1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana
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St. Tammany Parish is a parish located in the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 233,740, the parish was founded in 1810. St. Tammany Parish is included in the New Orleans–Metairie, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area, St. Tammany Parish is one of the fastest-growing parishes in the state, along with Livingston and Ascension. St. Tammany Parish is colloquially referred to as part of the Northshore or North Shore throughout metropolitan New Orleans and it is the most affluent parish in the state, has a nationally-recognized system of public schools, and is the most politically conservative parish in the New Orleans region. In 1699, Pierre Le Moyne dIberville, a French explorer, was the first European to visit the area of present-day St. Tammany Parish. While exploring lakes Pontchartrain and Maurepas, Iberville wrote in his journal, The place where I am is one of the prettiest I have seen, the land north of the lakes is a country of pine trees mixed with hard woods. The soil is sandy and many tracks of buffalo and deer can be seen, St. Tammany was originally inhabited by numerous Indian peoples, including the Colapissas, Bayou Goulas, Chickasaw, Biloxi, Choctaw and Pensacola nations. After the 18th-century founding and development of New Orleans, French settlers began to enter the region, the primary industry was the production of pitch, tar, turpentine and resin from the forests. After France was defeated in the French and Indian War, St. Tammany became part of British West Florida, during this period, the area comprising todays St. Tammany attracted British loyalists who wanted to escape persecution in the Thirteen Colonies. After Great Britain was defeated in the American Revolutionary War, West Florida was governed by the Spanish, the West Florida period ended with the West Florida revolt, which precipitated annexation by the United States. In 1810, President James Madison claimed West Florida as part of Louisiana, Claiborne established the boundaries of the Florida Parishes. He created St. Tammany Parish and named it after the Delaware Indian Chief Tamanend, in fact, Tamanend is not known to have been a Christian, and was certainly not a Roman Catholic. However, he became revered as an American patron saint in the post-Revolutionary period. Under Spanish rule, the area east of the Tangipahoa River, due to the fact that Ferdinand was also the name of the disputed King of Spain at the time, it was deemed that the new parish should have a more American sounding name. In the early 1830s, there were two towns in St. Tammany, Covington, a retreat with summer homes and hotels, and Madisonville. The area south of Covington to Lake Pontchartrains northern shore and extending eastwards to the Pearl River border with the state of Mississippi was known as the Covington Lowlands and this region included the present-day towns of Mandeville, Abita Springs, Lacombe, Slidell, and Pearl River. Regular ferry service commenced across Lake Pontchartrain, and shortly thereafter another resort community was founded, with the completion of high-speed road connections to St. Tammany from New Orleans and its older suburbs, the parish began to develop as a bedroom community. Suburban sprawl first took root in and around Slidell, Louisiana, while St. Tammany was sparsely populated and almost wholly rural in the 1950s, its population exceeded 200,000 in the wake of Hurricane Katrinas landfall in 2005
3.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
4.
Central Time Zone
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The North American Central Time Zone is a time zone in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, some Caribbean Islands, and part of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Central Standard Time is six hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, during summer most of the zone uses daylight saving time, and changes to Central Daylight Time which is five hours behind UTC. The province of Manitoba is the province or territory in Canada that observes Central Time in all areas. Also, most of the province of Saskatchewan is on Central Standard Time year-round, major exceptions include Lloydminster, a city situated on the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city charter stipulates that it shall observe Mountain Time and DST, putting the community on the time as all of Alberta, including the major cities of Calgary. As a result, during the summer, clocks in the province match those in Alberta. The Central Time Zone is the second most populous in the US after the Eastern Time Zone, lanett and Valley observe Eastern Time historically because they were textile mill towns and the original home office of their mills was in West Point, Georgia. Some eastern counties observe Central Time because they are close to the border of the Middle Tennessee counties surrounding the Nashville metropolitan area. Louisiana Michigan, All of Michigan observes Eastern Time except the four Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin, other westernmost counties from this area such as Ontonagon observe Eastern Time. South Dakota, Eastern half as divided by the Missouri river adjacent to the state capital, note, the metropolitan area of Pierre is Central, including Fort Pierre. Wisconsin Most of Mexico—roughly the eastern three-fourths—lies in the Central Time Zone, except for six northwestern states, the federal entities of Mexico that observe Central Time, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua all use Central Standard Time year-round. The Galápagos Islands in Ecuador uses Central Standard Time all year-round, Daylight saving time is in effect in much of the Central time zone between mid-March and early November. The modified time is called Central Daylight Time and is UTC−5, in Canada, Saskatchewan does not observe a time change. One reason that Saskatchewan does not take part in a change is that, geographically. The province elected to move onto permanent daylight saving by being part of the Central Time Zone, Mexico decided not to go along with this change and observes their horario de verano from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October. In December 2009, the Mexican Congress allowed ten border cities, eight of which are in states that observe Central Time, to adopt the U. S. daylight time schedule effective in 2010
5.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
6.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
7.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
8.
Lake Pontchartrain
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Lake Pontchartrain is a brackish estuary located in southeastern Louisiana in the United States. It covers an area of 630 square miles with a depth of 12 to 14 feet. Some shipping channels are kept deeper through dredging and it is roughly oval in shape, about 40 miles from west to east and 24 miles from south to north. In descending order of area, the lake is located in parts of six Louisiana parishes, St. Tammany, Orleans, Jefferson, St. John the Baptist, St. Charles, the water boundaries were defined in 1979. Lake Pontchartrain is named for Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain from Pontchartrain city and he was the French Minister of the Marine, Chancellor, and Controller-General of Finances during the reign of Frances Sun King, Louis XIV, for whom the colony of La Louisiane was named. It receives fresh water from the Tangipahoa, Tchefuncte, Tickfaw, Amite, and Bogue Falaya rivers and it is one of the largest wetlands along the Gulf Coast of North America. It comprises more than 125,000 ac of wetland, including hardwoods and cypress swamps along with a complex mixture of herbaceous wetlands including fresh, intermediate. Salinity varies from negligible at the northern cusp west of Mandeville up to half the salinity of seawater at its eastern bulge near Interstate 10. Lake Maurepas, a freshwater lake, connects with Lake Pontchartrain on the west via Pass Manchac. The Industrial Canal connects the Mississippi River with the lake at New Orleans, bonnet Carré Spillway diverts water from the Mississippi into the lake during times of river flooding. The lake was created 2,600 to 4,000 years ago as the evolving Mississippi River Delta formed its southern and eastern shorelines with alluvial deposits and its Native American name was Okwata. In 1699, French explorer Pierre Le Moyne dIberville renamed it Pontchartrain after Louis Phélypeaux, human habitation of the region began at least 3,500 years ago, but increased rapidly with the arrival of Europeans about 300 years ago. The great American naturalist, William Bartram, explored the north shore during a trip west in 1777, in 1852 a railroad was constructed to link New Orleans to the north. However, the pilings were burned to the line in the Civil War. The great cypress swamps of the area were logged in the early 20th century. The current population in the region is over 1.5 million, there have been many problems with conservation management of the forests and wetlands. Owing to past exploitation, the ecosystems of the lake have been placed under stress, marshes, for example, are turning to open water, and cypress swamps are being killed by salt water intrusion. However, Brown Pelicans and Bald Eagles, once scarce, are now a common sight along the shores, a team of experts assembled by The Nature Conservancy assessed the situation in 2004
9.
Interstate 12
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Interstate 12 is an Interstate Highway located entirely within the U. S. state of Louisiana. It spans a total of 85.59 miles in an east–west direction from I-10 in Baton Rouge to an interchange with both I-10 and I-59 in Slidell, along the way, it passes through the city of Hammond, where it intersects I-55 and US51. It also serves the cities of Denham Springs and Ponchatoula, as well as the St. Tammany Parish cities of Covington. I-12 parallels the older US190 corridor and traverses the North Shore of Lake Pontchartrain in the portion of the state. The interstates length is short for an interstate and is comparable with the countrys longest auxiliary interstates. It is one of the shortest mainline interstates to terminate at the route at either end. Apart from serving the communities of the North Shore, I-12 acts as a long bypass of New Orleans and is heavily used as a shortcut for through traffic on I-10. While I-10 curves to the south to pass through the city limits, I-12 takes a direct alignment. In 1993, the Louisiana state legislature designated I-12 as the Republic of West Florida Parkway, Louisiana is in the process of widening I-12 to three lanes in locations where the interstate is still two lanes in each direction. From the west, I-12 begins three miles east of downtown Baton Rouge in East Baton Rouge Parish at an interchange with I-10 known as the I-10/I-12 split. While I-10 heads to the southeast toward the New Orleans metropolitan area, before leaving Baton Rouge, I-12 intersects some of its major arteries, including LA3064 and LA73 via LA1068. It then passes through an interchange with US61. These three exits serve several of the areas key medical and shopping centers, such as the Our Lady of the Lake Regional Medical Center, the final exit in Baton Rouge is an interchange with LA3245, which serves the Ochsner Medical Center and eastern suburbs. 1.3 miles later, I-12 reaches the Amite River, where it enters Livingston Parish, I-12 skirts the southern edge of town, providing interchanges with LA3002 and LA1026. East of Denham springs, I-12 skirts the edge of Livingston Parishs only other city. The interstates sole exit in Walker is Exit 15, an interchange with LA447, past Walker are smaller communities in the eastern half of the parish. Exits include, LA63 serving Livingston, LA441 serving Holden, shortly after crossing the Natalbany River into Tangipahoa Parish, I-12 intersects LA1249, which leads to the communities of Baptist and Pumpkin Center. 3.2 miles later, I-12 enters into an interchange with I-55 at the southeast corner of Hammond
10.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
11.
New Orleans metropolitan area
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As of the April 1,2012, estimate, the metropolitan statistical area had a population of 1,227,096. The New Orleans-Metairie-Hammond Combined Statistical Area, an area, had a population of 1,452,502. The metropolitan area was hit by Hurricane Katrina – once a Category 5 hurricane, within the city of New Orleans proper, multiple breaches and structural failures occurred in the system of levees and flood walls designed under Federal government auspices. The resulting decline in the population negatively impacted population numbers for the entire metro area. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area is made up of nine parishes, the CSA includes two metropolitan area and one micropolitan areas. The Census Bureaus CSA adds Washington and Tangipahoa Parishes, to make nine parishes, the New Orleans regions chamber of commerce, GNO, Inc. includes the nine parishes of the Census Bureaus CSA plus St. James Parish. This wider 10-parish region had a population of 1.32 million as of July 1,2008, the Louisiana state legislature created a commission, the Regional Planning Commission, to be responsible for the planning and development of the New Orleans metropolitan area. The five parishes covered by the commission are, Jefferson, Orleans, Plaquemines, St. Bernard, additionally, St. Charles and St. John the Baptist are associate members of the Regional Planning Commission. The New Orleans metropolitan area was first defined in 1950, then known as the New Orleans Standard Metropolitan Area, it consisted of three parishes – Orleans, Jefferson, and St. Bernard – and had a population of 685,405. Following a term change by the Bureau of the Budget, the New Orleans SMA was called the New Orleans Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area, by the census of 1960, the population had grown to 868,480, a 27% increase over the previous census. St. Tammany Parish was added the New Orleans SMSA in 1963, the four-parish area had a combined population of 899,123 in 1960 and 1,045,809 in 1970. By the 1980 census, the population had increased by 14% to 1,187,073, in 1983, the official name was shortened to the New Orleans Metropolitan Statistical Area. Two more parishes, St. Charles and St. John the Baptist, were added to the MSA the same year, making a six-parish MSA. The newly defined area had a total of 1,256,256 residents in 1980, the New Orleans MSA expanded to eight parishes in 1993 with the inclusion of Plaquemines and St. James. The eight-parish area had a population of 1,285,270 at the 1990 census and 1,337,726 in 2000. The MSA was renamed the New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area in 2003, St. James Parish was removed from the defined metropolitan area. A total of 1,316,510 people lived in the seven parishes of Greater New Orleans in 2000, the City of Kenner is the largest incorporated city located in Jefferson Parish, just west of the City of New Orleans. In the New Orleans metropolitan area, the following terms are used, Eastbank, Westbank, Northshore
12.
Normandy
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Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. Administratively, Normandy is divided into five departments, Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne and it covers 30,627 km², forming roughly 5% of the territory of France. Its population of 3.37 million accounts for around 5% of the population of France, Normans is the name given to the inhabitants of Normandy, and the region is the homeland of the Norman language. The historical region of Normandy comprised the region of Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the départements, or departments of Mayenne. For a century and a following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman. Archaeological finds, such as paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Celts invaded Normandy in successive waves from the 4th to the 3rd century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, there were nine different Celtic tribes living in Normandy. The Romanisation of Normandy was achieved by the methods, Roman roads. Classicists have knowledge of many Gallo-Roman villas in Normandy, in the late 3rd century, barbarian raids devastated Normandy. Coastal settlements were raided by Saxon pirates, Christianity also began to enter the area during this period. In 406, Germanic tribes began invading from the east, while the Saxons subjugated the Norman coast, the Roman Emperor withdrew from most of Normandy. As early as 487, the area between the River Somme and the River Loire came under the control of the Frankish lord Clovis, the Vikings started to raid the Seine Valley during the middle of the 9th century. As early as 841, a Viking fleet appeared at the mouth of the Seine, after attacking and destroying monasteries, including one at Jumièges, they took advantage of the power vacuum created by the disintegration of Charlemagnes empire to take northern France. The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Norwegian Viking leader Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson, Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks, Charles the Simple, through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he, the name Normandy reflects Rollos Viking origins. The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and they became the Normans – a Norman-speaking mixture of Saxons and indigenous Franks and Celts. Besides the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent conquests of Wales and Ireland, Norman families, such as that of Tancred of Hauteville, Rainulf Drengot and Guimond de Moulins played important parts in the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Crusades. They also carved out a place for themselves and their descendants in the Crusader states of Asia Minor, the 14th century Norman explorer Jean de Béthencourt established a kingdom in the Canary Islands
13.
Norman language
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Norman is a Romance language which can be classified as one of the Oïl languages along with Picard and Walloon. The name Norman-French is sometimes used to not only the Norman language. For the most part, the forms of Norman and modern French are intercomprehensible. Norman is spoken in mainland Normandy in France where it has no official status and it is taught in a few colleges near Cherbourg-Octeville. In the Channel Islands, the Norman language has developed separately, Jèrriais and Guernésiais are recognized as regional languages by the British and Irish governments within the framework of the British–Irish Council. Sercquiais is in fact a descendant of the 16th century Jèrriais used by the colonists from Jersey who settled the then uninhabited island. The last first language speakers of Auregnais, the dialect of Norman spoken on Alderney, died during the 20th century, the dialect of Herm also lapsed, at an unknown date. An isogloss termed the Joret line separates the northern and southern dialects of the Norman language, there are also dialectal differences between western and eastern dialects. Three different standardized spellings are used, continental Norman, Jèrriais and these represent the different developments and particular literary histories of the varieties of Norman. Norman may therefore be described as a pluricentric language, the Anglo-Norman dialect of Norman was a language of administration in England following the Norman conquest of England in 1066. This left a legacy of Law French in the language of English courts, in Ireland, Norman remained strongest in the area of south-east Ireland, where the Hiberno-Normans invaded in 1169. Norman is still in use for very formal legal purposes in the UK, such as when the monarch gives Royal Assent to an Act of Parliament using the phrase. The Norman conquest of southern Italy also brought the language to Sicily and the part of the Italian Peninsula. See, Norman French and French influence on Sicilian, literature in Norman ranges from early Anglo-Norman literature through the 19th-century Norman literary renaissance to modern writers. Today, the Norman language is strongest in the accessible areas of the former Duchy of Normandy, the Channel Islands and the Cotentin Peninsula in the west. In time, the communities converged, so that Normandy continued to form the name of the region while the original Normans became assimilated by the Gallo-Romance people, later when conquering England, the Norman rulers in England would eventually assimilate, thereby adopting the speech of the local English. However, in cases, the élites contributed elements of their own language to the newly enriched languages that developed in the territories. In Normandy, the new Norman language inherited vocabulary from Old Norse, the influence on phonology is more disputed, although it is argued that the retention of aspirated /h/ and /k/ in Norman is due to Norse influence
14.
Bernard de Marigny
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His paternal grandfather, Antoine Philippe de Marigny, was a French nobleman, military officer, and geographer. His maternal grandfather, Jean Baptiste dEstrehan, was the treasurer of the colony. In 1798, Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans and his two brothers, the Duke de Montpensier and the Count of Beaujolais, visited the Marigny plantation, by all accounts, they were lavishly entertained by the family. One story recounts that special gold dinner ware was made for the occasion of the Duke of Orleans visit and was thrown into the river afterward, because no one would be worthy of using it again. The visit of the French royal family apparently had a big impact on Marigny, when he was 15 years old, his father died and Bernard inherited his fathers plantation just outside the city gates, east of New Orleans Vieux Carré. One of the things Marigny brought back to New Orleans from England was the dice game Hazard which became popular in a simplified form, known in local dialect as Crapaud. Marigny founded the Louisiana Race Course, now the Fair Grounds Race Course, with Julius C Branch and Henry A Tayloe and organized the first races for March 20,1839, and lasted for five days. The First Day was the Creole Purse for $500, one mile heats, the day the Proprietors Purse for $250, one mile heats. Second Day-Proprietors Purse $1, 200--two mile heat, if more than two start the second best to be entitled to $200-but if two, the winner to receive $1,000. Third Day-Jockey Club Purse $1, 800--three mile heats, of which the second best will be entitled to $300, fourth Day-Jockey Club Plate value $1,500 and $500, -four mile heats-to the winner, and $500 to the second best horse, provided more than two start. On reaching his majority in 1806, Marigny at once had his plantation subdivided, Marigny had many gambling debts, and the smaller the land parcels were, the more there were to sell. The area grew rapidly and lots were all the way into the 1820s. He spent most of 1806 and 1807 at the office of notary Narcisse Broutin selling sixty-foot lots or emplacements to prospective home builders. Marigny famously named the streets of his neighborhood whimsically, Abundance, Peace, History, Poets, Piety, Frenchmen, Greatmen, Goodchildren, Music, Desire, Hope, Love, Pleasure, Duels, and Craps. Though said to be educated in the classics, he christened the main thoroughfare to his house Elysian Fields after Virgils Deathless Residence of the Spirits of the Blessed. Others say that Elysian Fields Avenue was named simply as the English translation for the Parisian Avenue des Champs-Élysées, as more English-speaking Americans arrived in New Orleans, tensions between them and the settled Creoles began to grow. This feeling ultimately worked his political destruction, thereafter he was not looked on as a safe leader, and when he became a candidate for the governorship, they refused to support him. Eulalie was the daughter of Marignys father Pierre Philippe, by a black household slave named Marie Jeanne with whom he had a relationship prior to marrying Marignys mother
15.
Steamboat
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A steamboat is a boat that is propelled primarily by steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the prefix designation SS, S. S. or S/S or PS, the term steamboat is used to refer to smaller, insular, steam-powered boats working on lakes and rivers, particularly riverboats. As using steam became more reliable, steam power became applied to larger, Early attempts at powering a boat by steam were made by the French inventor Denis Papin and the English inventor Thomas Newcomen. Papin invented the steam digester and experimented with closed cylinders and pistons pushed in by atmospheric pressure, Papin proposed applying this steam pump to the operation of a paddlewheel boat and tried to market his idea in Britain. He was unable to convert the piston motion into rotary motion. Newcomens design did solve the first problem, but remained shackled to the inherent limitations of the engines of the time, a steamboat was described and patented by English physician John Allen in 1729. In 1736, Jonathan Hulls was granted a patent in England for a Newcomen engine-powered steamboat, William Henry of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, having learned of Watts engine on a visit to England, made his own engine. In 1763 he put it in a boat, the boat sank, and while Henry made an improved model, he did not appear to have much success, though he may have inspired others. At its first demonstration on 15 July 1783, Pyroscaphe travelled upstream on the river Saône for some fifteen minutes before the engine failed, presumably this was easily repaired as the boat is said to have made several such journeys. Following this, De Jouffroy attempted to get the government interested in his work, De Jouffroy did not have the funds for this, and, following the events of the French revolution, work on the project was discontinued after he left the country. Similar boats were made in 1785 by John Fitch in Philadelphia and William Symington in Dumfries and this boat could typically make 7 to 8 miles per hour and traveled more than 2,000 miles during its short length of service. The Fitch steamboat was not a success, as this travel route was adequately covered by relatively good wagon roads. The following year, a boat made 30-mile excursions, and in 1790. Miller sent King Gustav III of Sweden an actual version,100 feet long. Miller then engaged engineer William Symington to build his patent steam engine drove a stern-mounted paddle wheel in a boat in 1785. The boat was successfully tried out on Dalswinton Loch in 1788 and was followed by a steamboat the next year. The boat was built by Alexander Hart at Grangemouth to Symingtons design with a cylinder engine. Trials on the River Carron in June 1801 were successful and included towing sloops from the river Forth up the Carron and thence along the Forth, in 1801, Symington patented a horizontal steam engine directly linked to a crank
16.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
17.
Pavilion
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In architecture a pavilion has several meanings. In architectural terminology it refers to a building that is either positioned separately or as an attachment to a main building. Often its function makes it an object of pleasure, such configurations provide an emphatic visual termination to the composition of a large building, akin to bookends. Pavilions may be small outbuildings, similar to a summer house or a kiosk, small rooms on the roof of a large house. These were particularly popular up to the 18th century and can be equated to the Italian casina and these often resembled small classical temples and follies. Especially if there is space for food preparation, they may be called a banqueting house. A pavilion built to take advantage of a view may be referred to as a gazebo, bandstands in a park are a class of pavilion. A pool house by a swimming pool may have sufficient character, a sports pavilion is usually a building adjacent to a sports ground used for changing clothes and often partaking of refreshments. Often it has a verandah to provide protection from the sun for spectators, in cricket grounds, as at Lords, a cricket pavilion tends to be used for the building the players emerge from and return to, even when this is actually a large building including a grandstand. Externally, pavilions may be emphasised by any combination of a change in height, profile, colour, material, internally they may be part of a rectangular block, or only connected to the main block by a thin section of building. The two 18th-century English country houses of Houghton Hall and Holkham Hall, illustrate these different approaches in turn, in the Place des Vosges, Paris, twin pavilions mark the centers of the north and south sides of the square. They are named the Pavillon du Roi and the Pavillon de la Reine though no royal personage ever lived in the square, with their triple archways, they function like gatehouses that give access to the privileged space of the square. French gatehouses had been built in the form of such pavilions in the preceding century, in some areas, a pavilion is a term for a hunting lodge. The Pavillon de Galon in Luberon, France is a typical 18th century aristocratic hunting pavilion, the pavilion, located on the site of an old Roman villa, includes a garden à la française, which was used by the guests for receptions. Notes Media related to Pavilions at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Dance hall
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Dance hall in its general meaning is a hall for dancing. From the earliest years of the century until the early 1960s. One of the most famous dance hall musicians was Glenn Miller, other structural forms of dance halls include the dance pavilion which has a roof but no walls, and the open-air platform which has no roof or walls. The open air nature of the pavilion was both a feature and a drawback. The taxi dance hall is a hall with a specific arrangement. Starting in the early 1930s, The Savoy, a hall in Harlem was the first truly integrated building in the United States — for both the dancers and the musicians. We didnt care about the color of your skin, all we wanted to know was, Can you dance. The early days of rock n roll were briefly played out in dance halls until they were superseded by nightclubs, texas has a high concentration of community dance halls, the largest number of them built by German and Czech immigrants. In Sweden and Finland, open air dance pavilions have been used mostly in summer, especially formerly the dance pavilions were often built at sites with beautiful landscape, for example by the lakes. Ballroom Dance club, the successor of the dance hall Dance Halls at Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture
19.
Jazz
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Jazz is a music genre that originated amongst African Americans in New Orleans, United States, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in Blues and Ragtime. Since the 1920s jazz age, jazz has become recognized as a form of musical expression. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms, Jazz has roots in West African cultural and musical expression, and in African-American music traditions including blues and ragtime, as well as European military band music. Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the Black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience, intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as one of Americas original art forms. As jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz, bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging musicians music which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments. In the early 1980s, a form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as Latin, the question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a term dating back to 1860 meaning pep. The use of the word in a context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune. Its first documented use in a context in New Orleans was in a November 14,1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands. In an interview with NPR, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying, When Broadway picked it up. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, the American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century. Jazz has proved to be difficult to define, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, in the opinion of Robert Christgau, most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz. As Duke Ellington, one of jazzs most famous figures, said, although jazz is considered highly difficult to define, at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements
20.
Bunk Johnson
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Willie Gary Bunk Johnson was a prominent jazz trumpeter in New Orleans. Johnson gave the year of his birth as 1879, although there is speculation that he may have been younger by as much as a decade, Johnson received lessons from Adam Olivier and began playing professionally in Oliviers orchestra. Johnson probably played a few adolescent jobs with Buddy Bolden, but was not a member of Boldens Band. Johnson was regarded as one of the top trumpeters in New Orleans in the years 1905–1915, in 1931 he lost his trumpet and front teeth when a fight broke out at a dance in Rayne, Louisiana, putting an end to his playing. He thereafter worked in labor, occasionally giving music lessons. The writers tracked down Johnsons address, and traded several letters with him, Johnson stated that he could play again if he only had new teeth and a new trumpet. A collection was taken up by writers and musicians, and he was fitted with a set of dentures by Bechets dentist brother, Leonard and he made his first recordings in 1942, for Jazz Man Records. These first recordings propelled Johnson into public attention, attracting a cult following, Johnson and his band played in New Orleans, San Francisco, Boston, and New York City and made many more recordings. Johnson suffered from a stroke in late 1948 and died in New Iberia the following year, Jazz fans and historians still debate Johnsons legacy, and the extent to which his colorful reminiscences of his early career were accurate, misremembered, exaggerated, or untrue. The majority of his recordings remain in print on CD reissues, Johnson plays a small, but significant, role in Alan Schroeders picture book Satchmos Blues. In that book, Johnson serves as a source of inspiration to the young Louis Armstrong. Detailed discussion of research on Bunks early life and possible birthdates Willie Johnsons WWI Draft Registration Card and essay
21.
Buddie Petit
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Buddie Petit, also spelled Buddy Petit, was a highly regarded American early jazz cornetist. His early life is somewhat mysterious, with dates of his birth given in sources ranging from 1887 to 1897. He was said to have born in White Castle, Louisiana. His given name was Joseph Crawford, but he was adopted by the trombonist Joseph Petit, by the early 1910s, he was one of the top horn players in the new style of music not yet generally known as jazz. He took Freddie Keppards place in the Eagle Band when Keppard left town, Petit was known as a hard-drinking, fun-loving man who played cornet with great virtuosity and inventiveness. Okeh Records offered him a chance to record on their 1925 field trip to New Orleans, musicians such as Danny Barker and Louis Armstrong have said that it is a great loss to jazz history that there are no recordings of Petit. Some of his contemporaries said that Louis Armstrongs record Cornet Chop Suey is the closest to Petits style, Petit on Red Hot Jazz site
22.
Papa Celestin
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Oscar Papa Celestin was an American jazz bandleader, trumpeter, cornetist and vocalist. Celestin was born in Napoleonville, Louisiana, to a Creole family, in his youth he worked on rural Louisiana plantations. Eager for a life, he worked as a cook for the Texas & Pacific Railroad, saved up money. He played guitar and trombone before deciding on cornet as his main instrument and he took music lessons from Claiborne Williams, who traveled down the Bayou Lafourche from Donaldsonville. He played with the Algiers Brass Band by the early 1900s, in New Orleans he played with the Imperial, Indiana, Henry Allen seniors Olympia Brass Band, and Jack Careys dance band, early in his career he was sometimes known as Sonny Celestin. About 1910 he landed a job as leader of the band at the Tuxedo Dance Hall on North Franklin St. at the edge of Storyville. He kept the name Tuxedo for the name of the band after the Dance Hall closed, dressing the band in tuxedos, the Tuxedo became one of the most popular bands hired for society functions, both black and white. For years Celestin co-led the Tuxedo Band with trombonist William Ridgely and they made their first recordings with the band during the Okeh Records field trip to New Orleans in 1925. Shortly after Ridgely and Celestin had an out and for about 5 years led competing Tuxedo bands. Celestins Original Tuxedo Orchestra made a series of recordings for Columbia Records through the rest of the 1920s. In addition to the Tuxedo Orchestra, Celestin led the Tuxedo Brass Band, in 1932 Celestin was forced out of the business by depression economics, working in a shipyard until he got another band together after the World War II. The new Tuxedo Brass Band proved tremendously popular and was hailed as a key New Orleans tourist attraction, in 1953, Papa Celestin appeared leading his band in the big-budget travelogue Cinerama Holiday. His band became a feature at the Paddock Lounge on Bourbon Street in the French Quarter, and made regular radio broadcasts, television appearance. In 1953 Celestin gave a performance for President Eisenhower at the White House. His last recording was singing on, Marie LaVeau, in view of the tremendous contribution Celestin made in jazz throughout his lifetime, the Jazz Foundation of New Orleans had a bust made and donated to the Delgado Museum in New Orleans. Near the end of his life, he was honored as one of the greats of New Orleans music,4000 people marched in his funeral parade when he died in 1954. After his death Tuxedo Brass Band leadership was taken over by trombonist Eddie Pierson until his death in 1958. The leadership of the band fell to banjo player Albert Papa French
23.
George Lewis (clarinetist)
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George Lewis was an American jazz clarinetist who achieved his greatest fame and influence in the later decades of his life. Lewis was born in the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana, through his mother, Alice Zeno, his maternal great-great-grandmother was a Senegalese slave who was brought to Louisiana around 1803. Zenos family retained some knowledge of Senegalese language and customs until Alices generation, Lewis was playing clarinet professionally by 1917, at the age of 17, working with Buddy Petit and Chris Kelly regularly as well as with the trombonist Kid Ory and other leaders. At this time, he traveled far from the greater New Orleans area. During the Great Depression he took a job as a stevedore, continuing to take as many jobs after hours as he could find. In 1942, when a group of New Orleans jazz enthusiasts, including jazz historian Bill Russell, in 1944 Lewis was injured seriously while working on the docks. A heavy container nearly crushed his chest, and for a time it was feared he would never play again, against all odds, however, Lewis began practicing while convalescing in bed at his St. Phillips Street home in the French Quarter. His friends, banjo player Lawrence Marrero and string bass player Alcide Slow Drag Pavageau, Bill Russell brought his portable recorder, and they recorded, among other things, an improvised blues that was to become the Lewis signature piece that was later christened Burgundy Street Blues. The performance interpolated a number of phrases and ideas that may be found in Louis Armstrongs playing, in particular, as Russell recorded Lewis, he occasionally gave new titles to some of his distinctive interpretations of pop tunes, for example, New Orleans Hula for Hula Lou. These changes sometimes may have made for copyright reasons. Lewis stayed with Bunk Johnsons newly popular band through 1946 and this included a trip to New York City, where they played for dancing at the Stuyvesant Casino on Second Avenue. At this time, the members included Johnson, Lewis, Marrero, Pavageau, trombonist Jim Robinson, pianist Alton Purnell. While in New York, they recorded for the Decca and Victor labels, starting in 1949 Lewis was a regular at the French Quarters Bourbon Street entertainment clubs and had regular broadcasts over radio station WDSU. The Lewis band was featured in the June 6,1950 issue of Look magazine, the article was accompanied by photographs taken of the band by Stanley Kubrick. National touring soon followed, and Lewis became a symbol of the New Orleans jazz tradition because of the use of the clarinet in the tunes. Travelling ever more widely, he told his audiences that his touring band was the last of the real New Orleans jazz bands. In the late 1940s and early 1950s his recordings reached the UK and strongly influenced clarinetists Monty Sunshine and they later became important contributors to the traditional jazz scene in the UK and accompanied Lewis when he later toured the country. In 1952 Lewis took his band to San Francisco for a residency at the Hangover Club and that was followed by a tour around the United States
24.
Kid Ory
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Edward Kid Ory was a Louisiana French-speaking jazz trombonist and bandleader. He was born in Woodland Plantation, near La Place, Louisiana, Ory started playing music with homemade instruments in his childhood, and by his teens was leading a well-regarded band in southeast Louisiana. He kept La Place, Louisiana, as his base of operations because of family obligations until his twenty-first birthday and he was one of the most influential trombonists of early jazz. When Ory was living on Jackson Avenue, he was discovered by Buddy Bolden, playing his first new trombone, Orys sister said he was too young to play with Bolden. Garland and Carey were longtime associates who would still be playing with Ory during his 1940s comeback, while in Los Angeles, Ory and his band recorded two instrumentals, Orys Creole Trombone and Society Blues, as well as a number of songs. They were the first jazz recordings made on the West Coast by an African-American jazz band from New Orleans. His band recorded with Nordskog Records, Ory paid them Nordskog for the pressings and then sold them with his own label, Kid Orys Sunshine Orchestra, at Spikes Brothers Music Store in Los Angeles. In 1925, Ory moved to Chicago, where he was active, working and recording with Louis Armstrong, Jelly Roll Morton, Oliver, Johnny Dodds, Bessie Smith, Ma Rainey. He mentored Benny Goodman and, later, Charles Mingus, during the Great Depression Ory retired from music and did not play again until 1943. From 1944 to about 1961 he led one of the top New Orleans–style bands of the period, all but Buckner, Probert, and Ewell were originally from New Orleans. The Ory band was an important force in reviving interest in New Orleans jazz, in 1944–45 the group made a series of recordings for Crescent Records, which was founded by Nesuhi Ertegun for the express purpose of recording Orys band. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, Ory and his group appeared at the Beverly Cavern in Los Angeles, Ory retired from music in 1966 and spent his last years in Hawaii, with the assistance of Trummy Young. He was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California,1956 The Legendary Kid 1956 Favorites. Musical Metropolis, Los Angeles and the Creation of Music Culture 1880-1940 Kid Ory on redhotjazz
25.
Edmond Hall
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Edmond Hall was an American jazz clarinetist and bandleader. Born in Reserve, Louisiana, about 40 miles west of New Orleans on the Mississippi River, Hall and his siblings were born into a musical family. His father, Edward Blainey Hall, and mother, Caroline Duhe, had eight children, Priscilla, Moretta, Viola, Robert, Edmond, Clarence, Edward and Herbert. His father, Edward, played the clarinet in the Onward Brass Band, joined by Edmonds maternal uncles, Jules Duhe on trombone, Lawrence Duhe on clarinet, and Edmond Duhe on guitar. The Hall brothers, Robert, Edmond, and Herbert, all became clarinetists, when Hall finally picked up the clarinet, he could play it within a week. He started Monday and played it Saturday, his brother Herb recalled in an interview with Manfred Selchow who wrote an extensive Edmond Hall biography, Profoundly Blue in 1988. Hall worked as a farm-hand, but by 1919 he had tired of the hard work. The first New Orleans band he played with was that of Bud Rousell and he also played with Jack Carey and blues cornetist Chris Kelley. Halls first big break came in late 1920, when he went to a dance at Economy Hall, the legendary Buddy Petit was playing. When I got inside, it was a revelation, Hall said, Petits clarinet player had left the band just a few days later, and the following Saturday Ed Hall was sitting in with Petits band as a replacement. In 1922 Ed Hall left Petit, arriving in Pensacola, Florida, he joined Lee Collins band. In 1923 he joined Mack Thomas band, from there he went on to play with the Pensacola Jazzers, from there he went on to play with Eagle Eye Shields. Together with Cootie Williams, he left Shields and joined Alonzo Ross band, in 1928 the bands pianist Arthur Happy Ford formed a new group and immediately hired Hall and Williams. In 1929 Hall went back to New York, where he joined Charlie Skeets band, under the leadership of Hopkins, the band became enormously popular and in 1930 they got an offer to play at the Savoy Ballroom, The Worlds finest Ballroom, a big step for Hall. In late 1935 due to problems with the band leader. In 1936 he joined Billy Hicks band, the Sizzling Six, Hall, who had been featured mainly on alto and baritone saxophone since 1922, finally had a place as a full-time clarinetist. Meanwhile, his new sound on the clarinet had made a full circle, on June 15,1937, in New York, he had his first recording session with Billie Holiday. Among the band members was Lester Young on tenor saxophone, Hall stayed with Hicks band until early 1939, when he left and stepped into Café Society, joining Joe Sullivans band in late 1937
26.
University-preparatory school
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A university-preparatory school or college-preparatory school is a type of secondary school. The term can refer to public, private independent or parochial schools primarily designed to prepare students for higher education, in the United States, there are public, private, and charter college preparatory schools and they can be either parochial or secular. Admission is sometimes based on selection criteria, usually academic. Fewer than 1% of students enrolled in school in the United States attend an independent, private school, compared to 9% who attend parochial schools. Public and charter college prep schools are connected to a local school district. The term prep school in the U. S. is usually associated with private, elite institutions that have very selective admission criteria, prep schools can be day schools, boarding schools, or both, and may be co-educational or single-sex. Currently day schools are more common than boarding, and since the 1970s co-educational schools are more common than single-sex, unlike the public schools which are free, they charge tuition Some prep schools are affiliated with a particular religious denomination. Unlike parochial schools, independent preparatory schools are not governed by a religious organization, in most parts of Europe, such as Germany, the Netherlands, France, Italy, and Scandinavia, there are state-funded secondary schools specializing in university-preparatory education. These go by many names depending on the country but may be called gymnasia, athenaea, unlike American prep schools then, they begin after high-school graduation. The most famous French classes préparatoires are exceptionally intensive and selective, taking only the very best students graduating from high schools, nevertheless, there exist many less prestigious classes préparatoires. As a result, 90% of the students in the scientific classes préparatoires eventually become engineers or scientists, a Gymnasium is a particular type of school in Germany and other countries in Europe, with the goal to prepare its pupils to enter a university. The γυμνάσιον of Ancient Greece was a place for physical and eventually also intellectual education of young men, the later meaning of intellectual education persisted in German and other languages, whereas in English, the older meaning of physical education was retained. The German Gymnasien are selective and competitive schools and they enroll students after completing 4th or 6th grade and prepare them for college. The vast majority of Gymnasien is public and does not charge tuition fees, article 7, Paragraph 4 of the German constitution, forbids segregation of students according to the means of their parents. Therefore, most private Gymnasien have rather low tuition fees and/or offer scholarships, every child will be able to enter the lottery, no matter how he or she performed in primary school. It is hoped that this policy will increase the number of lower, a total of zero percent was in favour of the lottery. Germanys oldest Gymnasien include Gymnasium Paulinum, Gymnasium Theodorianum and Gymnasium Carolinum, in Italy, there are several kinds of high schools, both public and private, whose curriculum has as a primary aim the preparation for university. These are called Liceo, plural Licei, the name comes from Lyceum, the Latin rendering of the Ancient Greek Λύκειον, the name of a gymnasium in Classical Athens dedicated to Apollo Lyceus
27.
Shreveport, Louisiana
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Shreveport is the third-largest city in the state of Louisiana and the 113th-largest city in the United States. It is the seat of Caddo Parish and extends along the Red River into neighboring Bossier Parish, Bossier City is separated from Shreveport by the Red River. The population of Shreveport was 199,311 in 2010, the Shreveport-Bossier City Metropolitan Statistical Area ranks 111th in the United States, according to the United States Census Bureau. Shreveport is the commercial and cultural center of the Ark-La-Tex region, where Arkansas, Louisiana, Shreveport was established to launch a town at the meeting point of the Red River and the Texas Trail. The Red River was cleared and made navigable by Captain Henry Miller Shreve. A 180-mile-long natural log jam, the Great Raft, had previously obstructed passage to shipping, Shreve used a specially modified riverboat, the Heliopolis, to remove the log jam. The company and the village of Shreve Town were named in Shreves honor, Shreve Town was originally contained within the boundaries of a section of land sold to the company by the indigenous Caddo Indians in 1835. In 1838 Caddo Parish was created from the large Natchitoches Parish, on March 20,1839, the town was incorporated as Shreveport. Originally, the town consisted of 64 city blocks, created by eight streets running west from the Red River and eight streets running south from Cross Bayou, Shreveport soon became a center of steamboat commerce, mostly cotton and agricultural crops. Shreveport also had a market, though slave trading was not as widespread as in other parts of the state. Steamboats plied the Red River, and stevedores loaded and unloaded cargo, by 1860, Shreveport had a population of 2,200 free people and 1,300 slaves within the city limits. During the American Civil War, Shreveport was the capital of Louisiana from 1863 to 1865, having succeeded Baton Rouge, the city was a Confederate stronghold throughout the war and was the site of the headquarters of the Trans-Mississippi Department of the Confederate Army. Fort Albert Sidney Johnston was built on a ridge northwest of the city, because of limited development in that area, the site is relatively undisturbed. Confederate President Jefferson Davis tried to flee to Shreveport, intending to go down the Mississippi, throughout the war, women in Shreveport did much to assist the soldiers fighting mostly far to the east. Winters writes of them in The Civil War in Louisiana, The women of Shreveport and vicinity labored long hours over their sewing machines to provide their men with adequate underclothing, joined by others, the Society collected blankets for the wounded and gave concerts and tableaux to raise funds. Tickets were sold for a ring given by the mercantile house of Hyams. A Confederate minstrel show gave two performances to raise money for the war effort in Shreveport in December 1862, the Shreveport Ladies Aid Society announced a grand dress ball for April 6,1863. That same month students at the Mansfield Female College in Mansfield in De Soto Parish presented a vocal and instrumental concert to support the war, the Red River, which had been opened by Shreve in the 1830s, remained navigable throughout the Civil War
28.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
29.
Little Richard
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Richard Wayne Penniman, known as Little Richard, is an American musician, singer and songwriter. His music also played a key role in the formation of popular music genres, including soul. Little Richard has been honored by many institutions and he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as part of its first group of inductees in 1986. He was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame and he is the recipient of a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Recording Academy and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Rhythm and Blues Foundation. Little Richard was born Richard Wayne Penniman on December 5,1932, in Macon and he was the third eldest of the 12 children of Leva Mae and Charles Bud Penniman. His father was a deacon who sold bootlegged moonshine on the side and owned a nightclub. His mother was a member of Macons New Hope Baptist Church, initially, Little Richards first name was supposed to have been Ricardo but an error resulted in Richard instead. The Penniman children were raised in a neighborhood of Macon called Pleasant Hill, in childhood, he was nicknamed Lil Richard by his family, because of his small and skinny frame. A mischievous child who played pranks on neighbors, Little Richard began singing in church at a young age, possibly as a result of complications at birth, Little Richard had a slight deformity that left one of his legs shorter than the other. This produced an unusual gait, he was mocked for its allegedly effeminate appearance, Little Richards family was highly religious, joining various A. M. E. Baptist and Pentecostal churches, with family members becoming ministers. Little Richard enjoyed the Pentecostal churches the most, because of their charismatic worship and he had observed that people sang to feel their connection with God and to wash their trials and burdens away. Little Richards initial musical influences were gospel performers such as Brother Joe May, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, may, who as a singing evangelist was known as the Thunderbolt of the Middle West because of his phenomenal range and vocal power, inspired the boy to become a preacher. Little Richard attended Macons Hudson High School, where he was a below-average student and his musical talent, however, was recognized there when he learned to play the alto saxophone. His mother recalled how Richard was always musical and that when he was young, he would beat on the steps of the house. She also recalled that Richard was so quick at learning to play the saxophone that he was allowed to play with the marching band immediately. While in high school, Little Richard obtained a job at Macon City Auditorium for local secular. Little Richard sold Coca-Cola to crowds during concerts of star performers of the day, such as Cab Calloway, Lucky Millinder, on October 27,1947, Sister Rosetta Tharpe heard 14-year-old Little Richard singing two of her gospel recordings before her concert at Macon City Auditorium
30.
Lake Pontchartrain Causeway
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The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, sometimes only the Causeway, is a causeway composed of two parallel bridges crossing Lake Pontchartrain in southern Louisiana, United States. The longer of the two bridges is 23.83 miles long, the southern terminus of the Causeway is in Metairie, Louisiana, a suburb of New Orleans. The northern terminus is at Mandeville, Louisiana, Lake Pontchartrain Causeway then became the longest bridge over water while Jiaozhou Bay Bridge the longest bridge over water. The bridges are supported by 9,500 concrete pilings, the two bridges feature a bascule, which spans the navigation channel 8 miles south of the north shore. The idea of a bridge spanning Lake Pontchartrain dates back to the early 19th century and Bernard de Marigny and he started a ferry service that continued to operate into the mid-1930s. In the 1920s, a called for the creation of artificial islands that would then be linked by a series of bridges. The financing for this plan would come from selling home sites on the islands, the modern Causeway started to take form in 1948 when Ernest M. Loeb Jr. envisioned the project. Due to his lobbying and vision, the Louisiana Legislature created what is now the Causeway Commission, the Louisiana Bridge Company was formed to construct the bridge, which in turn appointed James E. Walters Sr. to direct the project. The original Causeway was a span, measuring 23.86 miles in length. It opened in 1956 at a cost of $30.7 million, a parallel two-lane span, 1/100th of a mile longer than the original, opened on May 10,1969, at a cost of $26 million. Since its construction, the Causeway has operated as a toll bridge, until 1999, tolls were collected from traffic going in each direction. To alleviate congestion on the shore, toll collections were eliminated on the northbound span. The standard tolls for cars changed from $1.50 in each direction, after Hurricane Katrina on August 29,2005, videos collected showed damage to the bridge. The storm surge was not as high under the Causeway as it was near the I-10 Twin Span Bridge, a total of 17 spans were lost. The causeways have never sustained major damage of any sort from hurricanes or other natural occurrences, the existing fiber optic cable plant was blown out of its tray but remained intact per optical time domain reflectometer analysis. With the I-10 Twin Span Bridge severely damaged, the Causeway was used as a route for recovery teams staying in lands to the north to get into New Orleans. The Causeway reopened first to emergency traffic and then to the general public – with tolls suspended – on September 19,2005, tolls were reinstated by mid-October of that year. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway is one of seven spans in Louisiana with a total length of 5 miles or more. S
31.
Earl Long
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Earl Kemp Long was an American politician and the 45th Governor of Louisiana, serving three non-consecutive terms. Long, known as “Uncle Earl, ” connected with voters through his folksy demeanor and he departed from other southern politicians of his time by promoting a progressive agenda, including expanding school lunch programs, teacher pay, public works projects, and minority voting rights. His sometimes erratic behavior – including a liaison with New Orleans stripper Blaze Starr – appeared to be of consequence to his electoral success. Long served as governor from 1939 to 1940,1948 to 1952 and he was also elected as lieutenant governor and served from 1936 to 1939. Trying to keep a hand in state government, Long failed in three other bids to be elected lieutenant governor,1932,1944, and 1959. Long was born in Winnfield, the seat of government of Winn Parish, in north central Louisiana to Huey Pierce Long, Sr. and the former Caledonia Palestine Tyson and he was the younger brother of U. S. Representative George Shannon Doc Long and Governor and U. S and their younger sister was Lucille Long Hunt, who married John S. Hunt, II, of Ruston, the seat of Lincoln Parish, in north Louisiana. Their son John S. Hunt, III, was one of three members of the Louisiana Public Service Commission, based in Monroe. Long attended Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, where his roommate was John Jones Doles, Sr. a future state senator from Plain Dealing. Long graduated from Loyola University College of Law in New Orleans, Fournet of St. Martinville for lieutenant governor. In his autobiography, Every Man a King, Huey Long said that Earl Longs first candidacy for lieutenant governor brought forth charges of a dynasty in the making. I sought to discourage, stating that it would be disastrous for a brother to undertake to have a brother succeed him or to have him elected as lieutenant governor. It was already being charged that I was a dictator and that I had allowed many relatives to be placed on the state payrolls, to have added a family name to the head of the ticket either for governor or lieutenant governor would have been disastrous to the whole ticket. My brothers and sisters, however, could not see the matter in that light, I gave everyone to understand that I was irrevocably committed to Allen for Governor and Fournet for Lieutenant Governor. Richard W. Leche of New Orleans was elected governor in 1936, but he resigned in scandal in 1939, Long failed to win a gubernatorial term of his own in the election of 1940. During his abbreviated term, Long appointed a cousin, Floyd Harrison Long, Earl Longs brief first tenure corresponded with the Louisiana Hayride scandals that engulfed both Governor Leche and the president of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, James Monroe Smith. Long was defeated in the Democratic primary by the conservative attorney Sam H. Jones of Lake Charles, after the abbreviated governorship, with Coleman Lindsay of Minden as the lieutenant governor, Long was indicted in New Orleans on charges of embezzlement and extortion. The charges involved placing a deadhead on the payroll of a state board
32.
Medicaid
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Medicaid in the United States is a social health care program for families and individuals with limited resources. The Health Insurance Association of America describes Medicaid as a government insurance program for persons of all ages whose income, Medicaid is the largest source of funding for medical and health-related services for people with low income in the United States. States are not required to participate in the program, although all have since 1982, Medicaid recipients must be U. S. citizens or legal permanent residents, and may include low-income adults, their children, and people with certain disabilities. Poverty alone does not necessarily qualify someone for Medicaid, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act significantly expanded both eligibility for and federal funding of Medicaid. Under managed care, Medicaid recipients are enrolled in a health plan. The health plan is then responsible for providing for all or most of the healthcare needs. Today, all but a few states use managed care to provide coverage to a significant proportion of Medicaid enrollees, as of 2014,26 states have contracts with managed care organizations to deliver long-term care for the elderly and individuals with disabilities. The states pay a monthly capitulated rate per member to the MCOs that provide comprehensive care, nationwide, roughly 80% of enrollees are enrolled in managed care plans. Because the service level costs vary depending on the care and needs of the enrolled, the annual cost of care will vary state to state depending on state approved Medicaid benefits, as well as the state specific care costs. 2008 average cost per senior was reported as $14,780, in a 2010 national report for all age groups, the per enrolled average cost was calculated to $5,563 and a listing by state and by coverage age is provided. As of 2013, Medicaid is a program intended for those with low income, the details of how each category is defined vary from state to state. People with disabilities who do not have a history and who receive Supplemental Security Income. Persons with a disability, including blindness or physical disability, deafness, however, in order to be enrolled, applicants must prove that they are disabled to the point of being unable to work. Some states operate a program known as the Health Insurance Premium Payment Program and this program allows a Medicaid recipient to have private health insurance paid for by Medicaid. As of 2008 relatively few states had premium assistance programs and enrollment was relatively low, interest in this approach remained high, however. Included in the Social Security program under Medicaid are dental services and these dental services are optional for adults above the age of 21, however, this service is a requirement for those eligible for Medicaid and below the age of 21. Minimum services include pain relief, restoration of teeth, and maintenance for dental health, early and Periodic Screening, Diagnostic and Treatment is a mandatory Medicaid program for children that aims to focus on prevention, early diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Oral screenings are not required for EPSDT recipients, and they do not suffice as a direct dental referral, the Social Security Amendments of 1965 created Medicaid by adding Title XIX to the Social Security Act,42 U. S. C. §§1396 et seq
33.
Live oak
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Live oak or evergreen oak is a general term for a number of unrelated oaks in several different sections of the genus Quercus that share the characteristic of evergreen foliage. The name live oak comes from the fact that evergreen oaks remain green and live throughout winter, evergreen oak species are also common in parts of southern Europe and Asia, and are included in this list for the sake of completeness. These species, although not having live in their names in their countries of origin, are colloquially called live oaks when cultivated in North America. The southern live oak is the state tree of Georgia. In Texas, a grove of live oaks is known as a mott. Live oak was used in early American butt shipbuilding. Because of the short height and low-hanging branches, lumber from live oak was specifically used to make curved structural members of the hull. In such cuts of lumber, the line of the grain would fall perpendicularly to lines of stress, Live oaks were not generally used for planking because the curved and often convoluted shape of the tree did not lend itself to be milled to planking of any length. Live oak lumber is used for furniture due to warping and twisting while drying. Dry southern live oak lumber has a gravity of 0.88. Images of remarkable Southern Live Oaks The 1000 Year Old Big Tree - Goose Island State Park Live Oak in California The William Adkins Live Oak Tree historical marker
34.
Hurricane Katrina
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Hurricane Katrina was the costliest natural disaster and one of the five deadliest hurricanes in the history of the United States. The storm is ranked as the third most intense United States landfalling tropical cyclone. Overall, at least 1,245 people died in the hurricane and subsequent floods, total property damage was estimated at $108 billion, roughly four times the damage wrought by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 in the United States. Early the following day, the new depression intensified into Tropical Storm Katrina, the cyclone headed generally westward toward Florida and strengthened into a hurricane only two hours before making landfall at Hallandale Beach and Aventura on August 25. After very briefly weakening to a storm, Katrina emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 26. The storm caused severe destruction along the Gulf coast from central Florida to Texas, much of it due to the storm surge, severe property damage occurred in coastal areas, such as Mississippi beachfront towns, over 90 percent of these were flooded. Boats and casino barges rammed buildings, pushing cars and houses inland, over fifty breaches in New Orleanss hurricane surge protection were the cause of the majority of the death and destruction during Katrina on August 29,2005. Eventually 80% of the city and large tracts of neighboring parishes became flooded, according to a modeling exercise conducted by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, two-thirds of the deaths in Greater New Orleans were due to levee and floodwall failure. All of the studies concluded that the USACE, the designers and builders of the levee system as mandated by the Flood Control Act of 1965, is responsible. This is mainly due to a decision to use shorter steel sheet pilings in an effort to save money, exactly ten years after Katrina, J. Many other government officials were criticized for their responses, especially New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin, Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco, several agencies including the United States Coast Guard, National Hurricane Center, and National Weather Service were commended for their actions. They provided accurate hurricane weather tracking forecasts with sufficient lead time, Hurricane Katrina formed as Tropical Depression Twelve over the southeastern Bahamas on August 23,2005, as the result of an interaction of a tropical wave and the remains of Tropical Depression Ten. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Katrina on the morning of August 24, the tropical storm moved towards Florida, and became a hurricane only two hours before making landfall between Hallandale Beach and Aventura on the morning of August 25. The storm weakened over land, but it regained hurricane status about one hour after entering the Gulf of Mexico, on August 27, the storm reached Category 3 intensity on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale, becoming the third major hurricane of the season. An eyewall replacement cycle disrupted the intensification, but caused the storm to nearly double in size, the storm rapidly intensified after entering the Gulf, growing from a Category 3 hurricane to a Category 5 hurricane in just nine hours. This rapid growth was due to the movement over the unusually warm waters of the Loop Current. Katrina attained Category 5 status on the morning of August 28 and reached its peak strength at 1800 UTC that day, with sustained winds of 175 mph. However, this record was broken by Hurricane Rita
35.
Hurricane Ike
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In these places, Ike remains the costliest tropical cyclone on record. Several fluctuations in strength occurred before Ike made landfall on eastern Cuba on September 8, the hurricane weakened prior to continuing into the Gulf of Mexico, but increased its intensity by the time of its final landfall on Galveston, Texas on September 13. The remnants of Ike continued to track across the United States and into Canada, causing considerable damage inland, Ike was blamed for at least 195 deaths. Of these deaths,74 were in Haiti, which was trying to recover from the impact of three storms which had made landfall that same year. Seven people were killed in Cuba from Ike, in the United States,113 people were reported killed, directly or indirectly, and 16 were still missing as of August 2011. Due to its size, Ike caused devastation from the Louisiana coastline all the way to the Kenedy County region near Corpus Christi. Ike is now the third-costliest Atlantic hurricane of all time, only surpassed by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the search-and-rescue operation after Ike is the largest search-and-rescue operation in Texas history. Ike was the major hurricane of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season. The origins of Hurricane Ike can be traced back to a tropical wave first identified by the National Hurricane Center just within the western coast of Africa on August 28. The broad low-pressure continued to track westward and was considered to have sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression at 06,00 UTC on September 1. By this time the cyclone had tracked 780 miles west of Cape Verde and these factors were also responsible for Ikes slow developmental trend that began after formation. Ikes gradual strengthening began to quicken early on September 3, with the strengthening of an intense rainband around the center of the storm, at roughly 15,00 UTC that day, microwave imaging indicated that a primordial eye was developing within the intensifying tropical storm. Tracking northwestward, the NHC upgraded Ike to hurricane status at 18,00 UTC based on satellite intensity estimates. During this time, Ike was centered 690 mi east-northeast of the Leeward Islands and was tracking west-northwestward as a result of a subtropical ridge to its northeast. After peaking in strength, a ridge of pressure to the storms west strengthened. Although wind shear abated and allowed for reintensification, Ike would fluctuate in strength over the few days. After passing near the Turks and Caicos Islands, Ike made its first landfall on Inagua in the Bahamas at 13,00 UTC on September 7 with winds of 125 mph. After passing over Inagua, the development of a double feature that usually denotes the beginning of an eyewall replacement cycle—slightly weakened Ike late on September 7
36.
Cajuns
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Cajuns are an ethnic group mainly living in the U. S. state of Louisiana, consisting of the descendants of Acadian exiles. Today, the Cajuns make up a significant portion of south Louisianas population and have exerted an impact on the states culture. The Acadia region to which modern Cajuns trace their origin consisted largely of what are now Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island plus parts of eastern Quebec and northern Maine. Since their establishment in Louisiana, the Cajuns have developed their own dialect, Cajun French, and developed a vibrant culture including folkways, music, the Acadiana region is heavily associated with them. Arcadia derives from the Arcadia district in Greece which since classical antiquity had the extended meanings of refuge or idyllic place, samuel de Champlain fixed the orthography with the r omitted in the 17th century. The term eventually came to only to the northern part of the coast in what is now Canada. The Cajuns retain a unique dialect of the French language and numerous other cultural traits that distinguish them as an ethnic group, Cajuns were officially recognized by the U. S. government as a national ethnic group in 1980 per a discrimination lawsuit filed in federal district court. The Louisiana Acadian is alive and well and he is up front and mainstream. He is not asking for any special treatment, by affording coverage under the national origin clause of Title VII he is afforded no special privilege. He is given only the protection as those with English, Spanish, French, Iranian, Portuguese, Mexican, Italian, Irish. The British Conquest of French Acadia happened in 1710, over the next 45 years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this period, Acadians participated in militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French fortress of Louisbourg. During the French and Indian War, the British sought to neutralize the Acadian military threat, during 1755-1763 Acadia consisted of parts of present-day Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and the Gaspe Peninsula in the province of Quebec. The deportation of the Acadians from these areas has become known as the Great Upheaval or Le Grand Dérangement, the Acadians migration from Canada was spurred by the Treaty of Paris which ended the war. The treaty terms provided 18 months for unrestrained emigration, many Acadians moved to the region of the Atakapa in present-day Louisiana, often travelling via the French colony of Saint-Domingue. Joseph Broussard led the first group of 200 Acadians to arrive in Louisiana on February 27,1765, on April 8,1765, he was appointed militia captain and commander of the Acadians of the Atakapas region in St. Martinville. Some of the settlers wrote to their family scattered around the Atlantic to encourage them to them at New Orleans. For example, Jean-Baptiste Semer, wrote to his father in France, My dear father you can come here boldly with my dear mother and they will always be better off than in France
37.
Fiddle
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Fiddle is another name for the bowed string musical instrument more often called a violin. It is also a term for the instrument used by players in all genres. Fiddle playing, or fiddling, refers to various styles of music, Fiddle is also a common term among musicians who play folk music on the violin. The fiddle is part of traditional styles of music which are aural traditions. There are few distinctions between violins and fiddles, though more primitively constructed and smaller violins are more likely to be considered fiddles. In order to produce a tone, compared to the deeper tones of gut or synthetic core strings. Among musical styles, fiddling tends to produce rhythms focused on dancing, with associated quick note changes, whereas classical music tends to contain more vibrato and it is less common for a classically trained violinist to play folk music, but today, many fiddlers have classical training. The medieval fiddle emerged in 10th-century Europe, deriving from the Byzantine lira, lira spread widely westward to Europe, in the 11th and 12th centuries European writers use the terms fiddle and lira interchangeably when referring to bowed instruments. During the Renaissance the gambas were important and elegant instruments, they eventually lost ground to the viola da braccio family. The etymology of fiddle is uncertain, the Germanic fiddle may derive from the same early Romance word as does violin, the name seems however to be related to Icelandic Fiðla and also Old English fiðele. A native Germanic ancestor of fiddle may even be the ancestor of the early Romance form of violin, historically, fiddle also referred to a predecessor of todays violin. Like the violin, it tended to have four strings, another family of instruments that contributed to the development of the modern fiddle are the viols, which are held between the legs and played vertically, and have fretted fingerboards. Violins, on the hand, are commonly grouped in sections. The difference was likely compounded by the different sounds expected of violin music, historically, the majority of fiddle music was dance music, while violin music had either grown out of dance music or was something else entirely. Violin music came to value a smoothness that fiddling, with its dance-driven clear beat, in situations that required greater volume, a fiddler could push their instrument harder than could a violinist. In the very late 20th century, a few artists have attempted a reconstruction of the Scottish tradition of violin and big fiddle. Notable recorded examples include Iain Fraser and Christine Hanson, Amelia Kaminski and Christine Hansons Bonnie Lasses and Alasdair Fraser and Natalie Haas Fire and Grace. In Hungary, a three stringed viola variant with a bridge, called the kontra or háromhúros brácsa makes up part of a traditional rhythm section in Hungarian folk music
38.
Amanda Shaw
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Amanda Amaya Shaw is an American, Cajun fiddler, singer, and actress from Mandeville, Louisiana. Shaw received some of her musical training in Southeastern Louisiana Universitys Community Music School. She studied classical violin starting at age 4, and at 8 began playing and performing Cajun music, Shaw would have graduated from Mount Carmel Academy in New Orleans in 2008 but she opted instead to continue traveling around the country to perform. She called her decision to leave Mount Carmel a difficult one, Shaw earned her G. E. D. in 2008 and planned to attend Tulane University but did not enroll. Shaw and her band, The Cute Guys, appear throughout the New Orleans area. They have also performed at Southeasterns historic Columbia Theatre in Hammond, in 2006 Shaw signed with Rounder Records. Two years later she released her third album Pretty Runs Out on Rounder, Shaw has appeared in two Disney Channel original movies filmed in New Orleans, Stuck in the Suburbs and Now You See It. One of her screen roles is as a principal narrator in Hurricane on the Bayou, a documentary about Hurricane Katrina. Her music is featured in Hurricane along with that of co-narrator Tab Benoit,14,2005 Official site Amanda Shaw at AllMusic Amanda Shaw discography, forum, and marketplace at Discogs
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