1.
Doctor of Medicine
–
The Doctor of Medicine is a terminal medical degree for practitioners of medicine. The meaning of the varies between different countries. In countries that follow the United States system, the M. D. denotes a first professional degree awarded upon initial graduation from medical school. In those countries, the title of the equivalent first professional degree is Bachelor of Medicine, in 1703, the University of Glasgows first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine. North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland, the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York was the first American university to grant the MD degree instead of the MB. Early medical schools in North America that granted the Doctor of Medicine degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland and these first few North American medical schools that were established were founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland. A feminine form, Doctress of Medicine or Medicinae Doctrix, has also used by the New England Female Medical College in Boston in the 1860s. The MD degree is earned in four years. Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year and those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or interventional radiology then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine or DO degree allows similar practice in the United States and Canada to the M. D. degree and Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine are fully licensed physicians. The M. D. degree is awarded only by the 137 Medical Schools in the United States, similarly, M. D. s must attend M. D. rated residency and fellowship programs while D. O. s can attend either type of program. The American M. D. degree is recognized by most countries in the world. While the D. O. degree is getting more widely accepted in countries as fully licensed physicians. In Canada, the MD is the medical degree required to practice medicine. McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the medical school in Canada that continues to award the MD. MDCM is from the Latin Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum meaning doctor of medicine, upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training. Combined medical and research training is offered through programs granting MD-PhD, the National Institutes of Health through its Medical Scientist Training Program funds MD-PhD training programs at many universities
2.
Carlo Cignani
–
Carlo Cignani was an Italian painter. His innovative style referred to as his new manner introduced a reflective, intimate mood of painting and presaged the later pictures of Guido Reni and Guercino and this gentle manner marked a break with the more energetic style of earlier Bolognese classicism of the Bolognese School of painting. He was born to a family of noble ancestry, but limited resources and his fathers first name was Pompeo, and his mother, Maddalena Quaini. In Bologna, he studied first under Battista Cairo and later under Francesco Albani, to whom he remained closely allied and his first noted commission was a St Paul exorcising demon for the church of the Gesu in Bologna. He was also influenced by the genius of Correggio and by the masterworks by Melozzo da Forlì. These frescoes occupied Cignani for some twenty years, in 1681 Cignani returned to Bologna from Parma. He opened an accademia del nudo for painting from models and had as one of his pupils Giuseppe Maria Crespi and he had some of the defects of his masters, his elaborate finish and his audacious artificiality in the use of color and in composition mark Albanis influence. Despite that, he imparted to his work more of a character than his mentors. As a man Cignani was eminently amiable, unassuming and generous and he accepted no honors offered him by the duke of Parma, but lived and died an artist. In 1686 he moved to Forlì, where he died, when the Accademia Clementina for Bolognese artists was founded in 1706, Cignani was posthumously elected Principe in absencia for life. His son Felice Cignani and nephew Paolo Cignani were also painters and his most noted pupils were Marcantonio Franceschini and Federico Bencovich. and Sante Vandi. Media related to Carlo Cignani at Wikimedia Commons This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Cignani. Spike, John T. Centro Di, ed. Giuseppe Maria Crespi, fort Worth, Kimball Museum of Art. Vita del Gran Pittore Cavalier Carlo Cignani, Bologna, Nella Stamperia di L. dalla Volpe
3.
Bologna
–
Bologna is the largest city of the Emilia-Romagna Region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, located in the heart of an area of about one million. The first settlements back to at least 1000 BC. The city has been a centre, first under the Etruscans. Home to the oldest university in the world, University of Bologna, founded in 1088, Bologna is also an important transportation crossroad for the roads and trains of Northern Italy, where many important mechanical, electronic and nutritional industries have their headquarters. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city, Bologna is home to numerous prestigious cultural, economic and political institutions as well as one of the most impressive trade fair districts in Europe. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, the city of Bologna was selected to participate in the Universal Exposition of Shanghai 2010 together with 45 other cities from around the world. Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country, after a long decline, Bologna was reborn in the 5th century under Bishop Petronius. According to legend, St. Petronius built the church of S. Stefano. After the fall of Rome, Bologna was a stronghold of the Exarchate of Ravenna in the Po plain. In 728, the city was captured by the Lombard king Liutprand, the Germanic conquerors formed a district called addizione longobarda near the complex of S. Stefano. Charlemagne stayed in this district in 786, traditionally said to be founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered to be the first university. The university originated as a centre of study of medieval Roman law under major glossators. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca among its students, the medical school is especially famous. In the 12th century, the families engaged in continual internecine fighting. Troops of Pope Julius II besieged Bologna and sacked the artistic treasures of his palace, in 1530, in front of Saint Petronio Church, Charles V was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII. Then a plague at the end of the 16th century reduced the population from 72,000 to 59,000, the population later recovered to a stable 60, 000–65,000. However, there was also great progress during this era, in 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the centre of the University
4.
Papal States
–
The Papal States, officially the State of the Church, were territories in the Italian Peninsula under the sovereign direct rule of the pope, from the 8th century until 1870. They were among the states of Italy from roughly the 8th century until the Italian Peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. At their zenith, they covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Marche, Umbria and Romagna and these holdings were considered to be a manifestation of the temporal power of the pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy. By 1861, much of the Papal States territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy, only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Popes temporal control. In 1870, the pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini ended the crisis between unified Italy and the Vatican by signing the Lateran Treaty, granting the Vatican City State sovereignty. The Papal States were also known as the Papal State, the territories were also referred to variously as the State of the Church, the Pontifical States, the Ecclesiastical States, or the Roman States. For its first 300 years the Catholic Church was persecuted and unrecognized and this system began to change during the reign of the emperor Constantine I, who made Christianity legal within the Roman Empire, and restoring to it any properties that had been confiscated. The Lateran Palace was the first significant new donation to the Church, other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in the provinces of the Roman Empire. But the Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, the seeds of the Papal States as a sovereign political entity were planted in the 6th century. Beginning In 535, the Byzantine Empire, under emperor Justinian I, launched a reconquest of Italy that took decades and devastated Italys political, just as these wars wound down, the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north and conquered much of the countryside. While the popes remained Byzantine subjects, in practice the Duchy of Rome, nevertheless, the pope and the exarch still worked together to control the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the took a ever larger role in defending Rome from the Lombards. In practice, the papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch, a climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries embodied in the Lombard king Liutprands Donation of Sutri to Pope Gregory II. When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751, the popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks. In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Younger crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead king Childeric III, zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, later granted Pepin the title Patrician of the Romans. Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, Pepin defeated the Lombards – taking control of northern Italy – and made a gift of the properties formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – is disputed. Events in the 9th century postponed the conflict, the Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed as it was subdivided among Charlemagnes grandchildren
5.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
6.
Italians
–
Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
7.
University of Bologna
–
The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is the oldest university in continuous operation. It was the first place of study to use the term universitas for the corporations of students and masters which came to define the institution, located in Bologna, as of 2013, the Universitys crest carries the motto Alma mater studiorum and the date A. D.1088. The University has about 85,500 students in its 11 schools and it has campuses in Ravenna, Forlì, Cesena and Rimini and a branch center abroad in Buenos Aires. It also has a school of excellence named Collegio Superiore di Bologna, an associate publisher of the University of Bologna is Bononia University Press S. p. A. The date of its founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088 and these students then hired scholars from the city to teach them. In time the various nations decided to form an association, or universitas—thus. The foreign students in Bologna received greater rights, and collective punishment was ended, there was also collective bargaining with the scholars who served as professors at the university. By the initiation or threat of a student strike, the students could enforce their demands as to the content of courses, the professors could also be fined if they failed to finish classes on time, or complete course material by the end of the semester. A student committee, the Denouncers of Professors, kept tabs on them, Professors themselves were not powerless, however, forming a College of Teachers, and securing the rights to set examination fees and degree requirements. Eventually, the city ended this arrangement, paying professors from tax revenues, until modern times, the only degree granted at that university was the doctorate. Higher education processes are being harmonised across the European Community, nowadays the University offers 101 different Laurea or Laurea breve first-level degrees, followed by 108 Laurea specialistica or Laurea magistrale second-level degrees. After the Laurea one may attain 1st level Master, after second-level degrees are attained, one may proceed to 2nd level Master, specialisation schools, or doctorates of research. A new department of Latin History was added in 2015, on 25 April 1951 the first issue of the review was published in Bologna. In a short time, il Mulino became one of the most interesting points in Italy for the political and cultural debate. Editorial activities evolved along with the review, in 1954, the il Mulino publishing house was founded, which today represents one of the most relevant Italian publishers. In addition to this were initiated research projects, that led, in 1964. In the 2016-17 THE World University Rankings the University of Bologna was ranked in the worlds top 250 universities
8.
Anatomy
–
Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is inherently tied to embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, Human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy, macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animals body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy, microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by an understanding of the functions of the organs. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts, make a pair of related disciplines. Derived from the Greek ἀνατομή anatomē dissection, anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs. It includes the appearance and position of the parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts, the discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a scale, including histology. Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs, angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels. The term anatomy is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy, however, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature, the kingdom Animalia or metazoa, contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile. Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are known as eumetazoans. They have a digestive chamber, with one or two openings, the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells, unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts
9.
Histology
–
Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is commonly performed by examining cells and tissues under a microscope or electron microscope, the specimen having been sectioned, stained. Histological studies may be conducted using tissue culture, where human or animal cells are isolated and maintained in an artificial environment for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains, histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine. Trained physicians, frequently licensed pathologists, are the personnel who perform histopathological examination and their field of study is called histotechnology. In the 17th century, Italian Marcello Malpighi invented one of the first microscopes for studying tiny biological entities, Malpighi analysed several parts of the organs of bats, frogs and other animals under the microscope. Malpighi, while studying the structure of the lung, noticed its membranous alveoli and his discovery established how the oxygen we breathe enters the blood stream and serves the body. In the 19th century, histology was a discipline in its own right. The French anatomist Bichat introduced the concept of tissue in anatomy in 1801, the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to histologists Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal. They had dueling interpretations of the structure of the brain based in differing interpretations of the same images. Cajal won the prize for his theory and Golgi for the staining technique he invented to make it possible. There are four types of animal tissues, muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue. All tissue types are subtypes of these four basic tissue types and their structure is very different from animal tissues. The most common fixative for light microscopy is 10% neutral buffered formalin, for electron microscopy, the most commonly used fixative is glutaraldehyde, usually as a 2. 5% solution in phosphate buffered saline. These fixatives preserve tissues or cells mainly by irreversibly cross-linking proteins and this can be detrimental to certain histological techniques. Further fixatives are often used for electron microscopy such as osmium tetroxide or uranyl acetate Formalin fixation leads to degradation of mRNA, miRNA and DNA in tissues, however, extraction, amplification and analysis of these nucleic acids from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues is possible using appropriate protocols. Frozen section procedure is a way to fix and mount histology sections using a refrigeration device called a cryostat. It is often used after surgical removal of tumors to allow determination of margin
10.
Physiology
–
Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
11.
Embryology
–
Embryology is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of disorders that occur before birth. After cleavage, the cells, or morula, becomes a hollow ball, or blastula. In bilateral animals, the blastula develops in one of two ways that divides the whole animal kingdom into two halves. If in the blastula the first pore becomes the mouth of the animal, it is a protostome, the protostomes include most invertebrate animals, such as insects, worms and molluscs, while the deuterostomes include the vertebrates. In due course, the changes into a more differentiated structure called the gastrula. The middle layer, or mesoderm, gives rise to the muscles, skeleton if any, the outer layer of cells, or ectoderm, gives rise to the nervous system, including the brain, and skin or carapace and hair, bristles, or scales. Embryos in many species appear similar to one another in early developmental stages. The reason for this similarity is because species have an evolutionary history. These similarities among species are called homologous structures, which are structures that have the same or similar function and mechanism, Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, is a model organism in biology on which much research into embryology has been done. Before fertilization, the female produces an abundance of mRNA - transcribed from the genes that encode bicoid protein. These mRNA molecules are stored to be used later in what become the developing embryo. The male and female Drosophila gametes exhibit anisogamy, the female gamete is larger than the male gamete because it harbors more cytoplasm and, within the cytoplasm, the female gamete contains an abundance of the mRNA previously mentioned. At fertilization, the male and female gametes fuse and then the nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete, note that before the gametes nuclei fuse, they are known as pronuclei. A series of nuclear divisions will occur without cytokinesis in the zygote to form a cell known as a syncytium. All the nuclei in the syncytium are identical, just as all the nuclei in every cell of any multicellular organism are identical in terms of the DNA sequence of the genome. Before the nuclei can differentiate in transcriptional activity, the embryo must be divided into segments, in each segment, a unique set of regulatory proteins will cause specific genes in the nuclei to be transcribed. The resulting combination of proteins will transform clusters of cells into early embryo tissues that will develop into multiple fetal
12.
University of Pisa
–
The University of Pisa is an Italian public research university located in Pisa, Italy. It was founded in 1343 by an edict of Pope Clement VI and it is the 19th oldest extant university in the world and the 10th oldest in Italy. The prestigious university is ranked within the top 10 nationally and the top 400 in the according to the ARWU. It houses the Orto botanico di Pisa, Europes oldest academic botanical garden, the University of Pisa is part of the Pisa University System, which includes the Scuola Normale Superiore and the SantAnna School of Advanced Studies. The university has about 50,000 students and its the only university in Italy which has become a member of the prestigious Universities Research Association. In 2013, the University of Pisa finished with La Sapienza University of Rome in first place among the Italian universities, the University of Pisa was officially established on September 3,1343. However, a number of scholars claim its origin back to the 11th century. The following century formed the first documents to prove the presence of doctors of medicine, the earliest evidence of a Pisan Studium dates to 1338, when jurist Ranieri Arsendi transferred to Pisa from Bologna. He, along with Bartolo da Sassoferrato, a lecturer in law, were paid by the municipality to teach public lessons. Pisa was one of the first European universities to boast this papal attestation, the first taught subjects were theology, civil law, canon law and medicine. In 1355, Francesco da Buti, the commentator of Dantes Divine Comedy. Pisa and its Studium underwent a period of crisis around the turn of the 15th century, in 1473, thanks to Lorenzo de Medici, the Pisan Studium resumed its systematic development, and the construction of a building for holding lessons was provided for in 1486. The building — later known as Palazzo della Sapienza — was located in the 14th-century Piazza del Grano, the image of a cherub was placed above the gate DellAbbondanza, leading to the piazza, and today is still the symbol of the university. Following the rebellion and the war against Florence in 1494, the Pisan Studium suffered a period of decline and was transferred to Pistoia, Prato and Florence. The ceremonial reopening of the university on November 1,1543, the quality of the university was furthered by the statute of 1545 and the Pisan Athenaeum became one of the most significant in Europe for teaching and research. The chair of Semplici was held by Luca Ghini, founder of the worlds first botanical gardens and he was succeeded by Andrea Cesalpino, who pioneered the first scientific methodology for the classification of plants, and is considered a forerunner in the discovery of blood circulation. Gabriele Falloppio and Marcello Malpighi lectured in anatomy and medicine, galileo Galilei, who was born and studied in Pisa, became professor of mathematics at the Pisan Studium in 1589. The universitys role as an institution became more accentuated during the Medici Grand Duchy period
13.
University of Messina
–
The University of Messina is a public university located in Messina, Italy. Founded in 1548 by Ignatius of Loyola, it became the model for hundreds of Jesuit colleges, the university is organized in 11 Faculties. The University of Messina has an old cultural and educational tradition, the predecessor institution of the University was the College of Messina founded in 1548 by Ignatius of Loyola. The University was refounded in 1838 by King Ferdinand II, in 1847 as result of the antiborbonic revolution of the city, the University was again closed and reopened after two years, with restrictions to students from regions other than Sicily. The earthquake in 1908 destroyed a part of the inadequately engineered University buildings including its famous library. But only a later in 1909 the Faculty of Law was reopened. The Faculties of Science, Pharmacy and Medicine reopened in the years 1914/15, the University occupies four main sites in Messina, its central Administration Buildings and four Faculties are in the centre of Messina. A further northern University location is in the Annunziata academic buildings where the Faculties of Veterinary Medicine, Pharmacy and this site is in the Annunziata zone not far from the City centre
14.
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
–
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli was a Renaissance Italian physiologist, physicist, and mathematician. He contributed to the principle of scientific investigation by continuing Galileos practice of testing hypotheses against observation. Trained in mathematics, Borelli also made studies of Jupiters moons. He also used microscopy to investigate the movement of plants. During his career, he enjoyed the patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden, Giovanni Borelli was born on 28 January 1608 in the district of Castel Nuovo, in Naples. He was the son of Spanish infantryman Miguel Alonso and a woman named Laura Porello Borelli eventually traveled to Rome where he studied under Benedetto Castelli. Sometime before 1640 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at Messina, in the early 1640s, he met Galileo Galilei in Florence. While it is likely that they remained acquaintances, Galileo rejected considerations to nominate Borelli as head of Mathematics at the University of Pisa when he left the post himself, Borelli would attain this post in 1656. It was there that he first met the Italian anatomist Marcello Malpighi, Borelli and Malpighi were both founder-members of the short-lived Accademia del Cimento, an Italian scientific academy founded in 1657. It was here that Borelli, piqued by Malpighis own studies, began his first investigations into the science of animal movement and this began an interest that would continue for the rest of his life, eventually earning him the title of the Father of Biomechanics. Borellis involvement in the Accademia was temporary and the organization itself disbanded shortly after he left, Borelli returned to Messina in 1668 but was quickly forced into exile for suspected involvement in political conspiracies. Here he first became acquainted with ex-Queen Christina of Sweden who had also been exiled to Rome for converting to Catholicism, Borelli lived the rest of his years in poverty, teaching basic mathematics at the school of the convent where he had been allowed to live. He never saw the publication of his masterwork, De Motu Animalium as it was published posthumously, financed by Christina, borelli’s major scientific achievements are focused around his investigation into biomechanics. This work originated with his studies of animals and his publications, De Motu Animalium I and De Motu Animalium II, borrowing their title from the Aristotelian treatise, relate animals to machines and utilize mathematics to prove his theories. The anatomists of the 17th century were the first to suggest the movement of muscles. Borelli, however, first suggested that ‘muscles do not exercise vital movement otherwise than by contracting. ’ He was also the first to deny corpuscular influence on the movements of muscles. This was proven through his scientific experiments demonstrating that living muscle did not release corpuscles into water when cut, Borelli also recognized that forward motion entailed movement of a body’s center of gravity forward, which was then followed by the swinging of its limbs in order to maintain balance. His studies also extended beyond muscle and locomotion, in particular he likened the action of the heart to that of a piston
15.
Antonio Maria Valsalva
–
Antonio Maria Valsalva, was an Italian anatomist born in Imola. His research focused on the anatomy of the ears and he coined the term Eustachian tube and he described the aortic sinuses of Valsalva in his writings, published posthumously in 1740. His name is associated with the Valsalva antrum of the ear and the Valsalva maneuver, anatomical structures bearing his name are Valsalva’s muscle and taeniae Valsalvae. The contemporary of Isaac Newton and Johann Sebastian Bach, he was educated in the humanities, mathematics, after studies of the liberal arts, he studied medicine and philosophy in Bologna. He was taught by Marcello Malpighi, who is known as the founder of microscopic anatomy, Valsalva graduated from the medical school in 1687. In 1705, he was appointed professor of anatomy at Bologna and he was later chosen as president of the Academy of the Sciences. Valsalva taught Giovanni Battista Morgagni who edited Valsalva’s complete writings and published a biography on Valsalva, in 1709, Valsalva married Elena Lisi. Valsalva was buried in the church of San Giovanni in Monte, the Valsalva family donated a collection of dried anatomical specimens to be used for educational purposes to the Institute of Sciences founded in 1711. The wear of this material that followed possibly inspired the work of the Bolognese school of wax modeling and this new anatomic collection includes models of the heart and lungs and is today presented at the Museum of Anatomy. Valsalva was described as a surgeon and excellent physician, a meticulous anatomist with high scientific integrity. There is nobody of those times who goes ahead of him, Valsalva both studied and taught in the fields of science, surgery, anatomy, physiology, and psychiatry. At a young age, Valsalva had successfully removed a dog’s kidney and he opposed cauterization in the treatment of wounds, and recommended humanitarian treatment of mentally ill patients. His main interest was the middle and internal ear, including the muscles of the external ear, Valsalva named the Eustachian tube and described its function and that of its muscle. He showed the connection between the cells and the tympanic cavity, and made observations on physiologic and pathologic processes of the ear. De aure humana tractatus published in 1704 contains a description of the Valsalva maneuver, a skilled anatomist, Valsalva conducted many autopsies on deceased patients. During the 17th century, lacking chemical tests and knowledge of disease transmission mechanisms, gangrenous pus does not taste good, he wrote, leaving the tongue tingling unpleasantly for the better part of the day. It has also used for other purposes, such as to remove moisture from the face. Biographical A short biography on the life of the dedicated anatomist -Valsalva
16.
Biologist
–
A biologist, is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology, the scientific study of life. Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter. Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding, in such as medicine, industry. While biologist can apply to any scientist studying biology, most biologists research, in this way, biologists investigate large-scale organism interactions, whole multicellular organisms, organs, tissues, cells, and small-scale cellular and molecular processes. Other biologists study less direct aspects of life, such as phylogeny, Biologists conduct research based on the scientific method, to test the validity of a theory, with hypothesis formation, experimentation and documentation of methods and data. There are many types of biologists, some work on microorganisms, while others study multicellular organisms. Many jobs in biology as a field require an academic degree, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally required to direct independent research, and involves a specialization in a specific area of biology. Many biological scientists work in research and development, some conduct fundamental research to advance our knowledge of living organisms, including bacteria and other pathogens. This research enhances understanding and adds to the database of literature. Furthermore, it aids the development of solutions to problems in areas such as human health. These biological scientists work in government, university, and private industry laboratories. Many expand on specialized research that started in post-graduate qualifications. Biological scientists who work in applied research or product development often use knowledge gained by research to further knowledge in particular fields or applications. For example, this research may be used to develop new pharmaceutical drugs, treatments, and medical diagnostic tests, increase crop yields. These scientists must consider the effects of their work. Some biologists conduct laboratory experiments involving animals, plants or microorganisms, however, some biological research also occurs outside the laboratory and may involve natural observation rather than experimentation. For example, a botanist may investigate the plant species present in a particular environment, swift advances in knowledge of genetics and organic molecules spurred growth in the field of biotechnology, transforming the industries in which biological scientists work. Biological scientists can now manipulate the genetic material of animals and plants, basic and applied research on biotechnological processes, such as recombining DNA, has led to the production of important substances, including human insulin and growth hormone
17.
Physician
–
Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
18.
Renal corpuscles
–
In the kidney, a renal corpuscle is the initial blood-filtering component of a nephron. It consists of two structures, a glomerulus and a Bowmans capsule, the glomerulus is a small tuft of capillaries containing two cell types. Endothelial cells, which have large fenestrae, are not covered by diaphragms, mesangial cells are modified smooth muscle cells that lie between the capillaries. They regulate blood flow by their activity and secrete extracellular matrix, prostaglandins. Mesangial cells also have phagocytic activity, removing proteins and other molecules trapped in the basement membrane or filtration barrier. The Bowmans capsule has an outer parietal layer composed of simple squamous epithelium, the visceral layer, composed of modified simple squamous epithelium, is lined by podocytes. Podocytes have foot processes, pedicels, that wrap around glomerular capillaries and these pedicels interdigitate with pedicels of adjacent podocytes forming filtration slits. This barrier permits passage of water, ions, and small molecules from the bloodstream into Bowmans space, large and/or negatively charged proteins are prevented from passing into Bowmans space, thus retaining these proteins in the circulation. The basal lamina is composed of 3 layers, lamina rara externa, lamina densa, the lamina rara externa is adjacent to the podocyte processes. The lamina densa is the central layer consisting of type IV collagen and this layer acts as a selective macromolecular filter, preventing the passage of large protein molecules into Bowmans space. The lamina rara interna is adjacent to endothelial cells and this layer contains heparan sulfate, a negatively charged glycosaminoglycan that contributes to the electrostatic barrier of the glomerular filter. There are two poles in the renal corpuscle, a pole, and a urinary pole. The vascular pole is where the afferent and efferent arterioles communicate with the glomerulus, the urinary pole is where the corpuscle opens into the lumen of the proximal convoluted tubule. Fluid from blood in the glomerulus is collected in the Bowmans capsule to form glomerular filtrate and this name is no longer widely used, probably to avoid confusion with a Malpighian corpuscle in the spleen. Histology image, 16003loa – Histology Learning System at Boston University
19.
Renal pyramids
–
Renal pyramids are cone-shaped tissues of the kidney. In humans, the medulla is made up of 10 to 18 of these conical subdivisions. The broad base of each pyramid faces the renal cortex, and its apex, or papilla, the pyramids appear striped because they are formed by straight parallel segments of nephrons and collecting ducts. The base of each pyramid originates at the border and the apex terminates in a papilla. Renal sinus Medullary interstitium Renal capsule Anatomy figure,40, 03-02 at Human Anatomy Online, SUNY Downstate Medical Center
20.
Malpighian tubule system
–
The Malpighian tubule system is a type of excretory and osmoregulatory system found in some insects, myriapods, arachnids, and tardigrades. The system consists of branching tubules extending from the canal that absorbs solutes, water. The wastes then are released from the organism in the form of nitrogenous compounds. The system is named after Marcello Malpighi, a seventeenth-century anatomist and it is unclear as to whether the Malpighian tubules of arachnids and those of the Uniramia are homologous or the result of convergent evolution. Malpighian tubules are slender tubes normally found in the regions of arthropod alimentary canals. Each tubule consists of a layer of cells that is closed off at the distal end with the proximal end joining the alimentary canal at the junction between the midgut and hindgut. Most tubules are normally highly convoluted, the number of tubules varies between species although most occur in multiples of two. Tubules are usually bathed in hemolymph and are in proximity to fat body tissue and they contain actin for structural support and microvilli for propulsion of substances along the tubules. Malpighian tubules in most insects also contain accessory musculature associated with the tubules which may function to mix the contents of the tubules or expose the tubules to more hemolymph. The insect orders, Thysanura, Dermaptera and Thysanoptera do not possess these muscles and Collembola and Hemiptera, pre-urine is formed in the tubules, when nitrogenous waste and electrolytes are transported through the tubule walls. Wastes such as urea and amino acids are thought to diffuse through the walls, the pre-urine, along with digested food, merge in the hindgut. At this time, uric acid precipitates out, and sodium and potassium ions are absorbed by the rectum. Uric acid is left to mix with feces, which are then excreted, complex cycling systems of Malpighian tubules have been described in other insect orders. Both Coleoptera and Lepidoptera use an arrangement where the distal end of the tubules are embedded in fat tissue surrounding the rectum. Such an arrangement may serve to increase the efficiency of processing in the Malpighian tubules. Although primarily involved in excretion and osmoregulation, Malpighian tubules have been modified in some insects to serve accessory functions, larvae of the New Zealand glowworm, Arachnocampa luminosa use modified and swollen Malpighian tubules to produce a blue-green light attracting prey towards mucus-coated trap lines. In insects which feed on plant material containing noxious allelochemicals, Malpighian tubules also serve to rapidly excrete such compounds from the hemolymph, the Insects, An Outline of Entomology. Blackwell Publishing UK ISBN 1-4051-1113-5 Romoser, W. S. mcGraw-Hill Singapore ISBN 0-697-22848-7 Bradley, T. J
21.
Insects
–
Insects are a class of hexapod invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species, the number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans. The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs, insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, Insects that undergo 3-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear, fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm. The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants, adult insects typically move about by walking, flying or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with adaptations that include gills. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water, Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs, Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances, other species communicate with sounds, crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyridae in the beetle order communicate with light, humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves or fruits, a few parasitic species are pathogenic. Some insects perform complex ecological roles, blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion, Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey, in some cultures, people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects. Insect first appears documented in English in 1601 in Hollands translation of Pliny, translations of Aristotles term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, etc. The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear, in the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea
22.
White pulp
–
White pulp is a histological region of the spleen. The altered coat of the arterioles, consisting of adenoid tissue, presents here and there thickenings of a spheroidal shape and these bodies vary in size from about 0.25 mm. to 1 mm. in diameter. They are merely local expansions or hyperplasia of the adenoid tissue, there are several parts of white pulp with distinct functions, Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths are typically associated with the arteriole supply of the spleen, contain T lymphocytes. Lymph follicles with dividing B lymphocytes are located between PALS and marginal zone, igM and IgG2 are produced in this zone. These molecules play a role in opsonization of extracellular organisms, encapsulated bacteria in particular, marginal zone is located further away from the central arteriole, it contains antigen presenting cells.174 - Spleen, White Pulp splenic nodule
23.
Renal corpuscle
–
In the kidney, a renal corpuscle is the initial blood-filtering component of a nephron. It consists of two structures, a glomerulus and a Bowmans capsule, the glomerulus is a small tuft of capillaries containing two cell types. Endothelial cells, which have large fenestrae, are not covered by diaphragms, mesangial cells are modified smooth muscle cells that lie between the capillaries. They regulate blood flow by their activity and secrete extracellular matrix, prostaglandins. Mesangial cells also have phagocytic activity, removing proteins and other molecules trapped in the basement membrane or filtration barrier. The Bowmans capsule has an outer parietal layer composed of simple squamous epithelium, the visceral layer, composed of modified simple squamous epithelium, is lined by podocytes. Podocytes have foot processes, pedicels, that wrap around glomerular capillaries and these pedicels interdigitate with pedicels of adjacent podocytes forming filtration slits. This barrier permits passage of water, ions, and small molecules from the bloodstream into Bowmans space, large and/or negatively charged proteins are prevented from passing into Bowmans space, thus retaining these proteins in the circulation. The basal lamina is composed of 3 layers, lamina rara externa, lamina densa, the lamina rara externa is adjacent to the podocyte processes. The lamina densa is the central layer consisting of type IV collagen and this layer acts as a selective macromolecular filter, preventing the passage of large protein molecules into Bowmans space. The lamina rara interna is adjacent to endothelial cells and this layer contains heparan sulfate, a negatively charged glycosaminoglycan that contributes to the electrostatic barrier of the glomerular filter. There are two poles in the renal corpuscle, a pole, and a urinary pole. The vascular pole is where the afferent and efferent arterioles communicate with the glomerulus, the urinary pole is where the corpuscle opens into the lumen of the proximal convoluted tubule. Fluid from blood in the glomerulus is collected in the Bowmans capsule to form glomerular filtrate and this name is no longer widely used, probably to avoid confusion with a Malpighian corpuscle in the spleen. Histology image, 16003loa – Histology Learning System at Boston University
24.
Malpighiaceae
–
Malpighiaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Malpighiales. It comprises about 73 genera and 1315 species, all of which are native to the tropics and subtropics, about 80% of the genera and 90% of the species occur in the New World and the rest in the Old World. One useful species in the family is Malpighia emarginata, often called acerola, the fruit is consumed in areas where the plant is native. The plant is cultivated elsewhere for the fruit, which is rich in vitamin C, one feature found in several members of this family, and rarely in others, is providing pollinators with rewards other than pollen or nectar, this is commonly in the form of nutrient oils. Davis, C. C. and W. R. Anderson, a complete phylogeny of Malpighiaceae inferred from nucleotide sequence data and morphology. American Journal of Botany 97, 2031–2048,267 pp. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz
25.
William Harvey
–
William Harvey was an English physician who made seminal contributions in anatomy and physiology. In 1973 the William Harvey Hospital was constructed in the town of Ashford, Williams father, Thomas Harvey, was a jurat of Folkestone where he served the office of mayor in 1600. Records and personal descriptions delineate him as a calm, diligent. Revered, consulted and implicitly trusted in him, made their father the treasurer of their wealth when they acquired great estates. Kept, employed, and improved their gainings to their great advantage, Thomas Harveys portrait can still be seen in the central panel of a wall of the dining-room at Rolls Park, Chigwell, in Essex. William was the eldest of nine children, seven sons and two daughters, of Thomas and his wife Joan Halke, notable family connections include Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Nottingham, who married Williams niece Elizabeth Harvey, and the diplomat Sir Daniel Harvey. Harveys initial education was carried out in Folkestone, where he learned Latin and he then entered the Kings School. Harvey stayed at the Kings School for five years, after which he matriculated at Gonville, Harvey graduated as a Bachelor of Arts from Caius in 1597. He then travelled through France and Germany to Italy, where he entered the University of Padua, during Harveys years of study there, he developed a relationship with Fabricius and read Fabriciuss De Venarum Ostiolis. Harvey graduated as a Doctor of Medicine at the age of 24 from the University of Padua on 25 April 1602, following this, Harvey established himself in London, joining the Royal College of Physicians on 5 October 1604. A few weeks after his admission, Harvey married Elizabeth Browne, and you shall take no gift or reward. This you will promise to do as you shall answer before God, Harvey earned around thirty-three pounds a year and lived in a small house in Ludgate, although two houses in West Smithfield were attached as fringe benefits to the post of Physician. At this point, the physicians function consisted of a simple but thorough analysis of patients who were brought to the once a week. The next important phase of Harveys life began with his appointment to the office of Lumleian lecturer on 4 August 1615, Harvey began his lectures in April 1616. At this time, at the age of thirty-seven, he was described as a man of lowest stature, round faced, his eyes small, round, very black and full of spirit, his hair as black as a raven and curling. The notes which he used at the time are preserved in the British Museum, to point out what is peculiar to the actual body which is being dissected. To supply only by speech what cannot be shown on your own credit, to cut up as much as may be in the sight of the audience. To enforce the right opinion by remarks drawn far and near, not to praise or dispraise other anatomists, for all did well, and there was some excuse even for those who are in error
26.
Jan Swammerdam
–
Jan Swammerdam was a Dutch biologist and microscopist. His work on insects demonstrated that the various phases during the life of an insect—egg, larva, pupa, as part of his anatomical research, he carried out experiments on muscle contraction. In 1658, he was the first to observe and describe red blood cells and he was one of the first people to use the microscope in dissections, and his techniques remained useful for hundreds of years. Swammerdam was baptized on 15 February 1637 in the Oude Kerk Amsterdam and his father was an apothecary, and an amateur collector of minerals, coins, fossils, and insects from around the world. His mother Baertje Jans Corvers died in 1661, the same year, when he was 24, Swammerdam entered the University of Leiden to study medicine. After qualifying as a candidate in medicine in 1663, he left for France, spending time in Issy, Saumur and Paris with Melchisédech Thévenot. He returned to Leiden in September 1665, and earned his M. D. on February 22,1667 Once he left university and this choice caused a rift between Swammerdam and his father, who thought his son should practice medicine. The relationship between the two deteriorated, Swammerdams father cut off his support for Swammerdams entomological studies. As a result, Swammerdam was forced, at least occasionally and he obtained leave at Amsterdam to dissect the bodies of those who died in the hospital. From 1667 through 1674, Swammerdam continued his research and published three books, in 1675, he came under the influence of the Flemish mystic, Antoinette Bourignon, renounced his work, and decided to devote the remainder of his life to spiritual matters. Niels Stensen, a gifted anatomist, and once his co-student, invited him to work for the Duke of Tuscany, the grand duke of Tuscany offered 12,000 florins for Swammerdams collection, on condition of Swammerdam coming to Florence to continue it. There is evidence, however, that Swammerdam did not completely give up his scientific studies, the papers, which he wished to be published posthumously, appear to have been revised during the last two years of his life. Swammerdam died at age 43 of malaria and was buried in the Église Wallonne, in 1737–1738, a half century after his death, Herman Boerhaave translated Swammerdams papers into Latin and published them under the title Biblia naturae. An English translation of his works by T. Floyd was published in 1758. His entomological collection was divided at his death and sold in small portions, as a naturalist of his time, he has been compared with Anton Leeuwenhoek. No authentic portrait of Jan Swammerdam is extant nowadays, the portrait shown in the header is derived from the painting The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Tulp by Rembrandt and represents the leading Amsterdam physician Hartman Hartmanzoon. Knowledge of insects in the 17th century was to a great extent inherited from Aristotle, according to this classical paradigm, insects were so insignificant they werent worthy of the types of investigations done on fish, reptiles, and mammals. Much of Swammerdams entomological work was done to show that the difference between insects and the animals was one of degree, not kind
27.
Invertebrates
–
Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column, derived from the notochord. This includes all animals apart from the subphylum Vertebrata, familiar examples of invertebrates include insects, crabs, lobsters and their kin, snails, clams, octopuses and their kin, starfish, sea-urchins and their kin, jellyfish, and worms. The majority of species are invertebrates, one estimate puts the figure at 97%. Many invertebrate taxa have a number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata. Some of the invertebrates, such as the Tunicata and Cephalochordata are more closely related to the vertebrates than to other invertebrates. This makes the term invertebrate paraphyletic and hence almost meaningless for taxonomic purposes, the word invertebrate comes from the form of the Latin word vertebra, which means a joint in general, and sometimes specifically a joint from the spinal column of a vertebrate. In turn the jointed aspect of vertebra derived from the concept of turning, coupled with the prefix in-, meaning not or without. The term invertebrates is not always precise among non-biologists since it does not accurately describe a taxon in the way that Arthropoda. Each of these describes an valid taxon, phylum, subphylum or family. Invertebrata is a term of convenience, not a taxon, it has very little circumscriptional significance except within the Chordata, the Vertebrata as a subphylum comprises such a small proportion of the Metazoa that to speak of the kingdom Animalia in terms of Vertebrata and Invertebrata has limited practicality. That would at least circumscribe the Chordata, however, even the notochord would be a less fundamental criterion than aspects of embryological development and symmetry or perhaps bauplan. The following text reflects earlier scientific understanding of the term and of animals which have constituted it. According to this understanding, invertebrates do not possess a skeleton of bone and they include hugely varied body plans. Many have fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeletons, like jellyfish or worms, others have hard exoskeletons, outer shells like those of insects and crustaceans. The most familiar invertebrates include the Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Echinodermata, Mollusca, Arthropoda include insects, crustaceans and arachnids. By far the largest number of described species are insects. The following table lists the number of described extant species for major invertebrate groups as estimated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,2014.3. The IUCN estimates that 66,178 extant vertebrate species have been described, the trait that is common to all invertebrates is the absence of a vertebral column, this creates a distinction between invertebrates and vertebrates
28.
Endocrinology
–
Endocrinology is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. Specializations include behavioral endocrinology and comparative endocrinology, the endocrine system consists of several glands, all in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Endocrinology is the study of the system in the human body. This is a system of glands which secrete hormones, hormones are chemicals which affect the actions of different organ systems in the body. Examples include thyroid hormone, growth hormone, and insulin, the endocrine system involves a number of feedback mechanisms, so that often one hormone will control the action or release of another secondary hormone. If there is too much of the hormone, it may provide negative feedback to the primary hormone. This definition holds for most classical hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms, autocrine signals, a neuroendocrine signal is a classical hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron. Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three to more than 200 amino acid residues and can have a mass as large as 30,000 grams per mole. All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, steroid hormones are converted from their parent compound, cholesterol. Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. Some forms of vitamin D, such as calcitriol, are steroid-like and bind to homologous receptors and these organs include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, testes, and pancreas. An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in treating disorders of the system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism. The diagnosis and treatment of diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing and this might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites, an endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations. A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease, atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. Diagnostic imaging of endocrine organs may reveal incidental findings called incidentalomas, Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are diseases that need lifelong care
29.
Royal Society
–
Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
30.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
31.
Robert White (engraver)
–
Robert White was an English draughtsman and engraver. A Londoner, he was a pupil of David Loggan, White was celebrated for his original portraits, drawn in pencil on vellum in the manner of Loggan. He died in reduced circumstances in Bloomsbury Market, where he had long resided, Whites plates number about four hundred. They include many of the public and literary characters of the period, a large proportion of them were executed from the life, the rest begin from pictures by Lely, Kneller, Riley, Beale, and others. Among the plates engraved by White from his own drawings are individual portraits of, Prince George of Denmark, the Earl of Athlone, the Duke of Leeds, and the Earl of Seaforth. There are also groups of the seven bishops, the council, the lords justices of England. A few mezzotint portraits of noblemen bear Whites name as the publisher, a portrait of White was engraved by W. H. Worthington for Ralph Nicholson Wornums edition of Horace Walpoles Anecdotes. White was engraver for Andrew Snapes The Anatomy of an Horse first published in 1683, the images were taken from earlier woodcuts by Carlo Ruini. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, White
32.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
33.
Aristotelian philosophy
–
Aristotelianism is a tradition of philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. The works of Aristotle were initially defended by the members of the Peripatetic school, and, later on, by the Neoplatonists, who produced many commentaries on Aristotles writings. Moses Maimonides adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his famous Guide for the Perplexed on it, scholars such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas interpreted and systematized Aristotles works in accordance with Christian theology. Although this project was criticized by Trendelenburg and Brentano as non-Aristotelian, postmodernists, in contrast, reject Aristotelianisms claim to reveal important theoretical truths. In this, they follow Heideggers critique of Aristotle as the greatest source of the tradition of Western philosophy. Recent Aristotelian ethical and practical philosophy, such as that of Gadamer, the most famous contemporary Aristotelian philosopher is Alasdair MacIntyre. Politically and socially, it has been characterized as a newly revolutionary Aristotelianism and this may be contrasted with the more conventional, apolitical and effectively conservative uses of Aristotle by, for example, Gadamer and McDowell. Other important contemporary Aristotelian theorists include Fred D. Miller, Jr. in politics, the original followers of Aristotle were the members of the Peripatetic school. The most prominent members of the school after Aristotle were Theophrastus and Strato of Lampsacus, during the Roman era the school concentrated on preserving and defending his work. The most important figure in this regard was Alexander of Aphrodisias who commentated on Aristotles writings, in the Abbasid Empire, many foreign works were translated into Arabic, large libraries were constructed, and scholars were welcomed. Under the caliphs Harun al-Rashid and his son Al-Mamun, the House of Wisdom in Baghdad flourished, Christian scholar Hunayn ibn Ishaq was placed in charge of the translation work by the caliph. In his lifetime, Ishaq translated 116 writings, including works by Plato and Aristotle, into Syriac, al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, and is known for his efforts to introduce Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Arab world. He incorporated Aristotelian and Neoplatonist thought into an Islamic philosophical framework and this was an important factor in the introduction and popularization of Greek philosophy in the Muslim intellectual world. The philosopher Al-Farabi had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries and his work, aimed at synthesis of philosophy and Sufism, paved the way for the work of Avicenna. Avicenna was one of the interpreters of Aristotle. The school of thought he founded became known as Avicennism, which was built on ingredients and conceptual building blocks that are largely Aristotelian and Neoplatonist. At the western end of the Mediterranean Sea, during the reign of Al-Hakam II in Córdoba, a massive effort was undertaken. Averroes, who spent much of his life in Cordoba and Seville, was distinguished as a commentator of Aristotle
34.
Henry Oldenburg
–
Henry Oldenburg was a German theologian known as a diplomat, a natural philosopher and as the creator of scientific peer review. He was one of the foremost intelligencers of Europe of the century, with a network of correspondents to rival those of Fabri de Peiresc, Marin Mersenne. At the foundation of the Royal Society he took on the task of foreign correspondence, born in Bremen, Germany, he trained in theology and received his degree on 2 November 1639. His movements during the 1640s are unclear, but he is thought to have worked as a tutor in England for much of the decade, in 1648 he left England and travelled, returning in the end to Bremen. He went to London in 1653, as a diplomat, and he forged a strong relationship with his lifelong patron Robert Boyle, and was tutor to Boyles nephew, the politician Richard Jones. Oldenburg married his wife, Dora Katherina Dury, the daughter of John Dury. Among Oldenburgs correspondents at this time was Baruch Spinoza, whom he was introduced to on a trip to the Netherlands and he also became the founding editor of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Oldenburg began the practice of sending submitted manuscripts to experts who could judge their quality before publication and this was the beginning of both the modern scientific journal and the practice of peer review. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society continues today and is the longest running scientific journal in the world and he was briefly imprisoned in the Tower as a suspected spy in 1667, during the Second Anglo-Dutch War. Oldenburgs correspondence was linked to support from the politician Sir Joseph Williamson, Oldenburg enjoyed good health in his lifetime, but he fell seriously ill on 3 September 1677, and he died two days thereafter at his Pall Mall, London home. He was interred on 7 September at St Mary the Virgin and his widow died ten days later. Adrien Auzout, Henri Justel, Pierre Petit, Ismaël Bullialdus, Sir William Curtius, Johann Hevelius, Gottfried Leibniz, Philipp Jacob Sachs von Lewenheimb, Johann Daniel Major, Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, Martin Vogel. Paolo Boccone, Giovanni Domenico Cassini, Marcello Malpighi, reinier de Graaf, Christiaan Huygens and his father, Constantijn Huygens, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Willem Ten Rhijne, Benedictus/Baruch Spinoza, Peter Serrarius, Jan Swammerdam, Isaac Vossius
35.
Ferdinand II of Tuscany
–
Ferdinando II de Medici was grand duke of Tuscany from 1621 to 1670. He was the eldest child of Cosimo II de Medici and Maria Maddalena of Austria and his 49-year rule was punctuated by the beginning of Tuscanys long economic decline. He married Vittoria della Rovere, with whom he had two children, Cosimo III de Medici, his successor, and Francesco Maria de Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro. Ferdinando was the eldest son of Cosimo II de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo II died when Ferdinando was 10, because he had not yet reached maturity, his mother and paternal grandmother, Christina of Lorraine, acted as joint regents. In his seventeenth year, Ferdinando embarked on a tour of Europe, one year later, his regency ended and his personal rule began. Dowager Grand Duchess Christina was the power behind the throne until her death in 1636, ferdinand, like Christina before him, was a patron, ally, and friend of Galileo. Galileo dedicated his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems to him and this work led to Galileos second set of hearings before the Inquisition. The first calamity of Ferdinando’s reign was in 1630, when a plague swept through Florence, unlike the Tuscan nobility, Ferdinando and his brothers stayed in the city to try to ameliorate the general suffering. His mother and grandmother arranged a marriage with Vittoria della Rovere, together they had two children, Cosimo, in 1642, and Francesco Maria de Medici, in 1660. The latter was the fruit of a reconciliation, as after the birth of Cosimo. Grand Duke Ferdinando was obsessed with new technology, and had several hygrometers, barometers, thermometers, in 1654, influenced by Galileo, he is reported to have invented the sealed-glass thermometer, by sealing the glass tip of a tube filled to a certain height with colored alcohol. Small glass bubbles filled with air at varying pressures hovered trapped within the liquid, changing positions as the temperature rose or fell. Marked off with 360 divisions, like the gradations or degrees of a circle, in 1657, Leopoldo de Medici, the Grand Duke’s youngest brother, established the Accademia del Cimento. It was set up to attract scientists from all over Tuscany to Florence for mutual study, Tuscany participated in the Wars of Castro and inflicted a defeat on the forces of Urban VIII in 1643. The treasury was so empty that when the Castro mercenaries were paid for the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds, the interest rate was lowered by 0. 75%. The economy was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural market places, Ferdinando died on 23 May 1670 of apoplexy and dropsy. He was interred in the Basilica of San Lorenzo, the Medicis necropolis, at the time of his death, the population of the grand duchy was 730,594 souls, the streets were lined with grass and the buildings on the verge of collapse in Pisa. R. Florence and the Medici, Orion books, London,1977, ISBN 1-84212-456-0 Liedtke, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
36.
Giovanni Borelli
–
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli was a Renaissance Italian physiologist, physicist, and mathematician. He contributed to the principle of scientific investigation by continuing Galileos practice of testing hypotheses against observation. Trained in mathematics, Borelli also made studies of Jupiters moons. He also used microscopy to investigate the movement of plants. During his career, he enjoyed the patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden, Giovanni Borelli was born on 28 January 1608 in the district of Castel Nuovo, in Naples. He was the son of Spanish infantryman Miguel Alonso and a woman named Laura Porello Borelli eventually traveled to Rome where he studied under Benedetto Castelli. Sometime before 1640 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at Messina, in the early 1640s, he met Galileo Galilei in Florence. While it is likely that they remained acquaintances, Galileo rejected considerations to nominate Borelli as head of Mathematics at the University of Pisa when he left the post himself, Borelli would attain this post in 1656. It was there that he first met the Italian anatomist Marcello Malpighi, Borelli and Malpighi were both founder-members of the short-lived Accademia del Cimento, an Italian scientific academy founded in 1657. It was here that Borelli, piqued by Malpighis own studies, began his first investigations into the science of animal movement and this began an interest that would continue for the rest of his life, eventually earning him the title of the Father of Biomechanics. Borellis involvement in the Accademia was temporary and the organization itself disbanded shortly after he left, Borelli returned to Messina in 1668 but was quickly forced into exile for suspected involvement in political conspiracies. Here he first became acquainted with ex-Queen Christina of Sweden who had also been exiled to Rome for converting to Catholicism, Borelli lived the rest of his years in poverty, teaching basic mathematics at the school of the convent where he had been allowed to live. He never saw the publication of his masterwork, De Motu Animalium as it was published posthumously, financed by Christina, borelli’s major scientific achievements are focused around his investigation into biomechanics. This work originated with his studies of animals and his publications, De Motu Animalium I and De Motu Animalium II, borrowing their title from the Aristotelian treatise, relate animals to machines and utilize mathematics to prove his theories. The anatomists of the 17th century were the first to suggest the movement of muscles. Borelli, however, first suggested that ‘muscles do not exercise vital movement otherwise than by contracting. ’ He was also the first to deny corpuscular influence on the movements of muscles. This was proven through his scientific experiments demonstrating that living muscle did not release corpuscles into water when cut, Borelli also recognized that forward motion entailed movement of a body’s center of gravity forward, which was then followed by the swinging of its limbs in order to maintain balance. His studies also extended beyond muscle and locomotion, in particular he likened the action of the heart to that of a piston
37.
Accademia del Cimento
–
The Accademia del Cimento, an early scientific society, was founded in Florence in 1657 by students of Galileo, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Vincenzo Viviani and ceased to exist about a decade later. The foundation of Academy was funded by Prince Leopoldo and Grand Duke Ferdinando II de Medici and it became the standard laboratory manual in the 18th century. The Cimento published a manual of experimentation which began the process of standardizing processes and their motto Provando e riprovando can be translated either as trying and trying again or as experimenting and confirming. There were no rules for joining the society, there was no established meeting calendar. This means there are few actual records of the workings of the society. The history of the society can only be pieced together through the letters, the National Library of Florence recently digitized all of these documents and they are available on-line. Prince Leopold of Tuscany – considered by many to be the founder of the Academy, when he was made a Cardinal in 1667 and moved to Rome the Accademia del Cimento ceased to exist. Ferdinando II de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany – Ferdinando was a patron of Galileo. Ferdinando was known within the society for his interest in experiments concerned with what we now call physics, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli – Chair of Mathematics at the University of Pisa during the time of the Accademia del Cimento. Borelli is the best known of the members but also known for his intolerance of criticism, there is speculation his peevish nature caused Leopold’s final dissolution of the Academy. Borelli was also the member who strenuously objected to merging his work with others of the Academy. Candido and Paolo del Buono – Not much is known of Candido and he was a contemporary student of Galileo with Viviani. Was in service to the Polish court during much of the existence of the society, Alessandro Marsili – Highly thought of by Galileo who wrote a letter to Prince Leopold in 1640 praising him. This praise seemed to have secured his position as the chair of philosophy at Pisa and he was not liked by the other members because he was a “rotten and mouldy peripatetic” according to Borelli in a letter to Paolo del Buono in 1657. The historian W. E. Knowles Middelton suggests that Marsili was added to the group to act as the used by Galileo in his work Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Francesco Redi – Although letters from Redi to others which state Redi was a member of the Accademia del Cimento there are no corroborating evidence from other members, carlo Rinaldini – First to lecture on works of Galileo as the chair of Philosophy at Padua. Proposed an experiment on the diffusion of heat which gives him claim to be the discoverer of the convection in air, nicolas Steno – A pioneer in anatomy, paleontology, geology and stratigraphy, and crystallography, he made observations and discoveries still recognized today. Brought up as a Lutheran, he converted to Catholicism and later became a bishop, antonio Uliva – Libertine who was totally undisciplined and no records exist of any input into the experiments of the society exist
38.
Fontanelle
–
A fontanelle is an anatomical feature of the infant human skull comprising any of the soft membranous gaps between the cranial bones that make up the calvaria of a fetus or an infant. Fontanelles allow for stretching and deformation of the neurocranium as the brain expands faster than the surrounding bone can grow. Premature complete ossification of the sutures is called craniosynostosis, during infancy, the anterior fontanelle is known as the bregma. The skull of a baby consists of five main bones, two bones, two parietal bones, and one occipital bone. These are joined by fibrous sutures, which allow movement that facilitates childbirth and it lies at the junction between the sagittal suture and lambdoid suture. At birth, the features a small posterior fontanelle with an open area covered by a tough membrane. The posterior fontanelles ossify within 2 or 3 months after birth, the mesenchymal connective tissue turns into bone tissue. Anterior fontanelle is a diamond-shaped membrane-filled space located between the two frontal and two bones of the developing fetal skull. It persists until approximately 18 months after birth and it is at the junction of the coronal suture and sagittal suture. The fetal anterior fontanelle may be palpated until 18 months, in cleidocranial dysostosis, however, it is often late in closing or may never close. Examination of an infant includes palpating the anterior fontanelle, two smaller fontanelles are located on each side of the head, more anteriorly the sphenoidal or anterolateral fontanelle and more posteriorly the mastoid or posterolateral fontanelle. During birth, fontanelles enable the bony plates of the skull to flex, the ossification of the bones of the skull causes the anterior fontanelle to close over by 9 to 18 months. The sphenoidal and posterior fontanelles close during the first few months of life, the closures eventually form the sutures of the neurocranium. Other than the anterior and posterior fontanelles, the mastoid fontanelle and this pulsating action is how the soft spot got its name – fontanelle is borrowed from the old French word fontenele, which is a diminutive of fontaine, meaning spring. It is assumed that the spring is used because of the analogy of the dent in a rock or earth where a spring arises. Parents may worry that their infant may be prone to injury at the fontanelles. In fact, although they may colloquially be called soft-spots, the covering the fontanelles is extremely tough. Fontanelles allow the infant brain to be imaged using ultrasonography, once they are closed, most of the brain is inaccessible to ultrasound imaging, because the bony skull presents an acoustic barrier
39.
Peripatetics
–
The Peripatetic school was a school of philosophy in Ancient Greece. Its teachings derived from its founder, Aristotle, and peripatetic is an adjective ascribed to his followers, the school dates from around 335 BC when Aristotle began teaching in the Lyceum. It was an institution whose members conducted philosophical and scientific inquiries. After the middle of the 3rd century BC, the fell into a decline. Later members of the school concentrated on preserving and commenting on Aristotles works rather than extending them, the study of Aristotles works continued by scholars who were called Peripatetics through Late Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. The term Peripatetic is a transliteration of the ancient Greek word περιπατητικός peripatêtikos, the Peripatetic school was actually known simply as the Peripatos. Aristotles school came to be so named because of the peripatoi of the Lyceum where the members met, the legend that the name came from Aristotles alleged habit of walking while lecturing may have started with Hermippus of Smyrna. Because of the association with the gymnasium, the school also came to be referred to simply as the Lyceum. Some modern scholars argue that the school did not become formally institutionalized until Theophrastus took it over, Aristotle did teach and lecture there, but there was also philosophical and scientific research done in partnership with other members of the school. It seems likely that many of the writings that have come down to us in Aristotles name were based on lectures he gave at the school. Among the members of the school in Aristotles time were Theophrastus, Phanias of Eresus, Eudemus of Rhodes, Clytus of Miletus, Aristoxenus, the doctrines of the Peripatetic school were those laid down by Aristotle, and henceforth maintained by his followers. Whereas Plato had sought to explain things with his theory of Forms, Philosophy to him meant science, and its aim was the recognition of the why in all things. Hence he endeavoured to attain to the grounds of things by induction. Logic either deals with appearances, and is then called dialectics, or of truth, all change or motion takes place in regard to substance, quantity, quality, and place. There are three kinds of substances – those alternately in motion and at rest, as the animals, those perpetually in motion, as the sky, the last, in themselves immovable and imperishable, are the source and origin of all motion. Among them there must be one first being, unchangeable, which acts without the intervention of any other being, all that is proceeds from it, it is the most perfect intelligence – God. The heavens are of a perfect and divine nature than other bodies. In the centre of the universe is the Earth, round, the stars, like the sky, beings of a higher nature, but of grosser matter, move by the impulse of the prime mover
40.
Brain
–
The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the organs for senses such as vision. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrates body, in a human, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body, the brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment, the operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. This article compares the properties of brains across the range of animal species. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains, the ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage, the shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species, others distinguish advanced brains from more primitive ones. The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter. Further information can be gained by staining slices of tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, the brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells, neurons and glial cells. Glial cells come in types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation. Neurons, however, are considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to target cells over long distances
41.
Sensory organs
–
A sense is a physiological capacity of organisms that provides data for perception. The senses and their operation, classification, and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields, most notably neuroscience, cognitive psychology, the nervous system has a specific sensory system or organ, dedicated to each sense. Humans have a multitude of senses, sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch are the five traditionally recognized senses. However, what constitutes a sense is a matter of debate, leading to difficulties in defining what exactly a distinct sense is. Other animals also have receptors to sense the world around them, humans have a comparatively weak sense of smell and a stronger sense of sight relative to many other mammals while some animals may lack one or more of the traditional five senses. Some animals may also intake and interpret sensory stimuli in different ways. Some species of animals are able to sense the world in a way humans cannot, with some species able to sense electrical and magnetic fields. There is no agreement as to the number of senses because of differing definitions of what constitutes a sense. The senses are frequently divided into exteroceptive and interoceptive, Exteroceptive senses are senses that perceive the bodys own position, motion, external senses include the traditional five, sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste, as well as thermoception and possibly an additional weak magnetoception. Proprioceptive senses include nociception, equilibrioception, proprioception, interoceptive senses are senses that perceive sensations in internal organs. Non-human animals may possess senses that are absent in humans, such as electroreception and detection of polarized light, in Buddhist philosophy, Ayatana or sense-base includes the mind as a sense organ, in addition to the traditional five. This addition to the commonly acknowledged senses may arise from the psychological orientation involved in Buddhist thought, the mind considered by itself is seen as the principal gateway to a different spectrum of phenomena that differ from the physical sense data. This way of viewing the human sense system indicates the importance of internal sources of sensation and perception that complements our experience of the external world, there are two types of photoreceptors, rods and cones. Rods are very sensitive to light, but do not distinguish colors, cones distinguish colors, but are less sensitive to dim light. There is some disagreement as to whether this one, two or three senses. Neuroanatomists generally regard it as two senses, given that different receptors are responsible for the perception of color and brightness, the inability to see is called blindness. Blindness may result from damage to the eyeball, especially to the retina, damage to the nerve that connects each eye to the brain. Temporary or permanent blindness can be caused by poisons or medications, people with blindsight are usually not aware that they are reacting to visual sources, and instead just unconsciously adapt their behaviour to the stimulus
42.
Pope Innocent XII
–
Pope Innocent XII, born Antonio Pignatelli, was Pope from 12 July 1691 to his death in 1700. He took a stance against nepotism in the church, continuing the policies of Pope Innocent XI. To that end, he issued a papal bull strictly forbidding it, Antonio Pignatelli was born on 13 March 1615 in Spinazzola to one of the most aristocratic families of the Kingdom of Naples, which had included several Viceroys and ministers of the crown. He was the fourth of five children of Francesco Pignatelli and Porzia Carafa and his other siblings were Marzio, Ludovico, Fabrizio and Paola Maria. He was educated at the Collegio Romano in Rome where he earned a doctorate in canon and civil law. At the age of 20 he became an official of the court of Pope Urban VIII, Pignatelli was the Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura and served as the Governor of Fano and Viterbo. Later he went to Malta where he served as an inquisitor from 1646 to 1649, shortly after this, he received his priestly ordination. Pignatelli was made Titular Archbishop of Larissa in 1652 and received consecration in Rome. Pignatelli served as the Apostolic Nuncio to Poland from 1660 to 1668 and he was transferred to Lecce in 1671. Pope Innocent XI appointed him as the Cardinal-Priest of San Pancrazio in 1681 and he was moved to his final post as Archbishop of Naples in 1686. Pope Alexander VIII died in 1691 and the College of Cardinals assembled to hold a conclave to select his successor, factions loyal to the Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Spain and the broader Holy Roman Empire failed to agree on a consensus candidate. After five months, Cardinal Pignatelli emerged as a compromise candidate between the cardinals of France and those of the Holy Roman Empire, Pignatelli took his new name in honour of Pope Innocent XI and was crowned on 15 July 1691 by the protodeacon, Cardinal Urbano Sacchetti. He took possession of the Basilica of Saint John Lateran on 13 April 1692, immediately after his election on 12 July 1691, Innocent XII declared his opposition to the nepotism which had afflicted the reigns of previous popes. Further, only one relative was to be raised to the cardinalate, at the same time he sought to check the simony in the practices of the Apostolic Chamber and to that end introduced a simpler and more economical manner of life into his court. Innocent XII said that the poor were his nephews and compared his public beneficence to the nepotism of many predecessors, Innocent XII also introduced various reforms into the States of the Church including the Forum Innocentianum, designed to improve the administration of justice dispensed by the Church. In 1693 he compelled French bishops to retract the four propositions relating to the Gallican Liberties which had been formulated by the assembly of 1682. In 1699, he decided in favour of Jacques-Benigne Bossuet in that prelates controversy with Fénelon about the Explication des Maximes des Saints sur la Vie Intérieure of the latter, Innocent XII also created 30 cardinals in four consistories. He canonized Saint Zita of Lucca on 5 September 1696, Innocent XII beatified Augustin Kažotić on 17 July 1701 and approved the cultus of Angela of Foligno in 1693
.jpg)
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Malpighi, Marcello". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 497.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
