1.
Ypsilanti, Michigan
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Ypsilanti, commonly shortened to Ypsi, is a city in Washtenaw County in the U. S. state of Michigan, perhaps best known as the home of Eastern Michigan University. As of the 2010 census, the population was 19,435. The city is bounded to the north by Superior Township and on the west, south, Ypsilanti is located 6 miles east of Ann Arbor and about 18 miles west of the Detroit city limits. S. It was incorporated into the Territory of Michigan as the village Woodruffs Grove, a separate community a short distance away on the west side of the river was established in 1825 under the name Ypsilanti, after Demetrios Ypsilantis, a hero in the Greek War of Independence. Woodruffs Grove changed its name to Ypsilanti in 1829, the year its namesake effectively won the Greek war, a bust of Demetrios Ypsilantis by Greek sculptor Christopher Nastos stands between a Greek and a US flag at the base of the landmark Ypsilanti Water Tower. Ypsilanti has played an important role in the automobile industry, from 1920 to 1922, Apex Motors produced the ACE car. It was in Ypsilanti that Preston Tucker designed and built the prototypes for his Tucker 48, tuckers story was related in the film Tucker, The Man and His Dream, directed by Francis Ford Coppola. In 1945, Henry J. Kaiser and Joseph W. Frazer bought the nearby Willow Run B-24 Liberator bomber plant from Ford Motor Company, and started to make Kaiser and Frazer model cars in 1947. The last Kaiser car made in Ypsilanti rolled off the line in 1953. General Motors purchased the Kaiser Frazer plant, and converted it into its Hydramatic Division, the GM Powertrain Division ceased production at this facility in 2010. Ypsilanti is also the location of the last Hudson automobile dealership, today, the former dealership is the site of the Ypsilanti Automotive Heritage Collection. The museum is the home to an original Fabulous Hudson Hornet race car, in the early 1970s, along with neighboring city of Ann Arbor, the citizens reduced the penalty for the use and sale of marijuana to $5. When Ypsilanti prosecuted a man possessing 100 pounds of cannabis under state law, the trial judge declared the ordinances requirement that Ypsilanti prosecute only under city law unenforceable. An appeal court upheld the judges ruling. Later, Ypsilanti City Council, using its power of codification, in 1979, Faz Husain was elected to the Ypsilanti city council, the first Muslim and the first native of India to win elected office in Michigan. In the 1990s Ypsilanti became the first city in Michigan to pass a living wage ordinance, two ballot measures to repeal the ordinance were led and bankrolled by conservatives, including Tom Monaghan. Both measures failed, the second by a larger percentage than the first, the award provides for an economic development consultant to assist Ypsilanti in developing a growth and job creation strategy for the downtown area. 1959 – Eastern Michigan becomes a university 1960 – Tom Monaghan founds Dominos Pizza as DomiNicks Pizza at 507 W. Cross St and he was convicted in 1969, but of only one of the murders
Ypsilanti, Michigan
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Images from top to bottom, left to right:
Ypsilanti Water Tower,
Depot Town/Sidetrack Bar & Grill,
Ypsilanti Automotive Heritage Museum, Michigan Firehouse Museum, and
Eastern Michigan University's Starkweather Hall
Ypsilanti, Michigan
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Bust of
Demetrios Ypsilantis at the Ypsilanti Water Tower
Ypsilanti, Michigan
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Statue commemorating
Harriet Tubman in Ypsilanti, Michigan.
Ypsilanti, Michigan
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The new addition to the historic building which houses the Michigan Firehouse Museum was completed in the summer of 2002.
2.
Nyack, New York
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Nyack /ˈnaɪ. æk/ is a village located primarily in the town of Orangetown in Rockland County, New York, United States. Incorporated in 1872, it retains a small western section in Clarkstown. Nyack had a population of 6,765 as of the 2010 census, most of Rockland Countys local music scene is based in Nyack. Nyack is one of five southeastern Rockland County villages and hamlets that constitute The Nyacks – Nyack, Central Nyack, South Nyack, Upper Nyack and West Nyack. Adjacent South Nyack is the terminus of the Tappan Zee Bridge. Interstate 87, an important commuter artery, the village is approximately 1.6 square miles in area, over 50% of which falls within the Hudson River. It is in the Nyack School District, Native American stone relics and oyster middens found along the shore of the Hudson indicate todays Nyack was a favorite pre-Colonial fishing spot. The first Europeans settled in there in 1675, calling the general area Tappan, Harman Douwenszen is thought to be the first white settler. He came to America as a toddler and grew up in Bergen, in the State Archives in Albany there is a 1687 letter on file petitioning Governor Dongan to buy a strip of land in the west hills of Tappan, in which he had lived on for 12 years. His partition was granted and he bought the land from the Native Americans and he called his farm New Orania. This section of Nyack became known as Orangetown in 1683, the Tappan Register of 1707 claimed it was pronounced Nay-ack. Nyack became part of Rockland County in 1798, harmans younger brother Theius changed the family name from Douwse to Talma proper Dutch for first son. His children became Talman and eventually Tallmans, the New Orania farm became the Tallman homestead, at the northeast corner of what is now Broadway and Tallman Place. The building was demolished in 1914, letter dated 8/31/1687 on file at New York State Archives at Albany, The humble Peticon of Harman Dowse of Tappan Neare Ye River Side, Alias New Orania farm. Your peticonr is a farmer that hath nothing wot comes by his hard labour but by Gods Blessing out ye Produce and ye ground, here, in summer they lived upon fish and oysters. In Algonkian dialect spoken by them they called this location NAY-ACK which means the fishing place. The first settlement of people within the limits of the present Rockland County, New York, took place in 1675 when Harmen Dowesen. The Tallmans erected a mill upon a stream which still is known as Mill Brook, abraham Lydecker purchased land from the Tallmans when there were but seven homes in Nyack in 1813
Nyack, New York
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Main Street in Downtown Nyack
Nyack, New York
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Main Street in Nyack
Nyack, New York
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Nyack's Village Hall
Nyack, New York
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View of Nyack from Hook Mountain
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
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The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
4.
Ohio University
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Ohio University is a large, primarily residential, public research university in Athens, Ohio, United States. One of Americas oldest universities, the second oldest in Ohio, it was chartered in 1787 and approved in 1804, as of 2014, the Athens campus had 23,300 students, the other five campuses had approximately 10,000, and eLearning 5,900. The Heritage College of Medicine maintains its separate select admissions criteria, Ohio University offers more than 250 areas of undergraduate study. On the graduate level, the university grants masters degrees in many of its academic divisions. Ohio University is fully accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching classifies Ohio as a Research University under the Basic Classification category. Ohios athletic teams are called the Bobcats and compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association at the Division I level as members of the Mid-American Conference. Ohio football has participated in ten games through the 2016 season. George Washington stated the settlement of southeastern Ohio was not accidental, but the result of the deliberation of wise, prudent. The Confederation Congress, which operated under the Articles of Confederation, executive roles transacted from committees of Congress or appointed persons. The Ordinance of 1787 made Ohio University the first ever to be chartered through acts of Congress and this epithet is engraved on the universitys main college gateway. The university was appropriated and envisioned by Manasseh Cutler, credited as the founder along with Rufus Putnam. Cutler had served as a chaplain in Washingtons Continental Army, the institutions first name was American University. President Thomas Jeffersons policy initiatives included an expansion of the new nation. In 1802 approval was granted by the government for the establishment of the American Western University. Ohio University was recognized by the new state on February 18,1804 and this approval came eleven months after Ohio was admitted to the Union. The first three students enrolled in 1809, the university graduated two students with bachelors degrees in 1815. The university was not gifted by the stalwart Republicans with lands and monies for the agricultural, the 20th century brought unprecedented growth in student enrollment, academic offerings, and research facilities. Between 1955 and 1970, the university realized a tripling of enrollment in the post-World War II expansion of college education
Ohio University
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General
Rufus Putnam, center-rear, was a trustee from 1804 to 1824
Ohio University
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Seal of Ohio University
Ohio University
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Manasseh Cutler Hall, completed in 1819, was the first academic building in the
Northwest Territory.
Ohio University
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Baker University Center Grand Hallway
5.
University of Michigan
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The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan. It moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres of what is now known as Central Campus, the University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States, Michigans body of living alumni comprises more than 540,000 people, one of the largest alumni bases of any university in the world. Besides academic life, Michigans athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Wolverines. They are members of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26,1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard, Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships, and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships. Concurrently, Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres in the hopes of being selected as the state capital, but when Lansing was chosen as the state capital, the city offered the land for a university. What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason, the original 40 acres was the basis of the present Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen, eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845. By 1866, enrollment increased to 1,205 students, many of whom were Civil War veterans, Women were first admitted in 1870. U-M also became the first American university to use the method of study. Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa, who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and he returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high-ranking posts in the government. In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed a committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives. The university became a choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of its standards, U-M gained the nickname Harvard of the West. During World War II, U-Ms research supported military efforts, such as U. S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. After the war, enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950, it reached 21,000, as the Cold War and the Space Race took hold, U-M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy
University of Michigan
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University of Michigan (1855)
Jasper Francis Cropsey
University of Michigan
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Seal of the University of Michigan
University of Michigan
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The Central Campus Diag, viewed from the Graduate Library, looking North
University of Michigan
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Law Library Interior
6.
University of Tulsa
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The University of Tulsa is a private university located in Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States. The university is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church. The university is renowned for its programs in law, English, computer science, natural sciences, psychology and its faculty includes prominent scholars, scientists, and writers, including Russian dissident poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko, political scientist Robert Donaldson and others. The campuss design is predominantly Collegiate Gothic, the university manages the Gilcrease Museum, which includes one of the largest collections of American Western art in the world, and in 2016, The Bob Dylan Archive was placed at the university. TUs athletic teams are known as the Tulsa Golden Hurricane. The Presbyterian School for Girls was founded in Muskogee, Indian Territory, in 1894, the young school expanded to become Henry Kendall College, named in honor of Reverend Henry Kendall, secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions. The first president was William A. Caldwell, who served a brief, Kendall College, while still in Muskogee, granted the first post-secondary degree in Oklahoma in June 1898. Under King, the college was moved from its location in downtown Muskogee to a larger campus on lands donated by Creek Nation Chief Pleasant Porter. The opening of the new campus coincided with the start of the tenure of the third president, over the next ten years, Evans oversaw the struggling schools growth. At the request of the administration, the Synod of Indian Territory assumed control as trustees, when the administration was approached by the comparatively smaller town of Tulsa and offered a chance to move, the decision was made to relocate. The Tulsa Commercial Club decided to bid for the college, Club members who packaged a bid in 1907 to move the college to Tulsa included, B. Betters, H. O. McClure, L. N. Butts, W. L. North, James H. Hall, stebbins, Rev. Charles W. Kerr, C. H. Nicholson. The offer included $100,000,20 acres of real estate, the school opened to thirty-five students in September 1907, two months before Oklahoma became a state. These first students attended classes at the First Presbyterian Church until permanent buildings could be erected on the new campus and this became the start of higher education in Tulsa. Kendall Hall, the first building of the new school, was completed in 1908 and was followed by two other buildings. All three buildings have since demolished, with Kendall the last to be razed in 1972. The bell that hung in the Kendall Building tower was saved and displayed in Bayless Plaza. In 1918, the Methodist Church proposed building a college in Tulsa, the proposed college was to be named McFarlin College
University of Tulsa
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Skelly House, Official residence for the President of the University of Tulsa.
University of Tulsa
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The University of Tulsa
University of Tulsa
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"The Old U" as seen from S Delaware Ave.
University of Tulsa
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Chapman Stadium
7.
Geology
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Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the features of any terrestrial planet. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life. Geology also plays a role in engineering and is a major academic discipline. The majority of data comes from research on solid Earth materials. These typically fall into one of two categories, rock and unconsolidated material, the majority of research in geology is associated with the study of rock, as rock provides the primary record of the majority of the geologic history of the Earth. There are three types of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology which illustrates the relationships between three types of rock, and magma. When a rock crystallizes from melt, it is an igneous rock, the sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism, all three types of rocks may be re-melted, when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again crystallize. Geologists also study unlithified material which typically comes from more recent deposits and these materials are superficial deposits which lie above the bedrock. Because of this, the study of material is often known as Quaternary geology. This includes the study of sediment and soils, including studies in geomorphology, sedimentology and this theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading, and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the mantle is called plate tectonics. The development of plate tectonics provided a basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries, mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another, transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegeners theory of continental drift and they also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology
Geology
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On this diagram, subducting
slabs are in blue, and continental margins and a few plate boundaries are in red. The blue blob in the cutaway section is the seismically imaged
Farallon Plate, which is subducting beneath North America. The remnants of this plate on the Surface of the Earth are the
Juan de Fuca Plate and Explorer plate in the Northwestern USA / Southwestern Canada, and the
Cocos Plate on the west coast of Mexico.
Geology
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This schematic diagram of the rock cycle shows the relationship between magma and sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rock
Geology
Geology
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Geologic cross-section of
Kittatinny Mountain. This cross-section shows metamorphic rocks, overlain by younger sediments deposited after the metamorphic event. These rock units were later folded and faulted during the uplift of the mountain.
8.
Oceanography
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Oceanography, also known as oceanology, is the study of the physical and the biological aspects of the ocean. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past, humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo, early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken. Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Streams cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769-1770, information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanography, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic, during a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1777, he mapped the banks and currents at the Lagullas. He was also the first to understand the nature of the intermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, Robert FitzRoy published a four-volume report of the Beagles three voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology, the first superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory, Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted his time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation, and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of the first comprehensive oceanography studies, many nations sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results worldwide. Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water, almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The Royal Navys efforts to all of the worlds coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans. The seminal event in the founding of the science of oceanography was the 1872-76 Challenger expedition. As the first true oceanographic cruise, this laid the groundwork for an entire academic. In response to a recommendation from the Royal Society, The British Government announced in 1871 an expedition to explore worlds oceans, charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition. The Challenger, leased from the Royal Navy, was modified for scientific work, under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger travelled nearly 70,000 nautical miles surveying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigating the globe,492 deep sea soundings,133 bottom dredges,151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken, around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H. M. S, Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
Oceanography
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HMS Challenger undertook the first global marine research expedition in 1872.
Oceanography
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Thermohaline circulation
Oceanography
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Ocean currents (1911)
Oceanography
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Oceanographic Museum Monaco
9.
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
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The Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory is a research unit of Columbia University located on a 157-acre campus in Palisades, N. Y.18 miles north of Manhattan on the Hudson River. Lamont–Doherty also houses the worlds largest collection of deep-sea and ocean-sediment cores as well as many specialized research laboratories, more than 300 research scientists and students study the planet from its deepest interior to the outer reaches of its atmosphere, on every continent and in every ocean. First, because all biological organisms record the environment in which they exist and they also attempt to understand how modern environmental conditions affect present-day biology. To do this, BPE scientists turn to a number of sources, including deep-sea sediment cores, samples from coral reefs. Researchers in the Division of Geochemistry study the processes, past and present, as its name implies, scientists in the Division of Marine Geology and Geophysics are primarily concerned with studying the structure and evolution of the Earths seafloor. To do so, they employ tools that include side-scan sonar and multi-channel seismic imaging to map the surface and sub-surface, as well as satellite-based remote sensing. An early success of MG&G researchers was the discovery of seafloor spreading, other MG&G scientists study the interface between ice sheets and bedrock, sediment transport in the Hudson River, and meteorite impacts in the deep ocean. They also contribute to understanding of earthquakes, the structure of Earth’s crust, mantle, and core, in addition, the division operates several facilities for the scientific community. The history of Lamont–Dohertys seagoing research began in 1953 with the acquisition of the R/V Vema, the Lamont–Doherty office of DEES primarily supports the departments graduate program, though many undergraduate students take classes and conduct research at the Observatory. At any given time, between 80 and 90 Ph. D, specific programs at Lamont–Doherty are conducted with many education-affiliates at Columbia and elsewhere in the New York metro area. The Lamont–Doherty Core Repository is both an archive of sediment and rocks from on and beneath the floor and an archive of digital data pertaining to the material. The repository contains more than 7,200 meters of core, from ocean and sea. They are used to study Earths climate and environment, in research areas. The Tree-Ring Lab is dedicated to the application of tree-ring research around the world to improve understanding of Earths past climate and environmental history. The Ocean Bottom Seismology Lab develops and operates instruments used to measure deformation of the floor in cooperation with the NSFs National Ocean Bottom Seismograph Instrumentation Pool. S. The network is a member of the Advanced National Seismic System. It also provides professional development among station operators, Lamont–Doherty is home to a wide range of geophysical databases and repositories that aid in scientific research, education and outreach. Allan Bé, micropaleontologist who worked at the lab Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory Website
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
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Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
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Maurice "Doc" Ewing, the first director of the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, in 1948
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
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Entrance to Columbia University's Lamont Campus on Rt. 9W in Palisades, N.Y.
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
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The Gary C. Comer Geochemistry Laboratory Building, home of the Geochemistry Division at the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory
10.
Geologist
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A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes that shape it. Geologists usually study geology, although backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, field work is an important component of geology, although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory work. Some geologists work in the mining business searching for metals, oils and they are also in the forefront of natural hazards and disasters prevention and mitigation, studying natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic activity, tsunamis, weather storms. Their studies are used to warn the public of the occurrence of these events. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions, james Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795. The first geological map of the U. S. was produced in 1809 by William Maclure, in 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him and this antedates William Smiths geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks. Sir Charles Lyell first published his famous book, Principles of Geology and this book, which influenced the thought of Charles Darwin, successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earths history and are still occurring today, in contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earths features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time, most geologists also need skills in GIS and other mapping techniques. Geology students often spend portions of the year, especially the summer though sometimes during a January term, geologists may concentrate their studies or research in one or more of the following disciplines, Dendrochronology, the study of dating based on tree ring patterns. Economic geology, the study of ore genesis, and the mechanisms of ore creation, geochemistry, the applied branch deals with the study of the chemical makeup and behaviour of rocks, and the study of the behaviour of their minerals. Geochronology, the study of isotope geology specifically toward determining the date within the past of rock formation, metamorphism, mineralization and geological events. Geomorphology, the study of landforms and the processes that create them Hydrogeology, igneous petrology, the study of igneous processes such as igneous differentiation, fractional crystallization, intrusive and volcanological phenomena. Isotope geology, the case of the composition of rocks to determine the processes of rock. Metamorphic petrology, the study of the effects of metamorphism on minerals, marine geology, the study of the seafloor, involves geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal margins. Marine geology has strong ties to physical oceanography and plate tectonics, palaeoclimatology, the application of geological science to determine the climatic conditions present in the Earths atmosphere within the Earths history
Geologist
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"The Geologist" -
Carl Spitzweg, circa 1860
Geologist
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Scotsman James Hutton, father of modern geology
Geologist
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"Geologists at work" from the U.S. Geological and Geographic Survey of the Territories. (1874 - 06/30/1879) Photographer:
William Henry Jackson
Geologist
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A young geologist learns about
flow banding
11.
Cartography
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Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively, the fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to, Set the maps agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing, traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. Represent the terrain of the object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections, eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the maps purpose. This is the concern of generalization, reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization, orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design, modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems. The earliest known map is a matter of debate, both because the term map isnt well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE, the oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, another depicts Babylon as being north of the world center. The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps since Anaximander in the 6th century BCE, in the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemys world map – the world known to Western society. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic, in ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, in the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and these charts may have been used for navigation. Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world, approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154
Cartography
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A medieval depiction of the
Ecumene (1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver), constructed after the coordinates in Ptolemy's
Geography and using his second map projection. The translation into Latin and dissemination of Geography in Europe, in the beginning of the 15th century, marked the rebirth of scientific cartography, after more than a millennium of stagnation.
Cartography
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Valcamonica rock art (I), Paspardo r. 29, topographic composition, 4th millennium BC
Cartography
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The
Bedolina Map and its tracing, 6th–4th century BC
Cartography
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Copy (1472) of
St. Isidore's TO map of the world.
12.
Bruce C. Heezen
–
Bruce Charles Heezen was an American geologist. He worked with oceanographic cartographer Marie Tharp at Columbia University to map the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the 1950s, Heezen was born in Vinton, Iowa. An only child, he moved at age six with his parents to Muscatine, Iowa and he received his B. A. from the University of Iowa in 1947. He received his M. A. in 1952 and a Ph. D in 1957 from Columbia University, Heezen collaborated extensively with cartographer Marie Tharp. Heezen died of an attack in 1977 while on a research cruise to study the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near Iceland aboard the NR-1 submarine. Heezen was christened in honor of him in 1999, Bruce Heezen explaining formation of oil traps on the ocean floor on YouTube Bruce Heezen explaining turbidity currents on YouTube
Bruce C. Heezen
–
Marie Tharp and Bruce Heezen
13.
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
–
In the North Atlantic, it separates the Eurasian and North American Plates, whereas in the South Atlantic it separates the African and South American Plates. The ridge extends from a junction with the Gakkel Ridge northeast of Greenland southward to the Bouvet Triple Junction in the South Atlantic, although the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is mostly an underwater feature, portions of it have enough elevation to extend above sea level. The section of the ridge that includes the island of Iceland is also known as the Reykjanes Ridge, the ridge has an average spreading rate of about 2.5 cm per year. A ridge under the Atlantic Ocean was first inferred by Matthew Fontaine Maury in 1850, the ridge was discovered during the expedition of HMS Challenger in 1872. A team of scientists on board, led by Charles Wyville Thomson, the existence of such a ridge was confirmed by sonar in 1925 and was found to extend around the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean by the German Meteor expedition. Ewing, Heezen and Tharp discovered that the ridge is part of a 40, the ridge is central to the breakup of the hypothetical supercontinent of Pangaea that began some 180 million years ago. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge includes a deep valley that runs along the axis of the ridge along nearly its entire length. This rift marks the boundary between adjacent tectonic plates, where magma from the mantle reaches the seafloor, erupting as lava. This trench, however, is not regarded as the boundary between the North and South American Plates, nor the Eurasian and African Plates and this bulge is thought to be caused by upward convective forces in the asthenosphere pushing the oceanic crust and lithosphere. This divergent boundary first formed in the Triassic period, when a series of three-armed grabens coalesced on the supercontinent Pangaea to form the ridge, usually, only two arms of any given three-armed graben become part of a divergent plate boundary. The failed arms are called aulacogens, and the aulacogens of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge eventually became many of the river valleys seen along the Americas. The Fundy Basin on the Atlantic coast of North America between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada is evidence of the ancestral Mid-Atlantic Ridge, atlantis Massif Central Atlantic Magmatic Province Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone Evans, Rachel. Plumbing Depths to Reach New Heights, Marie Tharp Explains Marine Geological Maps, the Library of Congress Information Bulletin. MAR-ECO, a Census of Marine Life project on life along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
–
A
fissure of the ridge in the Þingvellir National Park, Iceland
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
–
A map of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
–
A rock outcrop of the ridge at Thingvellir in Iceland
14.
Paradigm shift
–
A paradigm shift, a concept identified by the American physicist and philosopher Thomas Kuhn, is a fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline. Kuhn contrasted these shifts, which characterize a scientific revolution, to the activity of normal science, in this context, the word paradigm is used in its original meaning, as example. The nature of scientific revolutions has been studied by modern philosophy since Immanuel Kant used the phrase in the preface to his Critique of Pure Reason and he referred to Greek mathematics and Newtonian physics. In the 20th century, new crises in the concepts of mathematics, physics. It was against this background that Kuhn published his work. Kuhn presented his notion of a shift in his influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. As one commentator summarizes, Kuhn acknowledges having used the term paradigm in two different meanings, in the second sense, the paradigm is a single element of a whole, say for instance Newton’s Principia, which, acting as a common model or an example. Stands for the rules and thus defines a coherent tradition of investigation. Thus the question is for Kuhn to investigate by means of the paradigm what makes possible the constitution of what he calls normal science and that is to say, the science which can decide if a certain problem will be considered scientific or not. This is precisely the meaning of the term paradigm, which Kuhn considered the most new and profound. An epistemological paradigm shift was called a revolution by epistemologist. The paradigm, in Kuhns view, is not simply the current theory, but the entire worldview in which it exists and this is based on features of landscape of knowledge that scientists can identify around them. There are anomalies for all paradigms, Kuhn maintained, that are brushed away as acceptable levels of error, or simply ignored, rather, according to Kuhn, anomalies have various levels of significance to the practitioners of science at the time. When enough significant anomalies have accrued against a current paradigm, the discipline is thrown into a state of crisis. During this crisis, new ideas, perhaps ones previously discarded, are tried, eventually a new paradigm is formed, which gains its own new followers, and an intellectual battle takes place between the followers of the new paradigm and the hold-outs of the old paradigm. Some found Arthur Eddingtons photographs of light bending around the sun to be compelling, while some questioned their accuracy, after a given discipline has changed from one paradigm to another, this is called, in Kuhns terminology, a scientific revolution or a paradigm shift. If this is correct, Kuhns claims must be taken in a weaker sense than they often are, at that time, physics seemed to be a discipline filling in the last few details of a largely worked-out system. In 1900, Lord Kelvin famously told an assemblage of physicists at the British Association for the Advancement of Science, all that remains is more and more precise measurement
Paradigm shift
–
Kuhn used the duck-rabbit
optical illusion to demonstrate the way in which a paradigm shift could cause one to see the same information in an entirely different way.
15.
Plate tectonics
–
The theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s, the lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet, is broken up into tectonic plates. The Earths lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates, where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary, convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along plate boundaries. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually, tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction carries plates into the mantle, the material lost is balanced by the formation of new crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the surface of the lithosphere remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle, earlier theories, since disproven, proposed gradual shrinking or gradual expansion of the globe. Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earths lithosphere has greater strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the result in convection. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the ridge and drag, with downward suction. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by forces of the Sun. The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to other is unclear. The outer layers of the Earth are divided into the lithosphere and asthenosphere and this is based on differences in mechanical properties and in the method for the transfer of heat. Mechanically, the lithosphere is cooler and more rigid, while the asthenosphere is hotter, in terms of heat transfer, the lithosphere loses heat by conduction, whereas the asthenosphere also transfers heat by convection and has a nearly adiabatic temperature gradient. The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates, Plate motions range up to a typical 10–40 mm/year, to about 160 mm/year. The driving mechanism behind this movement is described below, tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by either or both of two types of crustal material, oceanic crust and continental crust. Average oceanic lithosphere is typically 100 km thick, its thickness is a function of its age, as passes, it conductively cools
Plate tectonics
–
Remnants of the
Farallon Plate, deep in Earth's mantle. It is thought that much of the plate initially went under North America (particularly the western United States and southwest Canada) at a very shallow angle, creating much of the mountainous terrain in the area (particularly the southern
Rocky Mountains).
Plate tectonics
–
The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of the 20th century.
Plate tectonics
–
Plate motion based on Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite data from NASA JPL. The vectors show direction and magnitude of motion.
Plate tectonics
–
Alfred Wegener in Greenland in the winter of 1912-13.
16.
Continental drift
–
Continental drift is the movement of the Earths continents relative to each other, thus appearing to drift across the ocean bed. The speculation that continents might have drifted was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596, the concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, but his theory was rejected by some for lack of a mechanism and others because of prior theoretical commitments. The idea of continental drift has been subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics, W. J. Kious described Ortelius thoughts in this way, Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus. Suggested that the Americas were torn away from Europe and Africa, by earthquakes and floods and went on to say, The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three. In his Manual of Geology,1863, Dana says The continents, Dana was enormously influential in America – his Manual of Mineralogy is still in print in revised form – and the theory became known as Permanence theory. This suggested that the oceans were a permanent feature of the earths surface and this led Mantovani to propose an Expanding Earth theory which has since been shown to be incorrect. Continental drift without expansion was proposed by Frank Bursley Taylor, who suggested in 1908 that the continents were moved into their present positions by a process of continental creep. Wegener said that of all theories, Taylors, although not fully developed, had the most similarities to his own. In the mid-20th century, the theory of drift was referred to as the Taylor-Wegener hypothesis. Alfred Wegener first presented his hypothesis to the German Geological Society on January 6,1912 and his hypothesis was that the continents had once formed a single landmass, called Pangea, before breaking apart and drifting to their present locations. Wegener was the first to use the continental drift and formally publish the hypothesis that the continents had somehow drifted apart. Although he presented evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the physical processes which might have caused this drift. The Polflucht hypothesis was studied by Paul Sophus Epstein in 1920. The theory of drift was not accepted for many years. One problem was that a driving force was missing. A second problem was that Wegeners estimate of the velocity of continental motion,250 cm/year, was implausibly high, and it did not help that Wegener was not a geologist. Other geologists also believed that the evidence that Wegener had provided was not sufficient, the British geologist Arthur Holmes championed the theory of continental drift at a time when it was deeply unfashionable. He proposed in 1931 that the Earths mantle contained convection cells that dissipated radioactive heat and his Principles of Physical Geology, ending with a chapter on continental drift, was published in 1944
Continental drift
–
Antonio Snider-Pellegrini's Illustration of the closed and opened Atlantic Ocean (1858).
Continental drift
–
Alfred Wegener
17.
German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
German language
–
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language
–
The widespread popularity of the
Bible translated into German by
Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language
–
Examples of German language in
Namibian everyday life
German language
–
German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922
18.
Latin language
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin language
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin language
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin language
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin language
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
19.
Soil classification
–
Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use. Soil classification is a subject, from the structure of the system itself, to the definitions of classes. Soil classification can be approached from the perspective of soil as a material, engineers, typically geotechnical engineers, classify soils according to their engineering properties as they relate to use for foundation support or building material. Modern engineering classification systems are designed to allow a transition from field observations to basic predictions of soil engineering properties. The most common engineering classification system for soils in North America is the Unified Soil Classification System, the USCS has three major classification groups, coarse-grained soils, fine-grained soils, and highly organic soils. The USCS further subdivides the three major soil classes for clarification and it distinguishes sands from gravels by grain size, and further classifying some as well-graded and the rest as poorly-graded. Silts and clays are distinguished by the soils Atterberg limits, moderately organic soils are considered subdivisions of silts and clays, and are distinguished from inorganic soils by changes in their plasticity properties on drying. The European soil classification system is similar, differing primarily in coding and in adding an intermediate-plasticity classification for silts and clays. The USCS and additional engineering description is standardized in ASTM D2487, differing concepts of pedogenesis, and differences in the significance of morphological features to various land uses can affect the classification approach. Despite these differences, in a system, classification criteria group similar concepts so that interpretations do not vary widely. This is in contrast to a system approach to soil classification. Natural system approaches to classification, such as the French Soil Reference System are based on presumed soil genesis. Another approach is numerical classification, also called ordination, where individuals are grouped by multivariate statistical methods such as cluster analysis. This produces natural groupings without requiring any inference about soil genesis, in soil survey, as practiced in the United States, soil classification usually means criteria based on soil morphology in addition to characteristics developed during soil formation. Criteria are designed to guide choices in use and soil management. As indicated, this is a system that is a hybrid of both natural and objective criteria. USDA soil taxonomy provides the criteria for differentiating soil map units. This is a revision of the 1938 USDA soil taxonomy which was a strictly natural system
Soil classification
–
Soil types
Soil classification
–
Soil texture triangle showing the
USDA classification system based on grain size
20.
U.S. Department of Agriculture
–
Approximately 80% of USDAs $140 billion budget goes to the Food and Nutrition Service program. The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, after the resignation of Thomas Vilsack on January 13,2017 and the departure of President Barack Obama from office on January 20,2017, the acting Secretary of Agriculture is Michael Young. Activities in this include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and it plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID, foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program, the Agricultural Act of 1949, section 416 and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, also known as Food for Peace, provides the legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation, early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents and he began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for the collection of agricultural statistics, Ellsworth was called the Father of the Department of Agriculture. In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior, in the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Lincoln called it the peoples department, in the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry, and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank, finally, on February 9,1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law elevating the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics, with these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. During the Great Depression, farming remained a way of life for millions of Americans. The Department of Agricultures Bureau of Home Economics, established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. USDA helped ensure that continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners. The Department of Agriculture was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $139.7 billion, the Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, he recalled thinking as he weighed his decision to quit
U.S. Department of Agriculture
–
The
Jamie L. Whitten Building in
Washington D.C., the USDA headquarters.
U.S. Department of Agriculture
–
Seal of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
U.S. Department of Agriculture
–
Harvey Washington Wiley, Chief Chemist of the Department of Agriculture's Division of Chemistry (third from the right) with his staff, not long after he joined the division in 1883
U.S. Department of Agriculture
–
The
Beagle Brigade are part of the USDAs
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. This piece of luggage at
Washington Dulles International Airport may contain contraband.
21.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
22.
Music
–
Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
Music
–
A painting on an Ancient Greek vase depicts a music lesson (c. 510 BC).
Music
–
Jean-Gabriel Ferlan performing at a 2008 concert at the collège-lycée Saint-François Xavier
Music
–
The composer
Michel Richard Delalande, pen in hand.
Music
–
Funk places most of its emphasis on rhythm and
groove, with entire songs based around a
vamp on a single chord. Pictured are the influential funk musicians
George Clinton and
Parliament Funkadelic in 2006.
23.
Mathematics
–
Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
Mathematics
–
Euclid (holding
calipers), Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by
Raphael in this detail from
The School of Athens.
Mathematics
–
Greek mathematician
Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC), commonly credited with discovering the
Pythagorean theorem
Mathematics
–
Leonardo Fibonacci, the
Italian mathematician who established the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the Western World
Mathematics
–
Carl Friedrich Gauss, known as the prince of mathematicians
24.
Amoco
–
Amoco Corporation, originally Standard Oil Company, was a global chemical and oil company that was founded in 1889 around a refinery located in Whiting, Indiana, United States. It later absorbed the American Oil Company, founded in Baltimore in 1910 and incorporated in 1922 by Louis Blaustein, Amoco merged with British Petroleum in December 1998, forming BP Amoco. Shortly after the merger, Amoco stations began a rebranding that saw the stations change their names to the BP marque while continuing to sell Amoco-branded fuel. Eventually all traces of the Amoco brand name were eliminated and the stations adopted the BP branding permanently, the firms innovations included two essential parts of the modern industry, the gasoline tanker truck and the drive-through filling station. Its headquarters were located in the Amoco Building in Chicago, Illinois, Standard Oil was formed in 1889 by John D. Rockefeller as part of the Standard Oil trust. In 1910, with the rise in popularity of the automobile, in 1911, the year it became independent from the Standard Oil trust, the company sold 88% of the gasoline and kerosene sold in the Midwest. In 1912 it opened its first gas station in Minneapolis. It had the rights to use the Standard name in the region. It purchased the Dixie Oil Company of Louisiana in 1919 and began investing in oil companies outside its Standard marketing territory. Blaustein incorporated his business as the American Oil Co. in 1922, in 1923 the Blausteins sold a half interest in American Oil to the Pan American Petroleum & Transport company in exchange for a guaranteed supply of oil. Before this deal, Amoco was forced to depend on Standard Oil of New Jersey, Standard Oil of Indiana acquired Pan American in 1925, beginning John D. Rockefellers association with the Amoco name. In the 1920s and 1930s Indiana Standard opened up dozens more refining and oil-drilling facilities, combined with a new oil-refining process, Indiana Standard created its exploration and production business, Stanolind, in 1931. In the following years, a period of exploration and search for oil-rich fields ensued. In 1925, it bought a stake in the Pan American Petroleum, the acquired company had previously bought a half interest in the American Oil Company, which marketed half of PATs oil in the United States. Indiana Standard raised its stake in PAT to 81 percent by 1929, in 1931, Stanolind completed its acquisition of Sinclair Pipeline and also acquired the Sinclair Crude Oil Purchasing Company. All of the companies were consolidated into the newly formed Stanolind Pipeline Company. The crude oil purchasing operations became Stanolind Crude Oil Purchasing Company, the pipeline company headquarters were located in the Philcade building in Tulsa, Oklahoma. In 1957, all of the corporations pipeline activities were merged into a single entity, the Amoco lead-free gasoline was sold at Americans stations in the eastern and southern U. S. alongside American Regular gasoline, which was a leaded fuel
Amoco
–
The Amoco Building (now the
Aon Center) housed the Amoco headquarters in
Chicago
Amoco
–
1970–2002 logo
Amoco
–
American Freeway Patrol uniform logo circa 1970.
Amoco
–
An abandoned Amoco station.
25.
New York, New York
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
New York, New York
–
Clockwise, from top:
Midtown Manhattan,
Times Square, the
Unisphere in
Queens, the
Brooklyn Bridge,
Lower Manhattan with
One World Trade Center,
Central Park, the
headquarters of the United Nations, and the
Statue of Liberty
New York, New York
–
New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual
Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year
England took control and renamed it "New York".
New York, New York
–
The
Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the
American Revolution, took place in
Brooklyn in 1776.
New York, New York
–
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.
26.
Maurice Ewing
–
William Maurice Doc Ewing was an American geophysicist and oceanographer. He was born in Lockney, Texas, where he was the eldest child of a farm family. He won a scholarship to attend Rice University, earning a B. A. with honors in 1926 and he completed his graduate studies at the same institution, earning an M. A. in 1927 and being awarded his Ph. D. in 1931. In 1928 he was married to Avarilla Hildenbrand, and the couple had a son and he moved to Columbia University, becoming a professor of geology in 1947. In 1959 he was named the Higgins Professor of Geology at Columbia, the former LDEO research vessel R/V Maurice Ewing was named in his honor. He divorced a second time, and married his third wife Harriet Greene Bassett in 1965, in 1972 he joined the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, and was named the head of the Division of Earth and Planetary Sciences of the Marine Biomedical Institute. During his career he published over 340 scientific papers and he served as president of the American Geophysical Union and the Seismological Society of America. He led over 50 oceanic expeditions and he made many contributions to oceanography, including the discovery of the SOFAR Channel, the invention of the sofar bomb, and did much fundamental work on plate tectonics. He was the chief scientist on board the Glomar Challenger and he originated Project Mogul, an early program to detect Soviet nuclear weapons tests. Penrose Medal,1974 Walter H. Bucher Medal,1974 William Bowie Medal,1957 Arthur L. Day Medal,1949 John J, the Maurice Ewing Medals of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists and American Geophysical Union were named after him. The lunar wrinkle ridge Dorsa Ewing was named after him, list of geophysicists Research Vessel Maurice Ewing Photo Excellent Video Lecture Explaining SOFAR Spheres National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
Maurice Ewing
–
Maurice Ewing in 1948. Photo courtesy
Columbia University
27.
Columbia University
–
Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
Columbia University
–
The Library at Columbia University, ca. 1900
Columbia University
–
Columbia University
Columbia University
–
Low Memorial Library
Columbia University
–
Alma Mater
28.
Technical drawing
–
Technical drawing, drafting or drawing, is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually communicate how something functions or is constructed. Technical drawing is essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering, to make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. Together, such conventions constitute a language and help to ensure that the drawing is unambiguous. Many of the symbols and principles of drawing are codified in an international standard called ISO128. The need for communication in the preparation of a functional document distinguishes technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the visual arts. Artistic drawings are subjectively interpreted, their meanings are multiply determined, Technical drawings are understood to have one intended meaning. A drafter, draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person who makes a drawing, a professional drafter who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting technician. Professional drafting is a desirable and necessary function in the design and manufacture of mechanical components. Professional draftspersons bridge the gap between engineers and manufacturers and contribute experience and technical expertise to the design process, the basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drawing board. A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, parallel lines can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen along the T-squares edge. The T-square is used to other devices such as set squares or triangles. Modern drafting tables come equipped with a machine that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel, in addition, the drafter uses several technical drawing tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, a spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves. Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task and this basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles and these machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well
Technical drawing
–
Drafter at work.
Technical drawing
–
Copying technical drawings in 1973
Technical drawing
–
Sketch for a government building.
Technical drawing
–
A drafting table.
29.
Military aircraft
–
A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat, Combat aircraft are designed to destroy enemy equipment using their own aircraft ordnance, Combat aircraft are normally developed and procured only by military forces. Non-combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function and these mainly operate in support roles, and may be developed by either military forces or civilian organizations. In 1783, when the first practical aircraft were established, they were adopted for military duties. The main role of fighters is destroying enemy aircraft in air-to-air combat, many are fast and highly maneuverable. Escorting bombers or other aircraft is also a common task and they are capable of carrying a variety of weapons, including machine guns, cannons, rockets and guided missiles. Many modern fighters can attack enemy fighters from a great distance, examples of air superiority fighters include the F-22 Raptor. World War II fighters include the British Spitfire, the American P-51 Mustang, an example of an interceptor would be the MiG-25. An example of a fighter is the Messerschmitt Bf 110. The term fighter is also applied to aircraft that have little air-to-air combat capability – for example the A-10 ground-attack aircraft is operated by USAF Fighter squadrons. Bombers are normally larger, heavier, and less maneuverable than fighter aircraft and they are capable of carrying large payloads of bombs, torpedoes or cruise missiles. Bombers are used almost exclusively for ground attacks and not fast or agile enough to take on enemy fighters head-to-head, a few have a single engine and require one pilot to operate and others have two or more engines and require crews of two or more. A limited number of bombers, such as the B-2 Spirit, have stealth capabilities that keep them from being detected by enemy radar, an example of a conventional modern bomber would be the B-52 Stratofortress. An example of a World War II bomber would be a B-17 Flying Fortress, bombers include light bombers, medium bombers, heavy bombers, dive bombers, and torpedo bombers. The U. S. Navy and Marines have traditionally referred to their light, attack aircraft can be used to provide support for friendly ground troops. Some are able to carry conventional or nuclear weapons far behind enemy lines to strike priority ground targets, attack helicopters attack enemy armor and provide close air support for ground troops. An example historical ground-attack aircraft is the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik, several types of transport airplanes have been armed with sideways firing weapons as gunships for ground attack. These include the AC-47 and AC-130 aircraft, in modern air forces the distinction between bombers, fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurred
Military aircraft
–
United States Navy
Grumman F-14 Tomcat fighter aircraft fly in formation as they wait their turn for refueling during
Operation Desert Storm in 1991
Military aircraft
–
A German
MiG-29 firing an air-to-air missile.
Military aircraft
–
A
USAAF B-29 Superfortress.
Military aircraft
–
An
A-10 Thunderbolt II firing an
AGM-65.
30.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
31.
Topography
–
Topography is the study of the shape and features of the surface of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. The topography of an area could refer to the shapes and features themselves. This field of geoscience and planetary science is concerned with detail in general, including not only relief but also natural and artificial features. This meaning is common in the United States, where topographic maps with elevation contours have made topography synonymous with relief. The older sense of topography as the study of place still has currency in Europe, topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms. This is also known as geomorphometry, in modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form. It is often considered to include the representation of the landform on a map by a variety of techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric tints. The term topography originated in ancient Greece and continued in ancient Rome, the word comes from the Greek τόπος and -γραφία. In classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places, in Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense. Detailed military surveys in Britain were called Ordnance Surveys, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys, the earliest scientific surveys in France were called the Cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations. The term topographic surveys appears to be American in origin, the earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the “Topographical Bureau of the Army, ” formed during the War of 1812, which became the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1838. In the 20th century, the term started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where mapping in a broader sense is used. An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude, identifying features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field. There are a variety of approaches to studying topography, which method to use depend on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys. Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, in areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program, the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as USGS DEM data. This data must often be cleaned to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it forms a valuable set of information for large-scale analysis. The original American topographic surveys involved not only recording of relief, remote sensing is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area. Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features, certainly they have become more and more a part of geovisualization, whether maps or GIS systems
Topography
–
A surveying point in
Germany
Topography
–
A topographic map with
contour intervals
32.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
–
Established in 1930 in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, it is the largest independent oceanographic research institution in the U. S. with staff and students numbering about 1,000. Its shore-based facilities are located in the village of Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States and a mile, the bulk of the Institutions funding comes from grants and contracts from the National Science Foundation and other government agencies, augmented by foundations and private donations. WHOI scientists, engineers, and students collaborate to develop theories, test ideas, build seagoing instruments, ships operated by WHOI carry research scientists throughout the world’s oceans. A new ship, Neil Armstrong was delivered to the Navy on September 23,2015, the RV Neil Armstrong will also replace the R/V Knorr, which had previously been used by WHOI since 1970 and was transferred to the Mexican Navy in March 2016. WHOI offers graduate and post-graduate studies in marine science, there are several fellowship and trainee-ship programs, and graduate degrees are awarded through a joint program with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology or by the Institution itself. WHOI also offers outreach programs and informal public education through its Exhibit Center and summer tours. The Institution has a program and a membership program, WHOI Associate. In 1927, a National Academy of Sciences committee concluded that it was time to consider the share of the United States of America in a program of oceanographic research. WHOI grew substantially to support significant defense-related research during World War II, and later began a growth in staff, research fleet. Over the years, WHOI scientists have made discoveries about the ocean that have contributed to improving US commerce, health, national security. In 1977 the institute appointed the influential oceanographer John Steele as director, in February 2008, Dr. Susan K. Avery became the new president and director of the institution, avery, an atmospheric physicist, is the ninth director in WHOIs 77-year history, and the first woman to hold the position. The B H Ketchum award, established in 1983, is presented for innovative research and is named in honor of oceanographer Bostwick H. Buck Ketchum. The first recipient was Edward D. Goldberg in 1984, the Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal in Oceanography was established in 1960 in honor of the first Director, biologist Henry Bryant Bigelow. 1974 Henry M. Stommel 1970 Frederick J. Vine – In recognition of his “imaginative, all are owned by the Institution itself
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
–
R/V Atlantis, the first
research vessel operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
–
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution logo.
33.
R/V Atlantis (AGOR-25)
–
R/V Atlantis is an oceanographic research vessel operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution as part of the University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System fleet. She is the host vessel of DSV Alvin and she is named for the first research vessel operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, R/V Atlantis for which the Space Shuttle Atlantis is also named. Atlantis was built by Halter Marine Inc and she was laid down in August 1994 and launched in February 1996. She was delivered to the U. S. Navy on 25 February 1998, winches Traction -30,000.68 EM or 9/16 wire Hydro -33,000 3-cond. The three sister ships are R/V Thomas G. Thompson, R/V Roger Revelle and NOAAS Ronald H. Brown, navSource Online, Service Ship Photo Archive - T-AGOR-25 Atlantis R/V Atlantis Specifications Where are the Ships Now
R/V Atlantis (AGOR-25)
–
History
34.
Seismography
–
Seismometers are instruments that measure motion of the ground, including those of seismic waves generated by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other seismic sources. Records of seismic waves allow seismologists to map the interior of the Earth, the seismometer was invented by the Chinese polymath Zhang Heng in AD132 during the Han dynasty. The first Western description of a comes from the French physicist and priest Jean de Hautefeuille in 1703. The modern seismometer was developed in the 19th century by John Milne, James Alfred Ewing, seismograph is another Greek term from seismós and γράφω, gráphō, to draw. The concerning technical discipline is called seismometry, a branch of seismology, a simple seismometer that is sensitive to up-down motions of the earth can be understood by visualizing a weight hanging on a spring. The spring and weight are suspended from a frame that moves along with the earthʼs surface, as the earth moves, the relative motion between the weight and the earth provides a measure of the vertical ground motion. Any movement of the moves the frame. The mass tends not to move because of its inertia, early seismometers used optical levers or mechanical linkages to amplify the small motions involved, recording on soot-covered paper or photographic paper. In some systems, the mass is held nearly motionless relative to the frame by a negative feedback loop. The motion of the relative to the frame is measured. The voltage needed to produce this force is the output of the seismometer, in other systems the weight is allowed to move, and its motion produces a voltage in a coil attached to the mass and moving through the magnetic field of a magnet attached to the frame. This design is used in the geophones used in seismic surveys for oil. Professional seismic observatories usually have instruments measuring three axes, north-south, east-west, and the vertical, if only one axis is measured, this is usually the vertical because it is less noisy and gives better records of some seismic waves. The foundation of a station is critical. A professional station is mounted on bedrock. The best mountings may be in deep boreholes, which avoid thermal effects, ground noise and tilting from weather, other instruments are often mounted in insulated enclosures on small buried piers of unreinforced concrete. Reinforcing rods and aggregates would distort the pier as the temperature changes, a site is always surveyed for ground noise with a temporary installation before pouring the pier and laying conduit. Originally, European seismographs were placed in an area after a destructive earthquake
Seismography
–
Replica of
Zhang Heng 's seismoscope Houfeng Didong Yi
Seismography
–
Milne horizontal pendulum seismometer. One of the
Important Cultural Properties of Japan. Exhibit in the
National Museum of Nature and Science,
Tokyo,
Japan.
Seismography
–
CMG-40T triaxial broadband seismometer
Seismography
–
A low-frequency 3-direction
ocean-bottom seismometer (cover removed). Two masses for x- and y-direction can be seen, the third one for z-direction is below. This model is a CMG-40TOBS, manufactured by Güralp Systems Ltd and is part of the Monterey Accelerated Research System.
35.
Earthquake
–
An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earths lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to people around. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type, Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe and these two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause damage over larger areas. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the damage to structures it causes. At the Earths surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground, when the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity, in its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts. An earthquakes point of rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter, tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior, once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the portion of the fault. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface and this process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of a total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction
Earthquake
–
Global plate tectonic movement
Earthquake
–
Global earthquake
epicenters, 1963–1998
Earthquake
–
Aerial photo of the San Andreas Fault in the
Carrizo Plain, northwest of Los Angeles
Earthquake
–
Collapsed Gran Hotel building in the
San Salvador metropolis, after the shallow
1986 San Salvador earthquake during mid civil war El Salvador.
36.
Landscape art
–
In other works, landscape backgrounds for figures can still form an important part of the work. Sky is almost always included in the view, and weather is often an element of the composition, detailed landscapes as a distinct subject are not found in all artistic traditions, and develop when there is already a sophisticated tradition of representing other subjects. The two main traditions spring from Western painting and Chinese art, going well over a thousand years in both cases. Landscape views in art may be imaginary, or copied from reality with varying degrees of accuracy. If the primary purpose of a picture is to depict an actual, specific place, especially including buildings prominently, within a few decades it was used to describe vistas in poetry, and eventually as a term for real views. However the cognate term landscaef or landskipe for a patch of land had existed in Old English. The earliest pure landscapes with no figures are frescos from Minoan Greece of around 1500 BCE. The frescos from the Tomb of Nebamun, now in the British Museum, are a famous example. These were frequently used, as in the illustrated, to bridge the gap between a foreground scene with figures and a distant panoramic vista, a persistent problem for landscape artists. The Chinese style generally showed only a distant view, or used dead ground or mist to avoid that difficulty, aesthetic theories in both regions gave the highest status to the works seen to require the most imagination from the artist. They were often also poets whose lines and images illustrated each other, a revival in interest in nature initially mainly manifested itself in depictions of small gardens such as the Hortus Conclusus or those in millefleur tapestries. The frescos of figures at work or play in front of a background of trees in the Palace of the Popes. Several frescos of gardens have survived from Roman houses like the Villa of Livia, a particular advance is shown in the less well-known Turin-Milan Hours, now largely destroyed by fire, whose developments were reflected in Early Netherlandish painting for the rest of the century. Landscape backgrounds for various types of painting became prominent and skilful during the 15th century. The Italian development of a system of graphical perspective was now known all over Europe. Indeed, certain styles were so popular that they became formulas that could be copied again and again, after the publication of the Small Landscapes, landscape artists in the Low Countries either continued with the world landscape or followed the new mode presented by the Small Landscapes. The popularity of landscape scenes can be seen in the success of the painter Frans Post. Salvator Rosa gave picturesque excitement to his landscapes by showing wilder Southern Italian country, there are different styles and periods, and subgenres of marine and animal painting, as well as a distinct style of Italianate landscape
Landscape art
–
Joachim Patinir (1480–1524),
Landscape with Charon Crossing the Styx, 1515–1524. Patinir pioneered the "
world landscape " style.
Landscape art
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Themistokles von Eckenbrecher (German, 1842–1921), View of Laerdalsoren, on the
Sognefjord, 1901
Landscape art
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Hasegawa Tōhaku, Pine Trees, one of a pair of
folding screens, Japan, 1593. 156.8 × 356 cm (61.73 × 140.16 in)
Landscape art
–
Landscape with scene from the
Odyssey, Rome, c. 60–40 BCE
37.
Heinrich C. Berann
–
Berann, the father of the modern panorama map, was born into a family of painters and sculptors in Innsbruck, Austria. He taught himself by trial and error, in the years 1930-1933 he attended the arts and design school Bundeslehranstalt für Malerei in Innsbruck. Winning of first prize at a competition for a map created great enthusiasm in him. Using his artistic heritage and new self-discovered techniques he invented a new way of painting landscapes for tourist purposes and he married Ludmilla Herold in 1941 and they had two daughters, Elisabeth and Angela. In 1962 he painted Mount Everest for the National Geographic Society and he worked with Marie Tharp and Bruce C. Heezen to produce maps of the ocean floor in 1977. He later created four panoramas for the United States National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, North Cascades National Park, Yosemite National Park and he was very sick when he painted Denali - but he finished it in the age of 81. In 2000, Tom Patterson of the National Park Service explored ways of digitally creating panoramas like Berann did for the Park Service
Heinrich C. Berann
–
Painting of Yellowstone as seen from the north.
Heinrich C. Berann
–
Painting of Yosemite
38.
Expanding Earth theory
–
The expanding Earth or growing Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing. Conversely, geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting, although it was suggested historically, since the recognition of plate tectonics in the 1970s, scientific consensus has rejected any significant expansion or contraction of Earth. There are 3 forms of the expanding earth hypothesis, Earths mass has remained constant, and thus the gravitational pull at the surface has decreased over time. Earths mass has grown with the volume in such a way that the surface gravity has remained constant, Earths gravity at its surface has increased over time, in line with its hypothesized growing mass and volume. In 1835 he extended this concept to include the Andes as part of an enlargement of the earths crust due to the action of one connected force. Not long afterwards, he moved on from this idea and proposed that as mountains rose, in 1889 and 1909 Roberto Mantovani published a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental drift. He assumed that a closed continent covered the surface of a smaller Earth. Thermal expansion led to volcanic activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents and these continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion at the rip-zones, where oceans currently lie. Although Alfred Wegener noticed some similarities to his own hypothesis of continental drift, a compromise between Earth-expansion and Earth-contraction is the theory of thermal cycles by Irish physicist John Joly. He assumed that heat flow from radioactive decay inside Earth surpasses the cooling of Earths exterior, together with British geologist Arthur Holmes, Joly proposed a hypothesis in which Earth loses its heat by cyclic periods of expansion. In their hypothesis, expansion led to cracks and joints in Earths interior and this was followed by a cooling phase, where the magma would freeze and become solid rock again, causing Earth to shrink. In 1888 Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky suggested that some sort of aether is absorbed within Earth and transformed into new chemical elements and this was connected with his mechanical explanation of gravitation. Also the theses of Ott Christoph Hilgenberg and Nikola Tesla were based on absorption and transformation of aether-energy into normal matter, the remaining proponents after the 1970s, like the Australian geologist James Maxlow, are mainly inspired by Careys ideas. In the last few decades, no mechanism of action has been proposed for this addition of new mass. This is a big obstacle for acceptance of the theory by other geologists and it is a well known fact that the earth is constantly acquiring mass through accumulation of rocks and dust from space, as are all other planetary bodies in our system. According to NASA, Every day about 100 tons of meteoroids -- fragments of dust and gravel, the majority of this debris burns up in the atmosphere and lands as dust. Such accretion, however, is only a fraction of the mass increase required by the expanding Earth hypothesis. Paul Dirac suggested in 1938 that the gravitational constant had decreased in the billions of years of its existence
Expanding Earth theory
–
Movements of the continents as the Earth expands. Left: Atlantic Ocean centered; right: Pacific Ocean centered.
39.
South Nyack, New York
–
South Nyack is a village incorporated in 1878 in the town of Orangetown in Rockland County, New York, in the United States. It is located north of Grand View-on-Hudson, northeast of Orangeburg, east of Blauvelt State Park, south of Nyack, the village is the western terminus of the Tappan Zee Bridge. Its population was 3,510 at the 2010 census, following the extension of the Northern Branch of The New Jersey Railroad into the area in the mid-19th century, rapid growth ensued. Town government no longer being seen as a means of dealing with the areas needs. Fearing higher taxes, those in what would have become the part of Nyack village formed their own municipal corporation first. Nyack village still incorporated, although without this northern portion, residents in the southern part of Nyack village, however, soon became dissatisfied with the notion of paying taxes that more heavily benefitted the rest of the village. After succeeding in dissolving Nyacks corporation, the portion of the former village incorporated as the village of South Nyack. The area between Upper Nyack and South Nyack was reincorporated thereafter, again as Nyack. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 1.7 square miles, of which 0.6 square miles is land and 1.1 square miles. South Nyack is located adjacent to the Hudson River, the New York State Thruway passes through the village after passing over the Tappan Zee Bridge. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,473 people,1,201 households, the population density was 5,665.0 people per square mile. There were 1,258 housing units at a density of 2,052.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 71. 32% White,16. 04% African American,0. 20% Native American,5. 79% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,2. 39% from other races, and 4. 23% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 91% of the population,31. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the family size was 3.10. In the village, the population was out with 18. 3% under the age of 18,20. 5% from 18 to 24,29. 7% from 25 to 44,20. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 94.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.3 males, the median income for a household in the village was $53,000, and the median income for a family was $62,262
South Nyack, New York
–
The
Tappan Zee Bridge connects South Nyack in
Rockland County and
Tarrytown in
Westchester County across the
Hudson River in
New York State.
South Nyack, New York
–
Location in
Rockland County and the state of
New York.
South Nyack, New York
–
Carson McCullers House
South Nyack, New York
–
Ross Hand Mansion
40.
JSTOR
–
JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
JSTOR
–
The JSTOR front page
41.
New York Times
–
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
New York Times
–
Cover of The New York Times (November 15, 2012), with the headline story reporting on
Operation Pillar of Defense.
New York Times
–
The Times Square Building, The New York Times ' publishing headquarters, 1913–2007
New York Times
–
The New York Times newsroom, 1942
New York Times
–
A speech in the newsroom after announcement of
Pulitzer Prize winners, 2009
42.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
43.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Virtual International Authority File
–
Screenshot 2012
44.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
–
GND screenshot
