statue of his father Huayana Capac. Only accompanied by two Spaniards, he escaped a second time. Manco then gathered an army of 200,000 Inca warriors and laid siege to Cusco in early 1536, after ten months, Manco retreated to the nearby fortress of Ollantaytambo in 1537. Here Manco successfully defended attacks by the Spaniards in the battle of Ollantaytambo, Manco coordinated his siege of Cusco with one on Lima, led by one of his captains, Quiso Yupanqui. The Incans were able to defeat four relief expeditions sent by Francisco Pizarro from Lima and this resulted in the death of nearly 500 Spanish soldiers. Some Spaniards were captured and sent to Ollantaytambo, alonso de Alvarado was sent by Pizarro to Cusco, but upon his arrival at Abancay, he and his army were captured by Rodrigo Orgóñez in the Battle of Abancay. This was the beginning of the first civil war between the conquistadors, abandoning Ollantaytambo, Manco Inca retreated to Vitcos and finally to the remote jungles of Vilcabamba, where he founded the Neo-Inca State which lasted until the death of Túpac Amaru in 1572. From there, he continued his attacks against the Wankas, having some success after fierce battles, and to the highlands of present-day Bolivia, the Spaniards crowned his younger half brother Paullu Inca as puppet Sapa Inca after his retreat for his valuable help in that last campaign. The Spanish succeeded in capturing Mancos sister-wife, Cura Ocllo, and had her murdered in 1539. They in turn were all killed by Mancos soldiers, Manco was succeeded by his son Sayri Tupaq. Manco Inca had several sons, including Sayri Tupaq, Titu Cusi, Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Sapa Inca Cura Ocllo
2.
Cusco School
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The Cuzco School was a Roman Catholic artistic tradition based in Cusco, Peru during the Colonial period, in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. It was not limited to Cuzco only, but spread to cities in the Andes, as well as to present day Ecuador. The tradition originated after the 1534 Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Cusqueña paintings were a form of religious art whose main purpose was didactic. The Spanish, who aimed to convert the Incas to Catholicism and these artists formed a school for Quechua people and mestizos, teaching them drawing and oil painting. The designation Cusqueña, however, is not limited to the city of Cusco or to indigenous artists, a major patron of the Cuzco artists was Bishop Manuel de Mollinedo y Angulo, who collected European art and made his collection available to Peruvian artists. He promoted and financially assisted such Cusqueña artists such as Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, Antonio Sinchi Roca Inka, in 1688 Spanish-born and mestizo members of the Cuzco painting guild chose to break ranks with the Indian painters. This split led to the far more numerous Quechua Indian painters developing their own styles and they also created a tradition of painting I – a departure from Christian religious themes and an expression of cultural pride. The defining characteristics of the Cusqueña style are believed to have originated in the art of Quechua painter Diego Quispe Tito, Cusqueña paintings are characterized by their use of exclusively religious subjects, their lack of perspective, and the predominance of red, yellow and earth colors. They are also remarkable for their use of gold leaf. They often adapted the topics to depict their native flora and fauna as a backdrop in their works, warrior angels became a popular motif in Cusqueña paintings. Most Cusqueña paintings were created anonymously because of Pre-Columbian traditions that define art as communal, an exception is one of the last members of the Cuzco School, Marcos Zapata. Other known artists of the Cuzco School include Diego Cusihuamán, Gregorio Gamarra, Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, related to the school is the Master of Calamarca, in 18th century, Bolivia. The largest collection of paintings from the Cuzco school is in the Cathedral of Santo Domingo, the Lima Art Museum and the Inca Museum also house important collections. A large number of works were destroyed in the 18th century so there is a supply of Cuzco school paintings. In recent years there has been a significant increase in demand from both Latin American art collectors and certain museums for paintings from the Cuzco school period. In 2010, the American government repatriated two Cusco and Lima style paintings to Peru that had been brought into the United States in 2005. Master of Calamarca, 18th century, Bolivia Basilio de Santa Cruz Pumacallao, 1635–1710, Peru Antonio Sinchi Roca Inka, 17th century, Peru Diego Quispe Tito, 1611—1681, Peru Marcos Zapata, c
3.
Sapa Inca
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The Sapa Inca or Sapa Inka, also known as Apu, Inka Qhapaq, or simply Sapa, was the ruler of the Kingdom of Cusco and, later, the Emperor of the Inca Empire and the Neo-Inca State. While the origins of the position are mythical and tied to the foundation of the city of Cusco. The position was hereditary, with son succeeding father, the emperor was viewed as a god. There were two known dynasties, led by the Hurin and Hanan moieties respectively, the latter was in power at the time of Spanish conquest. The last effective Sapa Inca of Inca Empire was Atahualpa, who was executed by Francisco Pizarro and his conquistadors in 1533, little is known of the rulers of the first dynasty of Sapa Incas. Evidently, they were affiliated with the Hurin moiety and their rule did not extend beyond the Kingdom of Cusco and their origins are tied to the mythical establishment of Cusco and are shrouded in later foundation myth. The dynasty was founded by Manco Cápac, considered the son of the sun god Inti. As a rough guide to the reputation of the early Sapa Incas, in later years capac meant warlord. The second dynasty was affiliated with the Hanan moiety and was founded under Inca Roca, after Cápac Yupanquis death, another of his sons, Inca Rocas half-brother Quispe Yupanqui, was intended to succeed him. However, the Hanan revolted and installed Inca Roca instead and he had been with Huayna Cápac when he died. The death of Ninan, the heir, led to the Inca Civil War between Huáscar and Atahualpa, a weakness that the Spanish exploited when they conquered the Inca Empire. This last Sapa Inca must not be confused with Túpac Amaru II, pachacutec, a resurrected Sapa Inca king who is over 500 years old, plays a major role in James Rollins novel Excavation. Kingdom of Cusco Inca Empire Neo-Inca State
4.
Sinchi Roca
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Sinchi Roca, Sinchi Rocca, Cinchi Roca, Sinchi Ruqa or Sinchi Ruqa Inka was the second Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cusco and a member of the Húrin dynasty. He was the son and successor of Manco Cápac and the father of Lloque Yupanqui and his mother was queen Mama Ocllo, while his wife was Mama Cura, of the lineage Sanu, daughter of Sitic-huaman. They had a son named Sapaca, Manco Capac, Mama Huaco, Sinchi Rocca, and Manco Sapaca erected the House of the Sun. The Kingdom of Cuzco later became Tahuantinsuyu under the rule of Pachacuti, in one of the Inca foundation myths, Sinchi Roca led his family to the valley of Cuzco. The chronicler Pedro Cieza de León states that Sinchi Roca built terraces, Sinchi is known for the story of Teuotihi. Teuotihi was an Inca diplomat sent to a kingdom to give a very important message. However, he was killed on arrival and his head was sent back to Sinchi Roca. A war ensued, which ended with a decisive Inca victory at the Battle of Mauedipi, Sinchi came to be used as the title for a mayor or local ruler, while Cápac, one of his fathers names, became the title for a warlord
5.
Quechua language
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
6.
Inca Empire
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The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
7.
Cusco
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Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
8.
Inca mythology
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Inca mythology includes many stories and legends that attempt to explain or symbolize Inca beliefs. Ethnographic and anthropological studies such as Prof and this was the main tool to ensure cultural transmission of key information, in spite of regime change or social catastrophes. The Inca myths have been interpreted from a Eurocentric perspectives, this is detached from cosmology and agriculture, depriving of its richness, all those that followed the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro burned the records kept by the Inca culture. There is currently a theory put forward by Gary Urton that the Quipus could have represented a system capable of recording phonological or logographic data. Manco Cápac the legendary founder of the Inca Dynasty in Peru, the legends and history surrounding this mythical figure are very jumbled, especially those concerning his rule at Cuzco and his birth or his origins respectively. In one legend, he was the son of Tici Viracocha, in another, he was brought up from the depths of Lake Titicaca by the sun god Inti. However, commoners were not allowed to speak the name of Inca Viracocha, there were also many myths about Manco Cápac and his coming to power. In one myth, Manco Cápac and his brother Pacha Kamaq were sons of the sun god Inti, Manco Cápac, himself, was worshiped as a fire and sun god. In another myth, Manco Cápac was sent with Mama Ocllo to Lake Titicaca where they resurfaced and settled in Isla Del Sol, Bolivia. They were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth to honor the sun god Inti, their father. In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, since this was a later origin myth than that of Pacaritambo it may have been created as a ploy to bring the powerful Aymara tribes into the fold of the Tawantinsuyo. In the Inca Virachocha legend, Manco Cápac was the son of Inca Viracocha of Paqariq Tampu which is 25 km south of Cuzco. He and his brothers, and sisters lived near Cusco at Paqariq Tampu, and uniting their people and this legend also incorporates the golden staff, which is thought to have been given to Manco Cápac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them. Like the Romans, the Incas permitted the cultures they integrated into their empire to keep their individual religions, below are some of the various gods worshiped by the peoples of the Incan empire, many of which have overlapping responsibilities and domains. Unless otherwise noted, it can safely be assumed these were worshipped by different ayllus or worshipped in particular former states, Apu was a god or spirit of mountains. All of the important mountains have their own Apu, and some of them receive sacrifices to bring out aspects of their being. Some rocks and caves also are credited as having their own apu, apocatequil or Illapa was the god of lightning
9.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
10.
Aymara people
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The Aymara or Aimara people are an indigenous nation in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America, about 1 million live in Bolivia, Peru and Chile. Their ancestors lived in the region for centuries before becoming a subject people of the Inca in the late 15th or early 16th century. With the Spanish American Wars of Independence, the Aymaras became subjects of the new nations of Bolivia, after the War of the Pacific, Chile acquired territory occupied by the Aymaras. Archeologists have found evidence that the Aymaras have occupied the Andes, in what is now western Bolivia, southern Peru and northern Chile and their origin is a matter of scientific dispute. The region where Tiwanaku and the modern Aymaras are located, the Altiplano, was conquered by the Incas under Huayna Capac and it is most likely that the Inca had a strong influence over the Aymara region for some time. Though conquered by the Inca, the Aymaras retained some degree of autonomy under the empire, the Spanish later classified a number of ethnic groups as Aymara in their effort to identify the native peoples. These were identified by chieftainties and included the following, the Charqa, Qharaqhara, Quillaca, Asanaqui, Carangas, SivTaroyos, Haracapi, Pacajes, Lupacas, Soras, at the time of Spanish encounter, these groups were living throughout the territory now included in Bolivia. Linguists have learned that Aymara was once spoken much further north, most Andean linguists believe that it is likely that the Aymara originated or coalesced as a people in this area. The Aymaras overran and displaced the Uru, a population from the Lake Titicaca. The Uru lived in area as recently as the 1930s. Most present-day Aymara-speakers live in the Lake Titicaca basin, a territory from Lake Titicaca through the Desaguadero River and they are concentrated south of the lake. The capital of the ancient Aymara civilization is unknown, according to research by Cornell University anthropologist John Murra, there were at least seven different kingdoms. The capital of the Lupaqa Kingdom may be the city of Chucuito, the present urban center of the Aymara region may be El Alto, a 750, 000-person city near the Bolivian capital, La Paz. For most of the 20th century, the center of cosmopolitan Aymara culture mightve been Chuquiago Marka, Bolivias capital mightve had moved from Sucre to La Paz during the government of General Pando and during the Bolivian Civil War. The Aymara flag is known as the Wiphala, it consists of seven colors quilted together with diagonal stripes, the native language of the Aymaras is Aymara. Many of Aymaras speak Spanish as a language, when it is the predominant language in the areas where they live. The Aymara language has one surviving relative, spoken by a small and this language, whose two varieties are known as Jaqaru and Kawki, is of the same family as Aymara. Some linguists refer to language as Central Aymara
11.
Altiplano
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The Altiplano, Collao, Andean Plateau or Bolivian Plateau, in west-central South America, is the area where the Andes are the widest. It is the most extensive area of high plateau on Earth outside Tibet, the bulk of the Altiplano lies in Bolivia, but its northern parts lie in Peru, and its southern parts lie in Chile and Argentina. The plateau hosts several cities of three nations, including El Alto, La Paz, Oruro, and Puno. The northeastern Altiplano is more humid than the southwestern area, the latter area has several salares, or salt flats, due to its aridity. At the Bolivia–Peru border lies Lake Titicaca, the largest lake in South America, South of that in Bolivia was Lake Poopó, which was declared dried up and defunct as of December 2015. It is unclear if this second-largest lake in Bolivia can be revitalized, the Altiplano was the site of several pre-Columbian cultures, including the Chiripa, Tiawanaku and the Inca Empire. Spain conquered the region in the 16th century, major economic activities in the Altiplano include mining, llama and vicuña herding, and services in the cities. The Altiplano is an area of inland drainage lying in the central Andes, occupying parts of northern Chile and Argentina, western Bolivia and its height averages about 3,750 meters, slightly less than that of the Tibetan Plateau. The Atacama Desert, one of the driest areas on the planet, lies to the southwest of the Altiplano, the Altiplano is noted for hypoxic air caused by very high elevation. At various times during the Pleistocene epoch, both the southern and northern Altiplano were covered by vast pluvial lakes, remnants are Lake Titicaca, straddling the Peru–Bolivia border, and Poopó, a salt lake that extends south of Oruro, Bolivia. Salar de Uyuni, locally known as Salar de Tunupa, scientists classify the latter as commencing at an elevation of approximately 4,500 meters. Alternate names used in place of altiplano in this context include puna, the diurnal cycle of temperature is very wide, with maximum temperatures in the order of 12 to 24 °C and the minimum in the order of -20 to 10 °C. The coldest temperatures occur in the portion of the Altiplano during the months of June and July. The seasonal cycle of rainfall is marked, with the rainy season concentrated between December and March, the rest of the year tends to be very dry, cool, windy and sunny. Snowfall may happen between April and September, especially to the north, but it is not very common, such weaknesses would cause the partition of tectonic deformation and uplift into the eastern and western cordillera, leaving the necessary space for the formation of the altiplano basin. Altiplano - Where Bolivia meets the sky
12.
Ayllu
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Ayllu is the traditional form of a community in the Andes, especially among Quechuas and Aymaras. They are a local government model across the Andes region of South America, particularly in Bolivia. Ayllus functioned prior to Inca conquest, during the Inca and Spanish colonial period, Ayllus were essentially extended family groups but they could adopt non-related members, giving individual families more variation and security of the land that they farmed. The head of an ayllu is called a mallku which means, literally, condor and they would often have their own waka, or minor god, usually embodied in a physical object such as a mountain or rock. Their primary function was to solve issues, and issues of how to get along in family. Each ayllu owned a parcel of land, and the members had reciprocal obligations to each other. In marriages, the woman would join the class and ayllu of her partner as would her children. This is how most movements of people between ayllu occurred, but a person could also join an ayllu by assuming the responsibility of membership. This included minka, communal work for common purposes, ayni, or work in kind for other members of the ayllu, and mita, “Ayllu solidarity is a combination of kinship and territorial ties, as well as symbolism. These studies, however, do not explain how the ayllu is a whole, which includes social principles, verticality. Ayllu also refers to people who live in the same territory, Ayllus are distinguished by comparative self-sufficiency, commonly held territory, and relations of reciprocity. Members engage in shared collective labor and in reciprocal exchanges of assistance, in Bolivia, representatives from the ayllus are sent to the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu. This body chooses an Apu Mallku as its head, the Fiscal Role of the Andean Ayllu. Inca model Alessandro Vigiani, Storia e attualità dellayllu nel contesto boliviano, Achab
13.
Tiwanaku
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Tiwanaku is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia. The site was first recorded in history by Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de León. He came upon the remains of Tiwanaku in 1549 while searching for the Inca capital in Qullasuyu, the name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost as they had no written language. The ancient inhabitants of Tiwanaku are believed to have spoken the Puquina language, the area around Tiwanaku may have been inhabited as early as 1500 BC as a small agricultural village. During the time period between 300 BC and AD300, Tiwanaku is thought to have been a moral and cosmological center for the Tiwanaku empire, researchers believe it achieved this standing prior to Tiwanaku expanding its powerful empire. In 1945, Arthur Posnansky estimated that Tiwanaku dated to 15,000 BC, in the 21st century, experts concluded Posnanskys dates were invalid and a sorry example of misused archaeoastronomical evidence. These may be visited by the public, the Akapana is an approximately cross-shaped pyramidal structure that is 257 m wide,197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall. At its center appears to have been a sunken court and this was nearly destroyed by a deep looters excavation that extends from the center of this structure to its eastern side. Material from the excavation was dumped off the eastern side of the Akapana. A staircase with sculptures is present on its western side, possible residential complexes might have occupied both the northeast and southeast corners of this structure. Originally, the Akapana was thought to have developed from a modified hill. Twenty-first century studies have shown that it is an entirely manmade earthen mound, faced with a mixture of large, the dirt comprising Akapana appears to have been excavated from the moat that surrounds the site. The largest stone block within the Akapana, made of andesite, is estimated to weigh 65.70 metric tons, the structure was possibly for the shaman-puma relationship or transformation through shape shifting. Tenon puma and human heads stud the upper terraces, the Akapana East was built on the eastern side of early Tiwanaku. Later it was considered a boundary between the center and the urban area. It was made of a thick, prepared floor of sand and clay, yellow and red clay were used in different areas for what seems like aesthetic purposes. It was swept clean of all domestic refuse, signaling its great importance to the culture, the Pumapunku is a man-made platform built on an east–west axis like the Akapana. It is a rectangular, terraced earthen mound faced with megalithic blocks and it is 167.36 m wide along its north–south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east–west axis, and is 5 m tall
14.
Mummy
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Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least 1615 CE. Mummies of humans and other animals have found on every continent. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats, in addition to the well-known mummies of ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of America and Asia with very dry climates. The Spirit Cave mummies of Fallon, Nevada in North America were accurately dated at more than 9,400 years old. Before this discovery, the oldest known deliberate mummy was a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BCE. The oldest known naturally mummified corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old. These substances were defined as mummia, the OED defines a mummy as the body of a human being or animal embalmed as a preparation for burial, citing sources from 1615 CE onward. However, Chambers Cyclopædia and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland define a mummy as follows, also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric snow. Wasps of the genus Aleiodes are known as mummy wasps because they wrap their prey as mummies. While interest in the study of mummies dates as far back as Ptolemaic Greece, prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use in pseudoscientific novelties such as mummia. The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine in Cairo, Egypt. The first X-ray of a mummy came in 1903, when professors Grafton Elliot Smith, British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming. Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis of Tutankhamun in 1922, pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th century. In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held in Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife in the Canary Islands, more than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies. This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique, in more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally unwrap mummies without risking damage to the body. The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in 3-D. Such modelling has been utilized to perform autopsies on mummies to determine cause of death and lifestyle. Mummies are typically divided into one of two categories, anthropogenic or spontaneous
15.
Pachacuti
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Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui or Pachacutec or Pachakutiq Inka Yupanki was the ninth Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cusco which he transformed into the Inca Empire. Most archaeologists now believe that the famous Inca site of Machu Picchu was built as an estate for Pachacuti, in Quechua Pachakutiq means he who overturns space and time, and Yupanki means with honor. During his reign, Cusco grew from a hamlet into an empire that could compete with, and eventually overtake and he began an era of conquest that, within three generations, expanded the Inca dominion from the valley of Cusco to nearly the whole of western South America. He was the ruler of the Inca state who, from ruling a simple chiefdom came to rule a great empire. Although he had not been designated as successor by his father Viracocha Inca, he led a defense against the warlike army of Chanka while his father. The victory over the Chankas made Inca Viracocha recognize him as his successor around 1438, as part of his vision of a statesman and warrior chieftain he conquered many ethnic groups and states, highlighting his conquest of the Collao that enhanced the prestige of the Inca Pachacutec. Due to the expansion of their domains he was considered an exceptional leader, enlivening glorious epic stories. Numerous kurakas do not hesitate to recognize his skills and identify him as son of the Sun and he conquered the provinces of Colla-Suyu and Chinchay-Suyu. Along with his sons, Tupac Ayar Manco, and Apu Paucar Usnu, additionally, he left garrisons in subjugated lands. Pachacuti, son of Inca Viracocha, was the fourth of the Hanan dynasty and his wifes name was Mama Anahuarqui, or Quya Anawarkhi. He had three sons, Tupac Ayar Manco, Apu Paucar, and Tupac Inca Yupanqui, pacachuti had his two brothers, Ccapac Yupanqui and Huayana Yupanqui, killed after the military campaign against the province of Chinchay-Suyu. He also killed his sons Tilca Yupanqui and Auqui Yupanqui, Amaru, the older son, was originally chosen to be co-regent and eventual successor. Pachacuti later chose Tupac Inca because Amaru was not a warrior and he was also the first one to retire. Pachacutis given name was Cusi Yupanqui and he was not supposed to succeed his father Inca Viracocha who had appointed his brother Urco as crown prince. However in the midst of an invasion of Cuzco by the Chankas, while his father and brother fled the scene, Pachacuti rallied the army and prepared for a desperate defense of his homeland. In the resulting battle, the Chankas were defeated so severely that legend tells even the stones rose up to fight on Pachacutis side, thus The Earth Shaker won the support of his people and the recognition of his father as crown prince after the death of Urco. Pachacuti rebuilt much of Cusco, designing it to serve the needs of an imperial city, each suyu had a sector of the city, centering on the road leading to that province, nobles and immigrants lived in the sector corresponding to their origin. Each sector was divided into areas for the hanan and hurin moieties
16.
Lake Titicaca
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Lake Titicaca is a large, deep lake in the Andes on the border of Bolivia and Peru. By volume of water and by area, it is the largest lake in South America. Lake Maracaibo has a surface area, but it is a tidal bay. It is often called the highest navigable lake in the world, although this refers to navigation by large boats, it is generally considered to mean commercial craft. For many years the largest vessel afloat on the lake was the 2, 200-ton, today the largest vessel is most likely the similarly sized, but broader, train barge/float Manco Capac, operated by PeruRail. Numerous smaller bodies of water around the world are at higher elevations, the lake is located at the northern end of the endorheic Altiplano basin high in the Andes on the border of Peru and Bolivia. The western part of the lies within the Puno Region of Peru. The lake is composed of two nearly separate sub-basins connected by the Strait of Tiquina, which is 800 m across at the narrowest point, the larger sub-basin, Lago Grande, has a mean depth of 135 m and a maximum depth of 284 m. The smaller sub-basin, Wiñaymarka, has a depth of 9 m. The overall average depth of the lake is 107 m, five major river systems feed into Lake Titicaca. In order of their flow volumes these are Ramis, Coata, Ilave, Huancané. More than twenty other smaller streams empty into Titicaca, the lake has 41 islands, some of which are densely populated. This only accounts for about 10% of the water balance. Evapotranspiration, caused by winds and intense sunlight at high altitude. It is nearly a closed lake, since 2000 Lake Titicaca has experienced constantly receding water levels. Between April and November 2009 alone the water level dropped by 81 cm and this drop is caused by shortened rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers feeding the tributaries of the lake. Water pollution is also a concern because cities in the Titicaca watershed grow, sometimes outpacing solid waste. According to the Global Nature Fund, Titicacas biodiversity is threatened by water pollution, already in 2012, the GNF nominated the lake Threatened Lake of the Year
17.
Viracocha
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Viracocha is the great creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. Full name and some spelling alternatives are Wiracocha, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, Viracocha was one of the most important deities in the Inca pantheon and seen as the creator of all things, or the substance from which all things are created, and intimately associated with the sea. Viracocha created the universe, sun, moon, and stars, time, Viracocha was worshipped as god of the sun and of storms. He was represented as wearing the sun for a crown, with thunderbolts in his hands, according to a myth recorded by Juan de Betanzos, Viracocha rose from Lake Titicaca during the time of darkness to bring forth light. He made the sun, moon, and the stars and he made mankind by breathing into stones, but his first creation were brainless giants that displeased him. So he destroyed it with a flood and made a new, Viracocha eventually disappeared across the Pacific Ocean, and never returned. He wandered the earth disguised as a beggar, teaching his new creations the basics of civilization and he wept when he saw the plight of the creatures he had created. It was thought that Viracocha would re-appear in times of trouble, in one legend he had one son, Inti, and two daughters, Mama Killa and Pachamama. These two founded the Inca civilization carrying a staff, called tapac-yauri. In another legend, he fathered the first eight civilized human beings, in some stories, he has a wife called Mama Qucha. In another legend, Viracocha had two sons, Imahmana Viracocha and Tocapo Viracocha, after the Great Flood and the Creation, Viracocha sent his sons to visit the tribes to the northeast and northwest to determine if they still obeyed his commandments. During their journey, Imaymana and Tocapo gave names to all the trees, flowers, fruits and they also taught the tribes which of these were edible, which had medicinal properties, and which were poisonous. Eventually, Viracocha, Tocapo and Imahmana arrived at Cusco and the Pacific seacoast where they walked across the water until they disappeared, the word Viracocha literally means Sea Foam. Tiqsi Huiracocha may have several meanings, in the Quechuan languages, tiqsi means foundation or base, wira means fat, and qucha means lake, sea, or reservoir. Viracochas many epithets include great, all knowing, powerful, etc, some people state that Wiraqucha could mean Fat of the sea. This story was first reported by Pedro Cieza de León and later by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, similar accounts by Spanish chroniclers describe Viracocha as a white god, often with a beard. The Anales de Cuauhtitlan is an important early source which is particularly valuable for having been originally written in Nahuatl. In this quote the beard is represented as a dressing of feathers, a representation of the messenger of Viracocha named Wiracochan or Tunupa is shown in the small village of Ollantaytambo, southern Peru
18.
Paqariq Tampu
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In Inca mythology, one of the main Inca creation myths was that of the Ayar Brothers who emerged from a cave called Paqariq Tampu. This house of production was located on the hill called Tampu Tuqu, according to the myth, the tribe of Maras emerged from one of the niches, called Maras Tuqu by spontaneous generation. The tribe of Tampus emerged from the suti tuqu window, manco Capac, his three Ayar brothers, and his four Mama sisters, emerged from the chief window in the middle, the qhapaq tuqu. Those eight brothers and sisters out of Pacari Tanbo and they went to their idol huaca of Uana Cauri
19.
Inti
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Inti is the ancient Incan sun god. He is revered as the patron of the Inca state. Although most consider Inti the sun god, he is more viewed as a cluster of solar aspects. Worshiped as a deity of the Inca Empire, he is of unknown mythological origin. The most common story says that he is the son of Viracocha, Inti and his sister, Mama Killa, the Moon goddess were generally considered benevolent deities. According to an ancient myth, Inti taught his son Manco Cápac and his daughter Mama Ocllo the arts of civilization, another legend, however, states Manco Cápac was the son of Viracocha. Inti ordered his children to build the Inca capital where a golden wedge they carried with them would penetrate the earth. Incas believed that this happened in the city of Cusco, the Inca ruler was considered to be the living representative of Inti. Pachacuti is often linked to the origin and expansion of the Inca Sun Cult, the Willaq Umu was the high priest of the Sun. His position placed him as the second most powerful person in the kingdom and he was directly underneath the Sapa Inca, and they were often brothers. The emperor and his family were believed to be descended from Inti, a great golden disk representing Inti was captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1571 and was sent to the pope via Spain. The Inca dedicated many ceremonies to the Sun in order to ensure the Sapa Incas welfare, the sun was also important to the Incas, particularly the people of the highlands, because it was necessary for the production of crops like maize and other grains. The suns heat was thought to cause rain. During the rainy season the sun was hotter and brighter, while during the dry season it was weaker, the Incas would set aside large quantities of natural and human resources throughout the empire for Inti. Each conquered province was supposed to dedicate a third of their lands and herds to Inti as mandated by the Inca, each major province would also have a Sun Temple in which male and female priests would serve. The female priests were the mamakuna, who were chosen from the aqllakuna, additionally, the chief temple of the Inca state religion was the Qurikancha in Cusco. Within this temple were wall niches in which the bodies of previous emperors and rulers were exhibited along with statues of Inti in certain festivals. Some figures of Inti also depicted him in form with a hollowed out midsection that was filled with a concoction made of gold dust
20.
Pacha Kamaq
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Pacha Kamaq was the deity worshipped in the city of Pachacamac by the Ichma. Pacha Kamaq was believed to have created the first man and woman, but forgot to give them food, the woman cursed Pacha Kamaq, accusing him of neglect, and Pacha Kamaq made her fertile. Later Pacha Kamaq killed her son and cut the corpse into pieces, the womans second son, Wichama, escaped, so Pacha Kamaq killed the woman. Wichama sought revenge and drove Pacha Kamaq into the ocean, tahuantinsuyu adopted Pacha Kamaq when they incorporated the Ichma into their empire. In late Inca mythology he was the father of Inti and Mama Quilla, Inca mythology Pachacamac Lanning, Edward P. Peru before the Incas
21.
Fire
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Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition, at a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The flame is the portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen, if hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame, Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems around the globe, the positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. The negative effects of fire hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution. If fire removes protective vegetation, heavy rainfall may lead to an increase in soil erosion by water and this is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a liquid will start burning only if the fuel. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not consumed, when added, in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily. Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own products and non-oxidizing gases from the air. Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is small when it is coasting in inertial flight, of course, this does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection. Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron, consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the rate of combustion. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas. This light has a continuous spectrum, complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame
22.
God
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In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, divine simplicity, many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent and all loving. Furthermore, some religions attribute only a purely grammatical gender to God, incorporeity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the immanent transcendence of Chinese theology. God has been conceived as personal or impersonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, in pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism, God has also been conceived as the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God, there are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about Gods identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one true Supreme Being and creator of the universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, I Am that I Am, in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, in Islam, the name Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a concept of God. In Chinese religion, God is conceived as the progenitor of the universe, intrinsic to it, other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Baháí Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus, the English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau-, in the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic God and gods in polytheism. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, in many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. Allāh is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning The God, Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå and it is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means intelligence or wisdom. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning placing ones mind, Waheguru is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God
23.
Earth
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Earth, otherwise known as the World, or the Globe, is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life. It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets, according to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Earths gravity interacts with objects in space, especially the Sun. During one orbit around the Sun, Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times, thus, Earths axis of rotation is tilted, producing seasonal variations on the planets surface. The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides, stabilizes the Earths orientation on its axis, Earths lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of Earths surface is covered with water, mostly by its oceans, the remaining 29% is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes, rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. The majority of Earths polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet, Earths interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the Earths magnetic field, and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics. Within the first billion years of Earths history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earths atmosphere and surface, some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earths distance from the Sun, physical properties, in the history of the Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events. Over 99% of all species that lived on Earth are extinct. Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely, over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival. Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures, politically, the world has about 200 sovereign states, the modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms, which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their proto-Germanic root has been reconstructed as *erþō, originally, earth was written in lowercase, and from early Middle English, its definite sense as the globe was expressed as the earth. By early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and the became the Earth. More recently, the name is simply given as Earth. House styles now vary, Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the. It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as what on earth are you doing, the oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4. 5672±0.0006 billion years ago. By 4. 54±0.04 Gya the primordial Earth had formed, the formation and evolution of Solar System bodies occurred along with the Sun
24.
Cave
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A cave is a hollow place in the ground, specifically a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. Caves form naturally by the weathering of rock and often extend deep underground, the word cave can also refer to much smaller openings such as sea caves, rock shelters, and grottos. A cavern is a type of cave, naturally formed in soluble rock with the ability to grow speleothems. Speleology is the science of exploration and study of all aspects of caves, visiting or exploring caves for recreation may be called caving, potholing, or spelunking. The formation and development of caves is known as speleogenesis, which can occur over the course of millions of years, caves are formed by various geologic processes and can be variable sizes. These may involve a combination of processes, erosion from water, tectonic forces, microorganisms, pressure. Isotopic dating techniques can be applied to cave sediments, in order to determine the timescale when geologic events may have occurred to help form and it is estimated that the maximum depth of a cave cannot be more than 3,000 metres due to the pressure of overlying rocks. For karst caves the maximum depth is determined on the basis of the limit of karst forming processes. Most caves are formed in limestone by dissolution, solutional caves or karst caves are the most frequently occurring caves and such caves form in rock that is soluble. Most occur in limestone, but they can form in other rocks including chalk, dolomite, marble, salt. Rock is dissolved by acid in groundwater that seeps through bedding planes, faults, joints. Over geological epochs cracks expand to become caves and cave systems, the largest and most abundant solutional caves are located in limestone. Limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and groundwater charged with H2CO3, the dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as karst, characterized by sinkholes and underground drainage. Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation and these include flowstones, stalactites, stalagmites, helictites, soda straws and columns. These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called speleothems, the portions of a solutional cave that are below the water table or the local level of the groundwater will be flooded. Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico and nearby Carlsbad Cavern are now believed to be examples of type of solutional cave. They were formed by H2S gas rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes and this gas mixes with ground water and forms H2SO4. The acid then dissolves the limestone from below, rather than from above, caves formed at the same time as the surrounding rock are called primary caves
25.
Temple
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A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
26.
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
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Garcilaso de la Vega, born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa and known as El Inca or Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, was a chronicler and writer born in the Spanish Empires Viceroyalty of Peru. Sailing to Spain at 21, he was educated informally there, the son of a Spanish conquistador and an Inca noblewoman born in the early years of the conquest, he is recognized primarily for his histories about Inca history, culture, and society. His work was influential and well-received and it was as the first literature by an author born in the Americas to enter the western canon. After his fathers death in 1559, De la Vega moved to Spain in 1561, born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, in Cusco, Peru, in 1539, he was the illegitimate son of a Spanish aristocrat and a royal Inca mother. He was born during the years of the Spanish conquest. His father was Spanish captain and conquistador Sebastián Garcilaso de la Vega y Vargas and his mother was an Inca princess, Palla Chimpu Ocllo, who was baptized after the fall of Cuzco as Isabel Suárez Chimpu Ocllo. She was descended from Inca nobility, a daughter of Túpac Huallpa, because he was illegitimate and the ravages of the conquest were underway, the boy was given only his mothers surname. Under the Spanish system of caste that developed, he would have classified as a criollo. Gómez lived with his mother and her Inca family for the first ten years of his life and his first language was Quecha, but he also learned Spanish from his early years. His father took the boy into his household and gave him some education, Suárez de Figueroa received an inheritance when his father died in 1559. The next year, at 21, he decided to travel to Spain, when Gómez was young, his father had abandoned his mother and officially married a younger Spanish woman. De la Vegas mother Palla Chimpu Ocllo married Juan de Pedroche and had two daughters, De la Vegas half sisters, ana Ruíz married her cousin Martín de Bustinza, and Luisa de Herrera married Pedro Márquez de Galeoto. Suárez de Figueroa reached Spain in 1561 while there was fighting in his native country under the conquest. The Spanish did not achieve their victory until 1572. He traveled to Montilla, where he met his fathers brother, Alonso de Vargas, the younger man soon traveled to Madrid to seek official acknowledgement as his fathers son from the Crown, and he was allowed to take the name of Garcilaso de la Vega. Also referred to as El Inca or Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, together with his uncles support, gaining his fathers name helped him in society. He remained in Spain and did not return to his native country, as warfare continued in the conquest, he was at political and even physical risk there because of his royal Inca lineage. It is recorded that he died in Córdoba on 23 April 1616 and he had at least two sons, born of relationships with different servants
27.
Scrooge McDuck
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Scrooge McDuck is a fictional character created in 1947 by Carl Barks during his time as a work-for-hire for The Walt Disney Company. Scrooge is an elderly Scottish anthropomorphic Pekin duck with a bill, legs. He typically wears a red or blue frock coat, top hat, pince-nez glasses and he is portrayed in animations as speaking with a Scottish accent, also sometimes known as a Scottish burr. Named after Ebenezer Scrooge from the 1843 novel A Christmas Carol, Scrooge is a wealthy Scottish business magnate and he is the maternal uncle of Donald Duck, the grand-uncle of Huey, Dewey and Louie, and a usual financial backer of Gyro Gearloose. Within the context of the fictional Duck universe, he is the worlds richest person and his Money Bin—and indeed Scrooge himself—are often used as a humorous metonyms for great wealth in popular culture around the world. McDuck was initially characterized as a miser and antihero, but in later appearances he was often portrayed as a charitable and thrifty hero, adventurer, explorer. He was originally created by Barks as an antagonist for Donald Duck, however, McDucks popularity grew so large that he became a major figure of the Duck universe. In 1952 he was given his own book series, called Uncle Scrooge. Scrooge was most famously drawn by his creator Carl Barks, like other Disney franchise characters, Scrooge McDucks international popularity has resulted in literature that is often translated into other languages. Comics have remained Scrooges primary medium, although he has appeared in animated cartoons. His appearance may have based on a similar-looking, nameless Scottish character from the 1943 propaganda short The Spirit of 43. In Christmas on Bear Mountain, Scrooge was a bearded, bespectacled, reasonably wealthy old duck, visibly leaning on his cane, Scrooges misanthropic thoughts in this first story are quite pronounced, Here I sit in this big lonely dump, waiting for Christmas to pass. That silly season when everybody loves everybody else, everybody hates me, and I hate everybody. Barks later reflected, Scrooge in Christmas on Bear Mountain was only my first idea of a rich, I had made him too old and too weak. I discovered later on that I had to him more active. I could not make an old guy like that do the things I wanted him to do, Barks would later claim that he originally only intended to use Scrooge as a one-shot character, but then decided Scrooge could prove useful for motivating further stories. Barks continued to experiment with Scrooges appearance and personality over the four years. Foxy Relations was the first story where Scrooge is called by his title, the story, Voodoo Hoodoo, first published in Dells Four Color Comics #238, August 1949, was the first story to hint at Scrooges past with the introduction of two figures from it
28.
Comic book
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A comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comic art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by brief descriptive prose and written narrative, although comics has some origins in 18th century Japan and 1830s Europe, comic books were first popularized in the United States during the 1930s. Comic books are reliant on their organization and appearance, authors largely focus on the frame of the page, size, orientation, and panel positions. These characteristic aspects of books are necessary in conveying the content. The key elements of comic books include panels, balloons, text, balloons are usually convex spatial containers of information that are related to a character using a tail element. The tail has an origin, path, tip, and pointed direction, there are many technological formulas used to create comic books, including directions, axes, data, and metrics. Following these key formatting procedures is the writing, drawing, Comics as a print medium have existed in America since the printing of The Adventures of Mr. Obadiah Oldbuck in 1842 in hardcover, making it the first known American prototype comic book. The introduction of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shusters Superman in 1938 turned comic books into a major industry, the Golden Age originated the archetype of the superhero. Historians generally divide the timeline of the American comic book into eras, the Golden Age of Comic Books began with the introduction of Superman in 1938, spurring a period of high sales. The Silver Age of comic books is considered to date from the first successful revival of the then-dormant superhero form. The demarcation between the Silver Age and the era, the Bronze Age of Comic Books, is less well-defined. The Modern Age of Comic Books runs from the mid-1980s to the present day, in response to attention from the government and from the media, the U. S. comic book industry set up the Comics Magazine Association of America. The CMAA instilled the Comics Code Authority in 1954 and drafted the self-censorship Comics Code that year and it was not until the 1970s that comic books could be published without passing through the inspection of the CMAA. In the early 1970s, a surge of creativity emerged in what known as underground comix. Published and distributed independently of the comics industry, most of such comics reflected the youth counterculture. Underground comics were almost never sold at newsstands, but rather in such youth-oriented outlets as head shops and record stores, frank Stacks The Adventures of Jesus, published under the name Foolbert Sturgeon, has been credited as the first underground comic. The rise of comic book specialty stores in the late 1970s created/paralleled a dedicated market for independent or alternative comics in the U. S, some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics. A few represented experimental attempts to bring closer to the status of fine art
29.
The Son of the Sun
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The Son of the Sun is the first Scrooge McDuck comic by Don Rosa, first published in 1987. One such story, appearing in a called the Pertwillaby Papers, was called Lost In the Andes. When Rosa began working with Gladstone Publishing, a publisher of Disney comics, Rosa updated the plot for Lost In the Andes to feature Scrooge and his nephews instead of the original protagonist, and this story became Son of the Sun. He has since stated that the conception of the story in his mind had always featured the Disney ducks. The story met with acclaim and was nominated for a Harvey Award. The opening panels of the story are set in the Duckburg museum, soon Scrooge and his nephews are off on a race with Glomgold to see who can find, and claim the greater Incan treasure. The first clue comes as soon as Glomgold has left, as Donald picks up an Incan vase that was knocked over during the bragging match and they find a metal plaque baked inside, providing a map to a temple of Manco Capac in the Andes mountains. Arriving at a village near Cuzco, Scrooge hires a plane to fly them to its location, the pilot of the plane turns out to be Glomgold, who relieves them of the plaque at gunpoint and then parachutes out. As the plane flies off, Glomgold approaches and informs the ducks that Scrooge has frightened away the porters he hired, a week later, Glomgold and his reluctant helpers reach a remote mountain, on the summit of which is the temple, built around a large volcanic fumarole. Glomgold enters the temple’s treasure chamber and is beside himself with glee to discover an enormous store of golden Inca artifacts. Then Scrooge appears, calmly informing Glomgold that he crash-landed the plane on the several days ago. Realising there must be another Incan treasure in the temple, Glomgold investigates further and discovers the Eye of Manco Capac, since Scrooge claimed the gold, and not the temple, and there’s no gold on the sunburst, that makes it Glomgold’s. It wedges into the hole convex side down, creating a perfect seal, before the others can stop them, the pressure mounts and the entire mountaintop, temple and all, is suddenly blown into the sky like a cork from a bottle. The ducks are able to use a tapestry as a parachute before the temple lands squarely in a nearly bottomless volcanic lake. The massive splash of water irrigates the villagers’ crop fields, relieving them from the effects of recent drought, all of the treasure is now completely irretrievable. Even though he cannot retrieve it, Scrooge is now the legal owner of all of the treasure —. However, Rosa also softened the character of Scrooge somewhat from Barks’s version, making him a deliberate contrast to Glomgold’s evil and sneakiness. In previous Barks stories Scrooge has sometimes been portrayed as a robber baron, while Glomgold has been portrayed as remarkably similar to Scrooge in many ways
30.
Don Rosa
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Keno Don Hugo Rosa, known simply as Don Rosa, is an American comic book author and illustrator known for his stories about Scrooge McDuck, Donald Duck and other Disney characters. Rosa created about 90 stories between 1987 and 2006, in 1995 he won the Eisner Award for Best Serialized Story for his 12-chapter work The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck. Don Rosas grandfather, Gioachino Rosa, lived in Maniago, a town at the foot of the Alps in Northern Italy and he emigrated to Kentucky, United States around 1900, established a successful tile and terrazzo company, then returned to Italy to marry and start a family. In 1915 just after the birth of his son Ugo Rosa, Gioachino returned to Kentucky with his wife, Ugo Rosa grew up and was later married in Kentucky. His wife was born to a German American father and a mother with both Scottish and Irish ancestry, Don Rosa was born Keno Don Hugo Rosa on June 29,1951 in Louisville, Kentucky. He was named both his father and grandfather. Gioachino was called Keno for short, dons father was named Ugo Dante Rosa, but used the name Hugo Don Rosa in America. Rosa was exposed to comics at a young age, as his 11-years-older sister was a comics hoarder. Rosa began drawing comics before being able to write and he never tried to draw more than stick figures, because the drawings, for him, were illustrations to get the story told. Only the story was important to him, not the actual drawings and his favorite comic books growing up were Uncle Scrooge by Western Publishing and Little Lulu comics from Dell Comics, and his sisters collection of MAD comics and magazines. Shortly after starting to collect Superman comics he started to trade the collection of his sister for Superman Comics. Since a comic shop in his area traded two old comics for one new, he only had two Duck comics left from his sisters collection by the 1970s, one of them being The Golden Helmet. Rosa entered the University of Kentucky in 1969 and he graduated in 1973 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in civil engineering. In 1969 while still in college, Rosa won an award as best political cartoonist in the nation in a college paper, im not really an editorial cartoonist. Id much rather be doing comedy adventure, but I must have done something right, for at one point The Journal of Higher Education named me one of the five or six best college newspaper cartoonists in the nation. Rosas first published comic was a strip featuring his own character, Lancelot Pertwillaby. He created the strip in 1971 for The Kentucky Kernel, a newspaper of the University of Kentucky. Rosa later switched the strip to comedy-adventure, his style of comics
31.
Treasure
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Treasure is a concentration of riches, often those that originate from ancient history, considered lost and/or forgotten until being rediscovered. Some jurisdictions legally define what constitutes treasure, such as in the British Treasure Act 1996, the phrase blood and treasure or lives and treasure has been used to refer to the human and monetary costs associated with massive endeavours such as war that expend both. Searching for hidden treasure is a theme in legend, treasure hunters do exist. A buried treasure is an important part of the beliefs surrounding pirates. According to popular conception, pirates often buried their stolen fortunes in remote places and they differ widely in plot and literary treatment but all are derived from the William Kidd legend. The whole inner spirit and a deal of the material detail of my first chapters. Were the property of Washington Irving, a treasure map is a variation of a map to mark the location of buried treasure, a lost mine, a valuable secret or a hidden location. More common in fiction than in reality, pirate treasure maps are often depicted in works of fiction as hand drawn, regardless of the terms literary use, anything that meets the criterion of a map that describes the location of a treasure could appropriately be called a treasure map. One of the earliest known instances of a document listing buried treasure is the copper scroll, believed to have been written between 50 and 100 AD, the scroll contains a list of 63 locations with detailed directions pointing to hidden treasures of gold and silver. KEN Thus far, no item mentioned in the scroll has been found, scholars remain divided on whether the copper scroll represents real burials, and, if so, the total measurements and the owners. Although buried pirate treasure is a literary theme, there are very few documented cases of pirates actually burying treasure. Drake did not create a map, another case in 1720 involved British Captain Stratton of the Prince Eugene who, after supposedly trading rum with pirates in the Caribbean, buried his gold near the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. One of his crew, Morgan Miles, turned him in to the authorities, in any case, Captain Stratton was not a pirate, and made no map. The pirate most responsible for the legends of buried pirate treasure was Captain Kidd, over the years many people have tried to find the supposed remnants of Kidds treasure on Gardiners Island and elsewhere, but none has ever been found. People have claimed to have discovered maps and other clues led to pirate treasure. These claims are not supported by scholars, in the 1985 film The Goonies, an old treasure map leads to the secret stash of a legendary 17th-century pirate, an almost exact imitation of Stevensons plot in Treasure Island. In the 2004 film National Treasure, a treasure map becomes the source of the quest itself, in the 1994 comedy City Slickers II, The Legend of Curlys Gold, a treasure map is made by criminals who are analogous to modern day pirates. In the film Waterworld, a vague and cryptic treasure map has been tattooed on the back of the child character Enola
32.
Herman Melville
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Herman Melville was an American novelist, short story writer, and poet of the American Renaissance period. His best known works include Typee, an account of his experiences in Polynesian life. His work was almost forgotten during his last thirty years and his writing draws on his experience at sea as a common sailor, exploration of literature and philosophy, and engagement in the contradictions of American society in a period of rapid change. Born in New York City as the child of a merchant in French dry goods, Melvilles formal education ended abruptly after his father died in 1832. Melville briefly became a schoolteacher before he took to sea in 1839 as a sailor on a merchant ship. In 1840 he signed aboard the whaler Acushnet for his first whaling voyage, after further adventures, he returned to Boston in 1844. His first book, Typee, a romanticized account of his life among Polynesians, became such a best-seller that he worked up a sequel. These successes encouraged him to marry Elizabeth Shaw, of a prominent Boston family and his first novel not based on his own experiences, Mardi, is a sea narrative that develops into a philosophical allegory, but was not well received. Redburn, a story of life on a merchant ship, and his 1850 expose of harsh life aboard a Man-of-War, White-Jacket yielded warmer reviews, Moby-Dick was another commercial failure, published to mixed reviews. Melvilles career as a popular author effectively ended with the reception of Pierre. His Revolutionary War novel Israel Potter appeared in 1855, from 1853 to 1856, Melville published short fiction in magazines, most notably Bartleby, the Scrivener, The Encantadas, and Benito Cereno. These and three stories were collected in 1856 as The Piazza Tales. In 1857, he voyaged to England, where he reunited with Hawthorne for the first time since 1852, the Confidence-Man, was the last prose work he published during his lifetime. He moved to New York to take a position as Customs Inspector, battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War was his poetic reflection on the moral questions of the Civil War. In 1867 his oldest child, Malcolm, died at home from a self-inflicted gunshot, Clarel, A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land, a metaphysical epic, appeared in 1876. In 1886, his son, Stanwix, died and Melville retired. Melvilles death from disease in 1891 subdued a reviving interest in his work. The 1919 centennial of his became the starting point of the Melville Revival
33.
The Confidence-Man
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The Confidence-Man, His Masquerade is the ninth book and final novel by American writer Herman Melville, first published in New York in 1857. The book was published on April 1, the day of the novels setting. The Confidence-Man portrays a Canterbury Tales–style group of steamboat passengers whose interlocking stories are told as they travel down the Mississippi River toward New Orleans. Scholar Robert Milder notes, Long mistaken for a flawed novel, the novels title refers to its central character, an ambiguous figure who sneaks aboard a Mississippi steamboat on April Fools Day. This stranger attempts to test the confidence of the passengers, whose varied reactions constitute the bulk of the text, each person including the reader is forced to confront that in which he places his trust. The Confidence-Man uses the Mississippi River as a metaphor for those aspects of American and human identity that unify the otherwise disparate characters. Melville also employs the rivers fluidity as a reflection and backdrop of the identities of his confidence man. The novel is written as satire, allegory, and metaphysical treatise, dealing with themes of sincerity, identity, morality, religiosity, economic materialism, irony. And it is worth bearing in mind, that the joke is passed round pretty liberally & impartially. The novel was turned into an opera by George Rochberg, it was premiered by the Santa Fe Opera in 1982, columbia Literary History of the United States
34.
Philip Kerr
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Philip Kerr is a British author. Kerr was educated at a school in Northampton. He studied at the University of Birmingham from 1974 to 1980, gaining a degree in law. Kerr worked as a copywriter for Saatchi and Saatchi before becoming a full-time writer in 1989. A writer of adult fiction and non-fiction, he is known for the Bernie Gunther series of historical thrillers set in Germany and elsewhere during the 1930s, the Second World War. He has also written childrens books under the name P. B, Kerr, including the Children of the Lamp series. Kerr has written for The Sunday Times, the Evening Standard and he is married to fellow novelist Jane Thynne, the two live in Wimbledon, London, and have three children. In 1993, Kerr was named in Grantas list of Best Young British Novelists, in 2009, If the Dead Rise Not won the worlds most lucrative crime fiction award, the RBA International Prize for Crime Writing worth €125,000. The book also won the British Crime Writers Associations Ellis Peters Historic Crime Award that same year, Berlin Noir Bernie Gunther trilogy, republished 1993 by Penguin Books in one volume. ISBN 0-670-82431-3, set in 1936 The Pale Criminal, ISBN 0-670-82433-X, set in 1938 A German Requiem. ISBN 0-670-83516-1, set in 1947–48 Later Bernie Gunther novels The One From the Other, ISBN 978-0-399-15299-3, set in 1949 A Quiet Flame. ISBN 978-1-84724-356-0, set in 1950 If The Dead Rise Not, ISBN 978-1-84724-942-5, set in 1934 and 1954 Field Grey. ISBN 978-1-84916-412-2, set in 1954 with flashbacks over 20 years Prague Fatale, London, Quercus,2011 ISBN 978-1-84916-415-3, set in 1941 A Man Without Breath. ISBN 978-1-78087-624-5, set in 1943 The Lady From Zagreb, ISBN 978-1-78206-582-1, set in 1942-3, with framing scenes in 1956. ISBN 978-1-78429-514-1, set in 1956 Prussian Blue, London, Head of Zeus, October 23,2014. ISBN1784082538 ISBN 978-1784082536 ASIN, B00KX96D3G Hand of God, London, Head of Zeus, June 4,2015. London, Head of Zeus, November 5,2015, ISBN 0-7011-6281-3 A Five Year Plan. ISBN 0-7528-1444-3 Dark Matter, The Private Life of Sir Isaac Newton, ISBN 978-1782-06577-7 The Penguin Book of Lies
35.
Jinn
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Jinn, also romanized as djinn or anglicized as genies, are supernatural creatures in early Arabian and later Islamic mythology and theology. An individual member of the jinn is known as a jinni, djinni and they are mentioned frequently in the Quran and other Islamic texts. The jinn, humans, and angels make up the three known sapient creations of God, like human beings, the jinn can be good, evil, or neutrally benevolent and hence have free will like humans. Jaini were among various creatures believe among pre-Zoroastrian peoples of Persia, Jinn is an Arabic collective noun deriving from the Semitic root JNN, whose primary meaning is to hide. Some authors interpret the word to mean, literally, beings that are concealed from the senses, cognates include the Arabic majnūn, jannah, and janīn. Jinn is properly treated as a plural, with the singular being jinni, the anglicized form genie is a borrowing of the French génie, from the Latin genius, a guardian spirit of people and places in Roman religion. It first appeared in 18th-century translations of the Thousand and One Nights from the French, numerous mentions of jinn in the Quran and testimony of both pre-Islamic and Islamic literature indicate that the belief in spirits was prominent in pre-Islamic Bedouin religion. Julius Wellhausen has observed that such spirits were thought to inhabit desolate, dingy, and dark places, One had to protect oneself from them, but they were not the objects of a true cult. In Islamic theology jinn are said to be creatures with free will, made from fire by God as humans were made of clay. When jinns are called fire spirits it´s does not refer to their current nature, Jinn are mentioned 29 times in the Quran, Surah 72 is named after the jinn, and has a passage about them. Another surah mentions jinn in the last verse, the Quran also mentions that Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both humanity and the jinn, and that prophets and messengers were sent to both communities. Like humans, jinn will also be judged on the Day of Judgment, the social organization of the jinn community resembles that of humans, e. g. they have kings, courts of law, weddings, mourning rituals and practise religion. One common belief in Muslim belief lists five distinct orders of jinn — the Marid, the Ifrit, the Shaitan, the Ghul, and the Jann. A few traditions, divide jinn into three classes, those who have wings and fly in the air, those who resemble snakes and dogs, described them as creatures of different forms, some resembling vultures and snakes, others tall men in white garb. They may even appear as dragons, onagers, or any number of other animals, in addition to their animal forms, the jinn occasionally assume human form to mislead and destroy their human victims. Ibn Taymiyyah, a late medieval theologian whose writings would later become the source of Wahhabism, believed the jinn to be generally ignorant, untruthful, oppressive. In Sūrat Al-Jinn, verses 8–10, Allah narrates concerning the jinn how they touched or sought the limits of the sky and found it full of guards and shooting stars. Seven kings of the Jinn are traditionally associated with days of the week, the notion of a qarin is not universally accepted among all Muslims, but it is generally accepted that Shayṭān whispers in human minds, and he is assigned to each human being
36.
Anthony Horowitz
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Anthony Horowitz, OBE is an English novelist and screenwriter specialising in mystery and suspense. His work for young adult readers includes The Diamond Brothers series, the Alex Rider series and his work for adults includes the novel and play Mindgame, and two Sherlock Holmes novels The House of Silk and Moriarty. He is the most recent author chosen to write a James Bond novel by the Ian Fleming estate and he has also written for television, contributing scripts to ITVs Agatha Christies Poirot and Midsomer Murders. He was the creator and writer of the ITV series Foyles War, Collision, Horowitz was born in Stanmore, Middlesex, into a wealthy Jewish family, and in his early years lived an upper-middle class lifestyle. As an overweight and unhappy child, Horowitz enjoyed reading books from his fathers library, at the age of 8, Horowitz was sent to Orley Farm, a boarding preparatory school in Harrow, Middlesex. There, he entertained his peers by telling them the stories he had read, Horowitz described his time in the school as a brutal experience, recalling that he was often beaten by the headmaster. At age 13 he went on to Rugby School, a school in Rugby, Warwickshire. Horowitzs mother introduced him to Frankenstein and Dracula and she also gave him a human skull for his 13th birthday. Horowitz said in an interview that it him to get to the end of each story since he will soon look like the skull. From the age of 8, Horowitz knew he wanted to be a writer and he graduated from the University of York with a lower second class degree in English literature and art history in 1977, where he was in Vanbrugh College. In at least one interview, Horowitz claims to believe that H. P. Lovecraft based his fictional Necronomicon on a real text, Horowitzs father was associated with some of the politicians in the circle of prime minister Harold Wilson, including Eric Miller. Facing bankruptcy, he moved his assets into Swiss numbered bank accounts and he died from cancer when his son Anthony was 22, and the family was never able to track down the missing money despite years of trying. Horowitz now lives in Central London with his wife Jill Green, Green produced Foyles War, the series Horowitz wrote for ITV. He credits his family with much of his success in writing, as he says they help him with ideas and he is a patron of child protection charity Kidscape. Anthony Horowitzs first book, The Sinister Secret of Frederick K Bower, was an adventure for children, published in 1979. In 1981 his second novel, Misha, the Magician and the Mysterious Amulet was published, in 1983 the first of the Pentagram series, The Devils Door-Bell, was released. This story saw Martin Hopkins battling an ancient evil that threatened the whole world, only three of four remaining stories in the series were ever written, The Night of the Scorpion, The Silver Citadel and Day of the Dragon. In 1985 he released Myths and Legends, a collection of tales from around the world
37.
The Power of Five
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The Power of Five is a series of five fantasy and suspense novels, written by English author Anthony Horowitz and published between 2005 and 2012. It is an updated re-imagining of Horowitzs Pentagram series, which the author had left unfinished in the 1980s, the series is published in the United Kingdom by Walker Books Ltd and in the United States by Scholastic Press. Matt is the leader of the Five and he was born in London, England, to an English mother and a father from New Zealand. However, after the death of his parents he went to live in Ipswich with his aunt and he spent the first few years of his life growing up with his kind and loving parents. They were of comfortable financial stature, though they were not rich, on the morning of the wedding of a family friend, Matt claimed he was ill and was left with a neighbour, Rosemary Green, while his parents went. Matt reveals to the disbelieving neighbour the details of an accident in which his parents are killed, afterwards a police officer arrived and informs them that his parents car has toppled off a bridge and that both his parents are dead. Mrs. Green is sick with shock, Matt was fostered by his Aunt Gwenda and her partner, Brian Conran, who was abusive to his girlfriend and spent Matts inheritance on luxuries. They then started to abuse and neglect Matt when the money ran out, according to Matt, he started smoking at the age of twelve, and stole things from local shops. After a botched warehouse theft which culminated in the stabbing of a security guard and he is placed in the care of Jayne Deverill, an old lady living in Lesser Malling. Taking an immediate disliking to her, Matt tries to escape several times but does not succeed, Matt attempts to explain but Cole does not believe him and leaves him on his own. In the past, mankind fought a battle with The Old Ones. Before Matt could ask questions, he was captured, dragged inside the power plant. Matt finds that he is going to be sacrificed with a knife for his blood in satanic rituals. Richard Cole is going to be burnt to death after being out of the protective circle. However, before the Old Ones can escape Ravens Gate, Matt managed to trigger his power, the vacuum created by the subsequent nuclear explosion sucks the Old Ones back in along with the villagers. Before the explosion, a furious Mrs. Deverill chases Matt, Mrs Deverill manages to knock Richard out, and she and Matt have a fight which ends in Mrs. Deverill attempting to crush Matts windpipe with an extremely heavy pole. Before this can occur, however, Richard regains consciousness and pushes Mrs. Deverill into the pool of acid, after this incident, Matt begins living with Richard in York, supported by the Nexus. Several weeks later, Matt was attending a school, financed by The Nexus
38.
The Emperor's New Groove
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The Emperors New Groove is a 2000 American animated buddy slapstick comedy film created by Walt Disney Feature Animation. It is the 40th film in Disneys animated features canon and it was directed by Mark Dindal, produced by Randy Fullmer, written by David Reynolds, and stars David Spade, John Goodman, Eartha Kitt, Patrick Warburton and Wendie Malick. The film follows a teenage emperor who is transformed into a llama by his ex-advisor, in order for the emperor to change back into a human, he trusts a village leader who escorts him back to the palace. It was altered significantly over its six years of development and production and it began as a musical epic titled Kingdom of the Sun, to have been directed by Dindal and Roger Allers, and was changed by Disney executives into a light-hearted buddy comedy. The documentary The Sweatbox details the troubles that the film endured. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for My Funny Friend and Me performed by Sting, the film was followed by a direct-to-video sequel Kronks New Groove, and an animated television series The Emperors New School. The film starts with Kuzco as a sitting in the jungle on a stormy night. Kuzco is a young selfish Inca emperor, who insults the appearance of potential brides, after Kuzco fires his conniving advisor, Yzma, for abusing her power, she comes up with a plan to take the throne with the help of Kronk, her dim-witted but jovial henchman. Later, Kuzco meets Pacha, a peasant and village leader. He tells him that he wants to demolish his hilltop family home to himself a lavish summer home called Kuzcotopia. Yzma and Kronk devise a plan to destroy Kuzco, through they have him to drink the poison during supper, after knocking Kuzco out, Yzma orders Kronk to kill him and hide the body, but Kronk changes his mind into saving him. He accidentally drops him on the back of Pachas cart as Pacha leaves the city, Pacha returns home, but does not tell his pregnant wife and children about Kuzcos decision. After awakening in the cart, Kuzco reveals himself as a llama and orders Pacha to take him back to the palace, Kuzco haughtily sets off into the jungle alone, only to be chased by jaguars. Pacha rescues Kuzco and they promise that they would make their way to the palace, Yzma shortly takes the throne, but Kronk reveals that he had lost Kuzco and the two set off to find him. Pacha and Kuzco fail to return to the palace, when Pacha falls through a bridge and Kuzco refuses to him up. However, he finds himself in danger too and they work together to save both of their lives. Without the bridge, Kuzco and Pacha delay their journey, while Kuzco decides to change his mind and they stop at a jungle restaurant at the same time Kronk and Yzma do. Neither party realizes the other is there, until Pacha overhears Yzma, however, Kuzco does not believe Pachas warnings and leaves him
39.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
40.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
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Kingdom of Cusco
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The Kingdom of Cusco was a small kingdom based in Cusco on the Andean mountain ranges that began as a small city-state founded by the Incas around the 12th century. In time, through warfare or peaceful assimilation, it began to grow and was succeeded by the Inca Empire. The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century AD, under the leadership of Manco Cápac, they formed the small city-state of Cusco, shown in red on the map below. In 1438 AD, under the command of the Sapa Inca Pachacuti, Pachacuti is thought to have built the citadel of Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a vacation estate. The Sapa Inca of the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cusco were, in order, Manco Cápac, Sinchi Roca, Lloque Yupanqui, Mayta Cápac, evidence of state organization dates from 1200 AD. Little is known of this population, but in years the meaning of cápac meant warlord. The Inca civilization spread rapidly from their beginnings in the Kingdom of Cuzco located in southern Peru. The following outlines each of the Incan rulers and a few of their accomplishments in greater detail, while in fact, his kingdom was still limited to the valley of Cuzco. His great military feat may have been the subjugation of another tribe in the valley, túpac Amaru was the last legitimate Inca to rule, and, unfortunately, the most unfit. With the death of his elder brother Titu Cosi, he ordered the execution of all Spanish people living in Vilcabamba and this resulted in his death and the end of Incan sovereignty, for Vilcabamba was occupied and the survivors enslaved. The Last Days of the Incas
