1.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
2.
Maronite Patriarch of Antioch
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This is a list of the Maronite Patriarchs of Antioch and all the East, the primate of the Maronite Church, one of the Eastern Catholic Churches. After becoming patriarch of the Maronite Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch, they assume the name Peter, after the first Bishop of Antioch, St. Peter, the official title that the Maronite Patriarch assumes is Patriarch of Antioch and All the East. For the Patriarchs of Antioch before John Maron, see List of Patriarchs of Antioch, besides the Assemanis list, an other list more detailed was written in Bejjeh in 1766 by Georges Saad. In the list here below the names shifted on the right are not included in the incomplete Assemanis list and derive from the Bejjehs list. org By His Excellency Bishop Antoine Charbel Tarabay, boulous Sfeir, Dr. Youssef Kamal El Haje and George Arab
3.
Lebanon
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Lebanon, officially known as the Lebanese Republic, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, Lebanons location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity. At just 10,452 km2, it is the smallest recognized country on the entire mainland Asian continent, the earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdoms, a culture that flourished for over a thousand years. In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, in the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion, however, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church, the ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era. The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918, following the collapse of the empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon. The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was populated by Maronites and Druze. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing confessionalism, a unique, foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946. Lebanon has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie since 1973, despite its small size, the country has developed a well-known culture and has been highly influential in the Arab world. Before the Lebanese Civil War, the experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, commerce. At the end of the war, there were efforts to revive the economy. In spite of troubles, Lebanon has the highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the Arab world. The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn meaning white, occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L, the name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן. The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician city-states. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umyayad, Abbasid Seljuk, with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943
4.
Syriac Christianity
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With a history going back to the 1st century AD, Syriac Christianity is, in modern times, represented by denominations primarily in the Middle East, Asia Minor and in Kerala, India. Christianity began in the Middle East in Jerusalem among Jewish Aramaic-speaking Semitic peoples of Judah and it quickly spread, initially to other Semitic peoples, in Parthian-ruled Assyria and Mesopotamia, Roman-ruled Syria, Phoenicia, southern and eastern Asia Minor, and northwestern Persia and Malta. Adherents sometimes identify as Syriacs or Syrians, Syriac Christian heritage is transmitted through various Neo Aramaic dialects of old Aramaic. Unlike the Greek Christian culture, Assyrian Christian culture borrowed much from early Rabbinic Judaism, Antioch was the political capital of this culture, and was the seat of the Patriarchs of the church. However, Antioch was heavily Hellenized, and the Assyrian cities of Edessa, Nisibis and this split owed just as much to the politics of the day as it did to theological orthodoxy. Ctesiphon, which was at the also the Sassanid capital. After the Council of Chalcedon in 451, many Syriac Christians within the Roman Empire rebelled against its decisions, the Patriarchate of Antioch was then divided between a Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian communion. The Chalcedonians were often labelled Melkites, while their opponents were labelled as Monophysites and Jacobites, the Maronite Church found itself caught between the two, but claims to have always remained faithful to the Catholic Church and in communion with the bishop of Rome, the Pope. The church has persisted as an entity under Islamic rule. The community was one of those granted autonomy in governing itself in religious, in the 19th century many left for other parts of Christendom, creating a substantial diaspora. Over time, some groups within each of these branches have entered into communion with the Church of Rome, when they lost Assyria itself to the Parthian Empire, they retained the name Syria but only applied it to what had been Aramea, which they still retained. The Neo-Assyrian kingdom of Osroene was the first Christian kingdom in history, in 431 A. D. the Council of Ephesus declared Nestorianism to be a heresy. The Nestorian priests, who were persecuted in the Byzantine Empire, sought refuge in Mesopotamia where the Church of the East was dominant, there was a synthesis between the Assyrian Church and Nestorian doctrine. From there they spread Christianity to Persia, India, China and this was the beginning of the Nestorian Church, the eastern branch of Syrian Christianity. The western branch, the Jacobite Church, appeared after the Council of Chalcedon condemned Monophysitism in 451 A. D and these people are in fact ethnic Assyrians originating from the Assyrian homeland in northern Iraq. The older Assyrian designation has almost completely replaced the word Nestorian, however, the word Nestorian continues to be used in some Western academic literature. The word Syrian has become ambiguous in English since it can refer now to a citizen of Syria regardless of ethnicity, in Arabic, however, the word for a citizen of Syria has a different form from the traditional word for an ethnic Assyrian/Syrian. The Maronites in Lebanon are divided between those who claim Lebanese-Phoenician national identity and those who claim Arab national identity, the Maronite Church, a West Syrian Rite Eastern Catholic Church
5.
Episcopal polity
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An episcopal polity is a hierarchical form of church governance in which the chief local authorities are called bishops. Churches with an episcopal polity are governed by bishops, practicing their authorities in the dioceses and conferences or synods, bishops are considered to derive their authority from an unbroken, personal apostolic succession from the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. Bishops with such authority are said to represent the historical episcopate or historic episcopate, Churches with this type of government usually believe that the Church requires episcopal government as described in the New Testament. In some systems, bishops may be subject to higher-ranking bishops and they also meet in councils or synods. These gatherings, subject to presidency by higher ranking bishops, usually make important decisions, for much of the written history of institutional Christianity, episcopal government was the only known form of church organization. The definition of the word episcopal has variation among Christian traditions, there are subtle differences in governmental principles among episcopal churches at the present time. To some extent the separation of episcopal churches can be traced to these differences in ecclesiology, for some, episcopal churches are churches that use a hierarchy of bishops that regard themselves as being in an unbroken, personal apostolic succession. Episcopal is also used to distinguish between the various organizational structures of denominations. For instance, the word presbyterian is used to describe a church governed by a hierarchy of assemblies of elected elders, similarly, episcopal is used to describe a church governed by bishops. Self-governed local congregations, governed neither by elders nor bishops, are referred to as Congregational. More specifically, the title Episcopal is applied to several churches historically based within Anglicanism including those still in communion with the Church of England, many Methodist churches retain the form and function of episcopal polity, although in a modified form, called connexionalism. All orthodox Christians were in churches with a government, that is, one Church under local bishops. Writing between ca.85 and 110, St. Ignatius of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch, was the earliest of the Church fathers to define the importance of episcopal government. Assuming Ignatius view was the Apostolic teaching and practice, the line of succession was unbroken and passed through the four ancient Patriarchal sees, Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, some organizations, though aloof from the political wranglings of imperial Christianity, nevertheless also practiced episcopal polity. The single Roman Empire was divided between two autonomous administrative centers, Roman and Constantinopolitan, West and East, Latin speaking and Greek speaking. This remained the status quo through the fourth century, a deep chasm developed between the East and West, becoming critical around 350, known as the Aryan, or Nicene controversy. The Eastern Christian Churches were thought by Constantine to believe against the Trinity, Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers, France, believed that the Eastern Church should be given the opportunity to, at least, be educated on the subject. Constantine, in his wisdom, and upset by disagreement, banished Hilary to the East and this truth became known in the West, though some differences lingered
6.
Pope
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The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
7.
Pope Francis
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Pope Francis is the 266th and current Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, a title he holds ex officio as Bishop of Rome, and sovereign of Vatican City. He chose Francis as his name in honor of Saint Francis of Assisi. Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Bergoglio worked briefly as a chemical technologist and he was ordained a Catholic priest in 1969, and from 1973 to 1979 was Argentinas provincial superior of the Society of Jesus. He became the Archbishop of Buenos Aires in 1998 and was created a cardinal in 2001 by Pope John Paul II and he led the Argentine Church during the December 2001 riots in Argentina, and the administrations of Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner considered him a political rival. Following the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, throughout his public life, Pope Francis has been noted for his humility, emphasis on Gods mercy, concern for the poor, populist causes and commitment to interfaith dialogue. He maintains that the church should be open and welcoming. He does not support unbridled capitalism, Marxism, or Marxist versions of liberation theology, Francis maintains the traditional views of the church regarding abortion, euthanasia, contraception, homosexuality, ordination of women, and priestly celibacy. He opposes consumerism, irresponsible development, and supports taking action on climate change, in international diplomacy, he helped to restore full diplomatic relations between the U. S. and Cuba. Jorge Mario Bergoglio was born on 17 December 1936 in Flores and he was the eldest of five children of Mario José Bergoglio and Regina María Sívori. Mario Bergoglio was an Italian immigrant accountant born in Portacomaro in Italys Piedmont region, Regina Sívori was a housewife born in Buenos Aires to a family of northern Italian origin. Mario Josés family left Italy in 1929, to escape the fascist rule of Benito Mussolini, María Elena Bergoglio, the Popes only living sibling, confirmed that their emigration was not for economic reasons. His other siblings were Alberto Horacio, Oscar Adrián and Marta Regina, two great-nephews, Antonio and Joseph, died in a traffic collision. In the sixth grade, Bergoglio attended Wilfrid Barón de los Santos Ángeles and he attended the technical secondary school Escuela Técnica Industrial N°27 Hipólito Yrigoyen, named after a past President of Argentina, and graduated with a chemical technicians diploma. He worked for a few years in that capacity in the section at Hickethier-Bachmann Laboratory where his boss was Esther Ballestrino. Before joining the Jesuits, Bergoglio worked as a bar bouncer and as a janitor sweeping floors, in the only known health crisis of his youth, at the age of 21 he suffered from life-threatening pneumonia and three cysts. He had part of a lung excised shortly afterwards, Bergoglio has been a lifelong supporter of San Lorenzo de Almagro football club. Bergoglio is also a fan of the films of Tita Merello, neorealism, Bergoglio found his vocation to the priesthood while he was on his way to celebrate the Spring Day. He passed by a church to go to confession, and was inspired by the priest
8.
Primate (bishop)
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Primate is a title or rank bestowed on some archbishops in certain Christian churches. Depending on the tradition, it can denote either jurisdictional authority or ceremonial precedence. The office is found only in older Catholic countries, and is now purely honorific. The Holy See has also granted Polish primates the privilege of wearing cardinals crimson attire, except for the skullcap and biretta, the city may no longer have the prominence it had when the title was granted. Other former functions of primates, such as hearing appeals from metropolitan tribunals, were reserved to the Holy See by the early 20th century, the closest equivalent position in the Eastern Churches in 1911 was an exarch. The Holy See has continued in modern times to grant the title of primate, with the decree Sollicitae Romanis Pontificibus of 24 January 1956 it granted the title of Primate of Canada to the Archbishop of Quebec. As stated above, this is merely an honorary title involving no additional power, a right of precedence over other bishops and similar privileges can be granted even to a bishop who is not a primate. Thus, in 1858, the Holy See granted the Archbishop of Baltimore precedence in meetings of the United States bishops. The title of primate is sometimes applied loosely to the archbishop of a capital, as in the case of the archbishops of Seoul in South Korea. The pre-reformation archbishop of Nidaros was sometimes referred to as Primate of Norway, the loose structure of the Benedictine Confederation is claimed to have made Pope Leo XIII exclaim that the Benedictines were ordo sine ordine. The powers of the Abbot Primate are specified, and his position defined, in a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Bishops, the primacy is attached to the global Benedictine Confederation whose Primate resides at SantAnselmo in Rome. The Primatial powers are vested in the Abbot Primate to act by virtue of the proper law of its autonomous Benedictine congregation. However, certain branches of the Benedictine Order seem to have lost their autonomy to some extent. In a similar way the Confederation of Canons Regular of St. Augustine, elects an Abbot Primate as figurehead of the Confederation and indeed the whole Canonical Order. The Abbots and Superiors General of the nine congregations of confederated congregations of Canons Regular elect a new Abbot Primate for a term of office lasting six years, the Current Abbot General is Rt. Rev. Fr Maurice Bitz, Abbot of St. Pierre, Anglican usage styles the bishop who heads an independent church as its primate, though commonly they hold some other title. In both the Church of England and the Church of Ireland, two bishops have the title of primate, the archbishops of Canterbury and York in England and of Armagh, only the bishop of the senior primatial see of each of these two churches participates in the meetings. The Archbishop of Canterbury, who is considered primus inter pares of all the participants, convokes the meetings, primates and archbishops are styled The Most Reverend
9.
Bechara Boutros al-Rahi
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Rahi also holds the position of a Cardinal of the Catholic Church. Mar Bechara Boutros al-Rahi was born in Himlaya, Matn District and he attended Collège Notre Dame de Jamhour, a Jesuit school in Lebanon. He entered the Mariamite Maronite Order on 31 July 1962 and was ordained as a priest on 3 September 1967, from 1967 to 1975 he was responsible for the Arabic programs of Vatican Radio. In 1975, he received a PhD in canon and civil law and he also studied for three years at Lateran University in Rome. On 9 June 1990, he was elected bishop of Jbeil, in 2003 he was elected Secretary of the Maronite Synod, and in 2009 he was appointed President of the Lebanese Episcopal Commission for the Media. At 71, he was elected patriarch of the Maronites on 15 March 2011, after getting more than two-thirds of the votes of the 39 bishops and replacing Nasrallah Sfeir. The new patriarch formally requested and received communion from Pope Benedict XVI on 24 March 2011 pursuant to Canon 76 §2 of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. The Mass for the inauguration of his Patriarchate took place on 25 March 2011, in Bkerké, the see of the Maronite Catholic Patriarchate. As is customary for all Maronite Patriarchs, Patriarch al-Rahi took the additional name Boutros, that of Saint Peter, on 7 March 2012, Patriarch al-Rahi was appointed a member of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. Patriarch Bechara Boutros al-Rahi was created a Cardinal by Pope Benedict XVI in a consistory on 24 November 2012, Patriarch al-Rahi is the fourth Maronite Patriarch created cardinal, the first three being his three immediate predecessors Paul Peter Meouchi, Anthony Peter Khoraish, and Nasrallah Sfeir. In February 2013, following the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI, Patriarch Rai, being a Cardinal and he participated as a cardinal elector in the conclave that elected Pope Francis. Cardinal Rai was one of four cardinal-electors from outside the Latin Church who wore distinct vestments proper to their respective churches, Cardinal Rais attire during the opening day was distinct from most of the other electors in that he wore all-red vestments with distinct headgear proper to the Maronite Church. Cardinal Rai is also the first Maronite Cardinal Patriarch ever to participate in a papal conclave, Cardinal Patriarch al-Rahi was named a Member of the Congregation for Catholic Education by Pope Francis on Saturday, November 30,2013. On March 18,2015 Cardinal-Patriarch al-Rahi became the sole cardinal-elector from the order of cardinal-bishops when Cardinal Naguib turned 80 and ceased to be a cardinal-elector. In April 2011, Rahi said that, for the sake of communion and love, he would work to establish a sincere and complete dialogue with Muslims and build together a future in common life and cooperation. All of these constitute an extension of the churchs springtime started by the Second Vatican Council, Patriarch Rai does not use the term Arab Spring, but Arab Winter to express his unenthusiastic reaction. March 14 supporters stressed how his predecessor had very different views and was almost fanatically supportive of the Lebanese Forces, Christian supporters of the March 8 alliance welcomed his comments. Prime Minister Najib Mikati also supported his stance saying The Maronite patriarch spoke about a part, no one is against the resistance’s arms as long as Israeli occupation continues
10.
Syria
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Syrias capital and largest city is Damascus. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, Sunni Arabs make up the largest religious group in Syria. Its capital Damascus and largest city Aleppo are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, in the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a number of military coups. In 1958, Syria entered a union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000. Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favours the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, in the past, others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon. However, the discovery of the inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. The area designated by the word has changed over time, since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period is represented by houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic, archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilisation in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Eblas contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is an agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c.2300 BC. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages, Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia, Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet. The Ugarites kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC, Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, the army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam
11.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
12.
Cyprus
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Cyprus, officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean and the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is located south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Israel and Palestine, north of Egypt, the earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia. Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC, Cyprus was placed under British administration based on Cyprus Convention in 1878 and formally annexed by Britain in 1914. While Turkish Cypriots made up 18% of the population, the partition of Cyprus and creation of a Turkish state in the north became a policy of Turkish Cypriot leaders, following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. On 15 July 1974, a coup détat was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of the Greek military junta in an attempt at enosis and these events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute. The Cyprus Republic has de jure sovereignty over the island of Cyprus, as well as its territorial sea and exclusive economic area, another nearly 4% of the islands area is covered by the UN buffer zone. The international community considers the part of the island as territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under law, amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union. Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean, on 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone. The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek
13.
Jordan
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Jordan, officially The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is an Arab kingdom in Western Asia, on the East Bank of the Jordan River. Jordan is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the east and south, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north, Israel, Palestine and the Dead Sea to the west, Jordan is strategically located at the crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe. The capital, Amman, is Jordans most populous city as well as the countrys economic, what is now Jordan has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period. Three stable kingdoms emerged there at the end of the Bronze Age, Ammon, Moab, later rulers include the Nabataean Kingdom, the Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. After the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916 during World War I, the Emirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 by the then Emir Abdullah I and became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan became an independent state known as The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. Jordan captured the West Bank, which it later lost in 1967, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and is one of two Arab states to have signed a peace treaty with Israel. The country is a monarchy, but the king holds wide executive and legislative powers. Jordan is a relatively-small, semi-arid, almost-landlocked country with a population numbering at 9.5 million, Sunni Islam, practiced by around 92% of the population, is the dominant religion in Jordan. It coexists with an indigenous Christian minority, Jordan is considered to be among the safest of Arab countries in the Middle East, and has avoided long-term terrorism and instability. The kingdom is also a refuge to thousands of Iraqi Christians fleeing the Islamic State, while Jordan continues to accept refugees, the recent large influx from Syria placed substantial strain on national resources and infrastructure. Jordan is classified as a country of high human development with a middle income economy. The Jordanian economy, one of the smallest economies in the region, is attractive to foreign investors based upon a skilled workforce, the country is a major tourist destination, and also attracts medical tourism due to its well developed health sector. Nonetheless, a lack of resources, large flow of refugees. Jordan is named after the Jordan River, where Jesus is said to have been baptized, the origin of the rivers name is debated, but the most common explanation is that it derives from the word yarad, found in Hebrew, Aramaic, and other Semitic languages. Others regard the name as having an Indo-Aryan origin, combining the words yor and don, another theory is that it is from the Arabic root word wrd, as in people coming to a major source of water. The name Jordan appears in an ancient Egyptian papyrus called Papyrus Anastasi I, the lands of modern-day Jordan were historically called Transjordan, meaning beyond the Jordan River. The name was Arabized into Al-Urdunn during the Muslim conquest of the Levant, during crusader rule, it was called Oultrejordain
14.
Diaspora
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A diaspora is a scattered population whose origin lies within a smaller geographic locale. Diaspora can also refer to the movement of the population from its original homeland, some diaspora communities maintain strong political ties with their homeland. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return, relationships with communities in the diaspora. The term is derived from the Greek verb διασπείρω, I scatter, I spread about, an example of a diaspora from classical antiquity is the century-long exile of the Messenians under Spartan rule and the Ageanites as described by Thucydides in his history of the Peloponnesian wars. It subsequently came to be used to refer to the movements of the dispersed ethnic population of Israel. The wider application of diaspora evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part, an academic field, diaspora studies, has become established relating to this sense of the word. Some writers have noted that diaspora may result in a loss of nostalgia for a home as people re-root in a series of meaningful displacements. In this sense, individuals may have multiple homes throughout their diaspora, diasporic cultural development often assumes a different course from that of the population in the original place of settlement. Over time, remotely separated communities tend to vary in culture, traditions, language, the last vestiges of cultural affiliation in a diaspora is often found in community resistance to language change and in maintenance of traditional religious practice. In an article published in 1991, William Safran set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities, while Safrans definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora, he recognised the expanding use of the term. Rogers Brubaker also notes that use of the diaspora has been widening. Brubaker has used the WorldCat database to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora. The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, the paradigmatic case was, of course, the Jewish diaspora, some dictionary definitions of diaspora, until recently, did not simply illustrate but defined the word with reference to that case. Brubaker argues that the expansion of the use of the phrase extended it to other, similar cases, such as the Armenian. Brubaker notes that, Albanians, Basques, Hindu Indians, Irish, Japanese, Kashmiri, Koreans, Kurds, Palestinians, furthermore, labour migrants who maintain emotional and social ties with a homeland have also been described as diasporas. In further cases of the use of the term, the reference to the conceptual homeland – to the classical diasporas – has become more attenuated still, to the point of being lost altogether. Brubaker notes that, as of 2005, there were also academic books or articles on the Dixie, white, liberal, gay, queer, professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora. For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland, one of the largest diaspora of modern times is the African Diaspora, which dates back several centuries
15.
Lebanese Arabic
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Due to multilingualism among Lebanese people, it is not uncommon for Lebanese people to mix Lebanese Arabic, French, and English languages into their daily speech. Lebanese Arabic shares many features with modern varieties of Arabic. Lebanese Arabic, like many other spoken Levantine Arabic varieties, has a structure very different from that of Modern Standard Arabic. While Standard Arabic can have only one consonant at the beginning of a syllable, after which a vowel must follow, morphology, simpler, without any mood and case markings. Number, verbal agreement regarding number and gender is required for all subjects, vocabulary, many borrowings from other languages, most prominently Syriac-Aramaic, western-Aramaic Ottoman Turkish, French, and Greek, as well as, less significantly, from English. About 50 percent of the Lebanese grammatical structure is due to Aramaic influences, the following example demonstrates two differences between Standard Arabic and Spoken Lebanese Arabic, Coffee, Literary Arabic, /ˈqahwa/, Lebanese Arabic. The voiceless uvular plosive /q/ corresponds to a stop. As a general rule of thumb, the uvular plosive /q/ is replaced with glottal stop. This debuccalization of /q/ is a feature shared with Syrian Arabic, Egyptian Arabic, the use of /q/ by Druze is particularly prominent in the mountains and less so in urban areas. In urban dialects has replaced /aj/ and sometimes medial /aː/, and has replaced final /i/ making it indistinguishable with tāʾ marbūtah, also, has replaced /aw/, replacing some short /u/s. In singing, the /aj/, /aw/ and medial /aː/ are usually maintained for artistic values, /t/ and /θ/ are both pronounced. The phonemes /p, v/ are not native to Lebanese Arabic and are found in loanwords. They are sometimes realized as and respectively, the velar stop /g/ occurs in native Lebanese Arabic words but is generally restricted to loanwords. It is realized as by some speakers and this table shows the correspondence between general Lebanese Arabic vowel phonemes and their counterpart realizations in Modern Standard Arabic and other Levantine Arabic varieties. Widely used regional varieties include, Beiruti varieties, further distributed according to neighborhoods, northern varieties, further distributed regionally, the most notable ones being Tripoli variety, Zgharta variety, Bsharri variety, Koura variety, Akkar variety. Southern varieties, with notable ones being the Tyre and Bint Jbeil varieties, beqaa varieties, further divided into varieties, the notable ones being Zahlé and Baalbek-Hermel varieties. Mount Lebanon varieties, further divided into regional varieties like the Keserwan variety, Lebanese Arabic is rarely written, except in novels where a dialect is implied or in some types of poetry that do not use classical Arabic at all. Lebanese Arabic is also utilized in many Lebanese songs, theatrical pieces, local television and radio productions, formal publications in Lebanon, such as newspapers, are typically written in Modern Standard Arabic, French, or English
16.
Aramaic language
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Aramaic is a language or group of languages belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the Afroasiatic language family. More specifically, it is part of the Northwest Semitic group, the Aramaic alphabet was widely adopted for other languages and is ancestral to the Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic alphabets. During its approximately 3000 years of history, Aramaic has served variously as a language of administration of empires, therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language, each time and place rather has had its own variation. The Aramaic languages are now considered endangered, Aram is used as a proper name of several people in the Torah including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and now called Syria, is considered the epicenter of Aramaic. The language is often considered to have originated within Assyria. Interestingly, the Christian New Testament, for which the constituent texts are written in Koine Greek. The Hellenized Jewish community of Alexandria instead translated Aramaic to the Syrian tongue, a related language, Mlahsô, has recently become extinct. Mandaeans living in the Khuzestan Province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq and it is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Central Neo-Aramaic consists of Turoyo and the recently extinct Mlahsô, very little remains of Western Aramaic. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic are preserved in liturgical and literary usage. Each dialect of Aramaic has its own pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel and it usually has a back counterpart, and a front counterpart. There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects, there is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound, the open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א alaph or ה he. The close front vowel is the long i and it has a slightly more open counterpart, the long e, as in the final vowel of café. Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced more open
17.
Syriac language
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Syriac /ˈsɪri. æk/, also known as Syriac Aramaic, is a dialect of Middle Aramaic that was once spoken across much of the Fertile Crescent and Eastern Arabia. Indeed, Syriac literature comprises roughly 90% of the extant Aramaic literature, Old Aramaic was adopted by the Neo-Assyrian Empire when they conquered the various Aramean city-kingdoms to its west. The Achaemenid Empire, which rose after the fall of the Assyrian Empire, also adopted Old Aramaic as its official language, during the course of the third and fourth centuries AD, the inhabitants of the region began to embrace Christianity. Along with Latin and Greek, Syriac became one of the three most important Christian languages in the centuries of the Christian Era. Primarily a Christian medium of expression, Syriac had a cultural and literary influence on the development of Arabic. Syriac remains the language of Syriac Christianity to this day. Syriac is a Middle Aramaic language and, as such, a language of the Northwestern branch of the Semitic family and it is written in the Syriac alphabet, a derivation of the Aramaic alphabet. Syriac was the local accent of Aramaic in Edessa, that evolved under the influence of Church of the East and it has been found as far afield as Hadrians Wall in Ancient Britain, with inscriptions written by Assyrian and Aramean soldiers of the Roman Empire. Modern Syriac/Modern Syriac Aramaic is an occasionally used to refer to the modern Eastern Aramaic languages. In this terminology, Modern Syriac is divided into, Modern Western Syriac Aramaic, note however that these are sometimes excluded from the category of Modern Syriac. The modern varieties are, therefore, not discussed in this article, in 132 BC, the kingdom of Osroene was founded in Edessa and Proto-Syriac evolved in that kingdom. Many Syriac-speakers still look to Edessa as the cradle of their language, there are about eighty extant early Syriac inscriptions, dated to the first three centuries AD. All of these examples of the language are non-Christian. As an official language, Syriac was given a relatively coherent form, style, in the 3rd century, churches in Edessa began to use Syriac as the language of worship. There is evidence that the adoption of Syriac, the language of the Assyrian people, was to effect mission, much literary effort was put into the production of an authoritative translation of the Bible into Syriac, the Peshitta. At the same time, Ephrem the Syrian was producing the most treasured collection of poetry, in 489, many Syriac-speaking Christians living in the eastern reaches of the Roman Empire fled to the Sassanid Empire to escape persecution and growing animosity with Greek-speaking Christians. The Christological differences with the Church of the East led to the bitter Nestorian schism in the Syriac-speaking world, as a result, Syriac developed distinctive western and eastern varieties. Syriac literature is by far the most prodigious of the various Aramaic languages and its corpus covers poetry, prose, theology, liturgy, hymnody, history, philosophy, science, medicine and natural history
18.
West Syrian Rite
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It is part of the liturgical family known as the Antiochene Rite, which originated in the ancient Patriarchate of Antioch. This rite has a number of anaphoras - in fact. A regional variant, the Malankara Rite, developed in the Malankara Church of India, the many Greek terms that remain in the Syriac form suggest that this is derived from Greek. The version must have made very early, evidently before the schism occasioned by the Council of Chalcedon. Early sources, such as Peregrinatio Silviae describe the services at Jerusalem as being in Greek, as long as all Western Syria was one communion, the country dioceses followed the rite of the patriarch at Antioch, only changing the language. Modifications adopted at Antioch in Greek were copied in Syriac by those who said their prayers in the national tongue and this point is important because the Syriac Liturgy already contains all the changes brought to Antioch from Jerusalem. It is not the older pure Antiochene Rite, but the later Rite of Jerusalem-Antioch, the Liturgy of St. James, for example, prays first not for the Church of Antioch, but for the holy Sion, the mother of all churches, that is, Jerusalem. The earliest extant Syriac documents come from about the end of the 5th century and they contain valuable information about local forms of the Rite of Antioch-Jerusalem. The Syriac Orthodox Church kept a version of this rite which is obviously a local variant and its scheme and most of its prayers correspond to those of the Greek St. James, but it has amplifications and omissions such as is found in all local forms of early rites. It seems too that the Syriac Church made some modifications after the schism and this is certainly the case at one point, that of the Trisagion. One Syriac writer is James of Edessa, who wrote a letter to a priest Thomas comparing the Syrian Liturgy with that of Egypt and this letter is an exceedingly valuable and really critical discussion of the rite. A number of later Syriac writers followed James of Edessa, on the whole this church produced the first scientific students of liturgy. Benjamin of Edessa, Lazarus bar Sabhetha of Bagdad, Moses bar Kephas of Mosul, in the eighth and ninth centuries a controversy concerning the prayer at the Fraction produced much liturgical literature. The chronicle of a Syriac prelate, Patriarch Michael the Great, discusses the question, the oldest West Syriac liturgy extant is the one ascribed, as in its Greek form, to Saint James, the brother of the Lord. It is in the dialect of Edessa, the pro-anaphoral part of this is the Ordo communis to which the other later Anaphoras are joined. This follows the Greek St. James with these differences, All the vesting prayers and preparation of the offering are considerably expanded, and this part of the Liturgy is most subject to modification, it began as private prayer only. The Monogenes comes later, the litany before the lessons is missing, the Trisagion comes after the lessons from the Old Testament, it contains the addition, who wast crucified for us. This is the most famous characteristic of the Oriental Orthodox iteration of the rite, the litany between the lessons is represented by the phrase Kyrie eleison said thrice
19.
Maron
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Moroun was a 4th-century Syriac Christian monk whose followers, after his death, founded a religious Christian movement that became known as the Maronite Church. The religious community which grew from this movement are the modern Maronites, Saint Maroun is often portrayed in a black monastic habit with a hanging stole, accompanied by a long crosier staffed by a globe surmounted with a cross. His feast day in the Maronite Church is February 9, Maroun, born in the middle of the 4th century in Syria, was a priest who later became a hermit, retiring to a mountain of Taurus in the region of Cyrrhus, near Antioch. His holiness and miracles attracted many followers, and drew attention throughout the empire, john Chrysostom wrote to him around AD405 expressing his great love and respect, and asking Maron to pray for him. Maron and Chrysostom are believed to have studied together in the great Christian learning center at Antioch, Maron embraced a life of quiet solitude in the mountains north-west of Aleppo. He was known for his simplicity and his desire to discover God’s presence in all things. Maron is considered the Father of the spiritual and monastic movement now called the Maronite Church, marons way was deeply monastic with emphasis on the spiritual and ascetic aspects of living. For Maroun, all was connected to God and God was connected to all and he did not separate the physical and spiritual world and actually used the physical world to deepen his faith and spiritual experience with God. He was able to free himself from the world by his passion. He lived his life in the air next to a temple he had transformed to a church. He spent his time in prayer and meditation exposed to the forces of such as sun, rain, hail. Theodoret of Cyrrhus wrote that this was a new type of asceticism that soon enjoyed wide acceptance in Syria and his Religious History, written about 440, mentions fifteen men and three women who followed this practice, many of them trained or guided by Maron. Saint Maroun was a mystic who started this new method that attracted many people in Syria. Accompanying his deeply spiritual and ascetic life, he was a missionary with a passion to spread the message of Christ by preaching it to all he met. He sought not only to cure the ailments that people suffered. This missionary work came to fruition when in the mountains of Syria and this was to be the beginning of the conversion to Christianity in Syria which would then influence and spread to Lebanon. After his death in the year 410, his spirit and teachings lived on through his disciples and his burial place is a debated issue. The followers of Saint Maroun, both monks and laity, for emphasizing the mia-thelite union of Christs will with Gods, were accused by Byzantium of monothelitism, however, Maronite historians argue that they have always remained in full orthodox communion with Rome
20.
John Maron
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John Maron, was a Syriac monk, and the first Maronite Patriarch. He is revered as a saint by the Maronite and Roman Catholic Churches and he died and was buried in Kfarhy near Batroun, in Lebanon, where a shrine is dedicated to him. John was born in Sarum, a town located south of the city of Antioch and he was the son of Agathon and Anohamia. He was called John the Sarumite since his father was governor of Sarum and his paternal grandfather, Prince Alidipas, was the nephew of Carloman, a Frankish Prince, and governed Antioch. John was educated in Antioch and the Monastery of Saint Maron, studying mathematics, sciences, philosophy, theology, philology and he became a monk at the monastery, adding the name Maron to his own. John studied Greek and patrology in Constantinople, returning to Saint Marons, he wrote on such diverse topics as teaching, rhetoric, the sacraments, management of Church property, legislative techniques, and liturgy. He composed the Eucharistic Prayer which still bears his name, as a young priest he engaged himself in ecumenical debates with the Monophysites. The Patriarch of Antioch, Anastasius II was martyred in 609, with the ongoing Byzantine–Sasanian War and general unrest in the area, Constantinople began to appoint a series of titular patriarchs. Maronite sources give the date of John Marons election to Patriarch of Antioch, John received the approval of Pope Sergius I, and became the first Maronite Patriarch. John Maron works are in Syriac, On Faith Questions to the Monophysites List of Catholic saints Maron Lebanon List of Maronite Patriarchs Maronite Church Michael Breydy, band 3, Bautz, Herzberg 1992, ISBN 3-88309-035-2, Sp. Siméon Vailhé, «Origines religieuses des Maronites», Échos dOrient, t, IV, 1900-1901, n°2, p. 96-102, et n°3, p. 154-162. Expose de la foi et autres opuscules,407, Peeters, Louvain 1988 John Maron at Catholic-Forum Official Website of the Maronite Patriarchate
21.
Coat of arms
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A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
22.
Antonin Maronite Order
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The Antonin Maronite Order is a monastic order among the Levantine Catholic Maronite Church, which from the beginning has been specifically a monastic Church. The order was founded on August 15,1700, in the Monastery of Mar Chaya and its name comes from the Arabic Antouniyah, Saint Anthony monks. They are also called Mar Chaaya monks, in reference to the monastery hosting the see of their superior general and it is one of the three Lebanese congregations of Saint Anthony the Great monks alongside the Baladites and Aleppians. Monastery of Mar Sarkis, Ehden Maronite Church This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
23.
Congregation of the Lebanese Maronite Missionaries
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The Congregation of the Maronite Lebanese Missionaries was founded at the monastery of Kreim - Ghosta in 1865 by Father Youhanna Habib, Emeritus Archbishop of Nazareth later. An earlier community was founded there in 1840 but died out, the Congregation, as a Clerical Religious Congregation of patriarchal jurisdiction, enjoys special consideration from the Patriarch and Bishops. The official title of the Congregations leader is Superior General of The Congregation of the Maronite Lebanese Missionaries, as of 2013 the Superior General is the Very Reverend Father Malek Abou-Tanous, MLM, and he oversees 4 bishops,96 priests,20 seminarians, and 2 novices. Then the priests went all over Lebanon preaching and hearing confessions. so, the Congregation of the Maronite Lebanese Missionaries is a community working to announce the gospel anywhere, in the east or the west, without hesitation or delay. The Virgin Mary, Mother of Divine Grace 2, St. John, Apostle & Evangelist, Our Patron Saint Christ, dying on the cross, entrusted his virgin mother to St. John. He was the son of Zebedee and thought to be a cousin of Jesus, John worked as a fisherman with his brother James, his father Zebedee and his partner Simon working on the shores of the sea of Galilee. John and his brother were followers of John the Baptist and then Jesus, John the Baptist referred to Jesus with the words Behold the Lamb of God. John left his life as a fisherman to follow Jesus and he followed Jesus as one of his disciples until Jesus was crucified. In the interval between the Resurrection and the Ascension John returned to his home at the Sea of Galilee with Peter, when Christ appeared on the shore John was the first to recognize him. John then went to work in Jerusalem and at Ephesus preaching the ministry of Jesus and was responsible for the conversion of many people and he lived to an old age and died of natural causes in AD99 of natural causes. Saint John the Evangelist is represented in Christian Art with a Sacramental cup with a winged serpent issuing from it, the Congregation of the Maronite Lebanese Missionaries exists today in Lebanon and around the world where the Maronites are present. Current mission locations include, Monastery of the Holy Savior in Kreim - Ghosta, Monastery of Our Lady of Deliverance, Mayrouba. Monastery of St. John the Beloved, Jounieh, shrine of Our Lady of Lebanon, administration and pastoral service since 1908. Apostles College in Jounieh - School from Elementary to High School grades, Maronite Orphanage and Cadmus College in Tyre - School from elementary to high school grades. Major Seminary of St. John The Beloved, in addition, there is an orphanage and school under construction in Edde, Batroun. There is a press used for the liturgical and religious publications among them those of the Patriarch. Amongst these is the publication of Al Manarat, which is a magazine discussing religious topics in depth, there is an associated radio station called The Voice of Charity which began broadcasting in 1984. There is a TV channel TV Charity founded in 2009 the channel based in Keserwan that serves as an apostolate of the Lebanese Maronite Missionaries, main show topics include theology, bioethics, education, social issues, daily Church news and intercultural exchange
24.
Lebanese Maronite Order
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The Lebanese Maronite Order, is a monastic order among the Levant-based, Catholic Maronite Church, which from the beginning has been specifically a monastic Church. The order was founded in 1694 in the Monastery of Mart Moura, Ehden, Lebanon and its name Baladites comes from the Arabic baladiyah, country monks. It is one of the three Lebanese congregations founded by Saint Anthony the Great, the second order is the Aleppians, monks of Aleppo, a city in present Syria, the antonym of baladiyah. This order resulted from a split with the Baladites, pope Clement XIV sanctioned this separation in 1770. The third Lebanese monastic order is that of Saint Isaiah, known as the Lebanese Antonin Order founded on August 15,1700, by the Patriarch Gabriel Al Blouzani from Blaouza. The monks and nuns of the Order use the initials of O. L. M. from the French version of the name
25.
Mariamite Maronite Order
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The Mariamite Maronite Order, is a monastic order in the Levantine Catholic Maronite Church, which from the beginning has been specifically a monastic Church. The order was founded in 1694 in the Monastery of Mart Moura, Ehden, Lebanon and its name comes from the Arabic Halabiyyah, city of Aleppo monks. It is one of the three Lebanese congregations founded by Saint Anthony the Great, the name is in reference to the origin of the founders and first members of the order. On April 9,1969, the name of the order was changed to the Mariamite Maronite Order, Ordo Maronita Mariamita and in its full Latin form, the second order is the Baladites, country monks, the antonym of Halabiyyah. This order resulted from a split with the Aleppians, pope Clement XIV sanctioned this separation in 1770. The third Lebanese monastic order is the Antonin Maronite Order founded on August 15,1700, Monastery of Qozhaya This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. article name needed
26.
Maronites in Israel
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Maronites in Israel belong to the Maronite Catholic Church, which has historically been tied with Lebanon. They derive their name from the Syriac Saint Maron, whose followers moved to Mount Lebanon from northern Syria, establishing the Maronite Church, the Maronite community in Israel numbers about 6,700, most of whom live in Galilee, close to the Lebanese border. The Maronites in Israel encompass the existing community in Jish area and the families of former South Lebanon Army militia members. The Maronite-majority town of Jish has recently initiated official teaching of language in a local school. The Maronite community in upper Galilee spans from the 18th century, being concentrated in the villages of Iqrit, Kafr Birim and Jish. Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Maronite villages of Iqrit and Kafr Birim were ordered to evacuate by the IDF, the Maronites have formed the biggest group of Jishs population to this day. The Maronite population of Israel has significantly increased, following the May 2000 withdrawal of IDF from southern Lebanon, several thousands of former SLA militia members and their families, mostly Lebanese Maronites, fled from South Lebanon to the Galilee during April–May 2000. The Maronite Church has been in communion with the Roman Catholic Church since 1182. As a Uniate church, it has its own liturgy, which follows the Antiochene rite in classical Syriac. The Maronite Patriarchal Vicariate in Jerusalem dates from 1895, in a study on Maronites identity in Israel, performed in Haifa University, it was found that the large majority of this community reject Arab identity in favor of distinct Maronite one. The Maronite residents of Jish relate to themselves as Aramean Christian Maronites, in 2014, Israel has decided to recognize the Aramean community within its borders as a national minority, allowing some of the Christians in Israel to be registered as Aramean instead of Arab. The Christians, who may apply for recognition as Aramean, are mostly Galilean Maronites, traditionally, neo-Aramaic had been the spoken language of the Maronites up to the 17th century, then Arabic took its place, while classical Syriac remained in use only for liturgical purposes. Recently, the Jish community has made efforts to revive neo-Aramaic to the level of a spoken language, recently, the Israeli Ministry of Education provided an official status to Aramaic language studies for children in Jish school. Arameans in Israel Assyrians in Israel 1982-2000 South Lebanon conflict Christianity in Israel Aramaic Center of Jish The Jerusalem Center for Jewish-Christian Relations, Maronite Catholic Church
27.
Maronite Christians in Lebanon
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Maronite Christianity in Lebanon refers to adherents of the Maronite Church in Lebanon, which is the largest Christian denomination in the country. The Lebanese Maronite Christians are believed to constitute about 22% of the population of Lebanon. Lebanons constitution was intended to guarantee representation for each of the nations ethno-religious groups. Under the terms of an agreement known as the National Pact between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the president of the country must be a Maronite. There is no distinct pattern that shows that one community carries significantly more Phoenician than another, according to Catholic tradition, the first Bishop was Saint Peter before his travels to Rome. The third Bishop was the Apostolic Father Ignatius of Antioch, Antioch became one of the five original Patriarchates after Constantine recognized Christianity. Many of his followers also lived a monastic lifestyle, following the death of Maron in 410 AD, his disciples built a monastery in his memory and formed the nucleus of the Maronite Church. The Maronites held fast to the beliefs of the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD, when the Monophysites of Antioch slew 350 monks, the Maronites sought refuge in the mountains of Lebanon. Correspondence concerning the event brought the Maronites papal and orthodox recognition, a monastery was built around the shrine of St. Maro after the Council of Chalcedon. This doctrine, monothelitism, was meant as a compromise between supporters of Chalcedon, such as the Maronites, and opponents, such as the Jacobites, monothelitism was actually endorsed by Pope Honorius I of the Catholic Church to win back the Monophysites. Instead, this new doctrine caused greater controversy, and was declared a heresy at the Sixth Ecumenical Council in 680-681, in 687 AD, the Emperor Justinian II agreed to evacuate many thousand Maronites from Lebanon and settle them elsewhere. The chaos and utter depression which followed led the Maronites to elect their first Patriarch, John Maroun and this, however, was seen as a usurpation by the Orthodox churches. This situation was mirrored in other Christian communities in the Byzantine Empire, the Maronites belong to the Maronite Syriac Church of Antioch is an Eastern Catholic Syriac Church that had affirmed its communion with Rome since 1180 A. D. The Maronite Patriarch is traditionally seated in Bkerke, north of Beirut, Lebanese Maronite Christians are concentrated in the north Beirut, northern part of Mount Lebanon Governorate, southern part of North Governorate, parts of Beqaa Governorate and South Governorate. The last Census in Lebanon in 1932 put the numbers of Maronites at 29% of the population, a study done by the Central Intelligence Agency in 1985 put the numbers of Maronites at 16% of the population. Lebanese Maronites constitutes 21% of Lebanons population of approximately 4.3 million, which means they amount to 903,000 as of 2012
28.
Lebanese diaspora
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Lebanese diaspora refers to Lebanese migrants and their descendants who, whether by choice or coercion, emigrated from Lebanon and now reside in other countries. There are more Lebanese living outside of Lebanon, than within, the majority of the diaspora population consists of Lebanese Christians and Lebanese Muslims, however, there are some who are Druze, or Jewish. They trace their origin to several waves of Christian emigration, starting with the exodus that followed the 1860 Lebanon conflict in Ottoman Syria, under the current Lebanese nationality law, diaspora Lebanese do not have an automatic right of return to Lebanon. Although there are no figures, the diaspora is estimated to be around 14 million people. According to other estimates the number of Lebanese living outside the country is thought to at the very least double the number of living inside. Of the diaspora,1.2 million are Lebanese citizens, the Lebanese diaspora, while historically trade-related, has more recently been linked to the Lebanese Civil War, with many Lebanese emigrating to Western countries. Because of the opportunities, many Lebanese have also worked in the Arab World, most notably Arab states of the Persian Gulf like Saudi Arabia. Currently around 60% of Lebanese citizens resident in Lebanon are Muslim, the Americas have long been a destination for Lebanese migration, with Lebanese arriving in some countries at least as early as the nineteenth century. The population of Brazil of either full or partial Lebanese descent is estimated at 7 million people by Arab-Brazilian organizations. According to a research conducted by IBGE in 2008, covering only the states of Amazonas, Paraíba, São Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Mato Grosso and Distrito Federal,0. Many Lebanese have also settled for quite some time in the United States, Canada, Australia. There are also populations in francophone West Africa, particularly Ivory Coast. Lebanese abroad are not presently permitted the right to vote in Lebanese elections, a law passed in late 2008 gives expatriates the right to vote in elections in 2013. Many Lebanese entrepreneurs and business people worldwide have proved successful, in all kinds of sectors. Therefore, Lebanese abroad are considered rich, educated and influential, remittances from Lebanese abroad to family members within the country were estimated at $8.9 billion in 2014 and accounted for 18% of the countrys economy. Though, there remains an untapped potential for further collaboration and cooperation between the diaspora and the Lebanese in their home-country. Foreign Direct Investment is indeed below 7% of GDP while almost half the Lebanese population is enrolled in tertiary education. Throughout their history, the Lebanese diaspora used their Lebanese identity to create strong networks to each other out and many used them to develop a productive
29.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
30.
County of Tripoli
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The County of Tripoli was the last of the Crusader states. It was founded in the Levant in the region of Tripoli, northern Lebanon and parts of western Syria which supported an indigenous population of Christians, Druze. When the Crusaders, captured the region in 1109, Bertrand of Toulouse became the first Count of Tripoli as a vassal of King Baldwin I of Jerusalem. From that time, rule of the county was decided not strictly by inheritance but by such as military force, favour. In 1289 the County of Tripoli fell to Sultan Qalawun of the Muslim Mamluks of Cairo, the county was absorbed into Mamluk Egypt. Raymond IV of Toulouse was one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the Prince Crusaders, even so, after the First Crusade, he had failed to secure any land holdings in the Near East. Meanwhile, the County of Edessa, the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Tripoli was an important strategic goal as it linked the French in the south with the Normans in the north. It was a fertile and well populated area, in 1102, Raymond IV occupied Tortosa and in 1103, he prepared, together with veterans of the 1101 crusade, to take Tripoli. On a natural ridge, which he named Mons Peregrinus,3 kilometres from Tripoli, Raymond IV began the construction of a large castle, despite this new fortress and seasoned troops, Raymond IVs siege of Tripoli failed to secure the port. He died on 25 February 1105, Bertrand of Toulouse, who was supported by Baldwin I of Jerusalem, arrived in the Near East with a substantial army and a large Genoese fleet. In order to resolve the issue, Baldwin I created a partition treaty. It specified that William was to hold northern Tripoli and pay homage to Tancred while Bertrand was to hold south Tripoli as a vassal of Baldwin, under a united Christian onslaught, Tripoli fell on 12 July 1109, completing the Kingdom of Jerusalem. When William died of an arrow through the heart, Bertrand became the first Count of Tripoli, the extent of the County of Tripoli was determined in part by pre-existing Byzantine borders and in part by victory in battle, tempered by the demands of neighbouring crusader states. At its height, the county controlled the coastline from Maraclea in the north to Beirut in the south, inland, the countys control extended to the Krac des Chevaliers fortress. The rich inland agricultural land of the Homs Gap was known as La Bocquée, the county was divided into lordships, areas based roughly around its coastal ports. The Count of Tripoli himself held the port of Tripoli and its surrounds and he also controlled the hostile region of Montferrand, now modern-day Barin, Syria, lying to the east. Approximately one quarter of the land seized around Tripoli was given to the Genoese as payment for military aid, the Genoese admiral Guglielmo Embriaco was awarded the city of Jubail. Despite his contribution to its establishment, Baldwin I did not directly control the County of Tripoli, nevertheless, the County of Tripoli owed fealty and homage to him, and he, in return, provided support to the county in times of trouble
31.
History of Lebanon under Ottoman rule
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The Ottoman Empire at least nominally ruled Lebanon from its conquest in 1516 until the end of World War I in 1918. The Ottoman sultan, Salim I, invaded Syria and Lebanon in 1516, Salim I, moved by the eloquence of the Lebanese ruler Amir Fakhr ad Din I, decided to grant the Lebanese amirs a semiautonomous status. The Ottomans, through the Maans, a great Druze feudal family, and the Shihabs and it was during Ottoman rule that the term Greater Syria was coined to designate the approximate area included in present-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel. Ottoman administration, however, was effective in urban areas, while most of the country was ruled by tribal chieftains. It was during this period that Lebanon saw increasing class and religious antagonisms that would define Lebanese social and political life for decades to come, the Ottoman sultan, Selim I, after defeating the Safavids, conquered the Mamluks of Egypt. His troops, invading Syria, destroyed Mamluk resistance in 1516 at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, during the conflict between the Mamluks and the Ottomans, the amirs of Lebanon linked their fate to that of Ghazali, governor of Damascus. He won the confidence of the Ottomans by fighting on their side at Marj Dabaq and, apparently pleased with the behavior of the Lebanese amirs, introduced them to Salim I when he entered Damascus. Salim I, moved by the eloquence of the Lebanese ruler Amir Fakhr ad Din I, the emirs relationship with Muhammad Ali, the Albanian-Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, began in 1821 after Bashir II was forced to seek refuge in Egypt by revolting Maronites upset about overtaxation. When the Porte refused to him the province, Muhammad Ali raised an army under his son Ibrahim Pasha to occupy the province. The occupation also introduced measures that raised the legal rights of Christians in the area and imposed conscription. The tensions that burst into the conflict during the 1860s were set within the context of a fast paced change in the established social order in the region. This created increased economic and political ties with France, leading to the French becoming a patron of sorts to the Maronites of Lebanon. The reforms within the Tanzimat also provided a source of increasing disagreement between Maronite and Druze populations, youssef Bey Karam, a Lebanese nationalist played an influential role in Lebanons independence during this era. On September 3,1840, Bashir III was appointed amir of Mount Lebanon by the Ottoman sultan, geographically, Mount Lebanon represents the central part of present-day Lebanon, which historically has had a Christian majority. In practice, the terms Lebanon and Mount Lebanon tend to be used interchangeably by historians until the establishment of the Mandate. Bitter conflicts between Christians and Druzes, which had been simmering under Ibrahim Pashas rule, resurfaced under the new amir, hence, the sultan deposed Bashir III on January 13,1842, and appointed Umar Pasha as governor of Mount Lebanon. This appointment, however, created more problems than it solved, representatives of the European powers proposed to the sultan that Lebanon be partitioned into Christian and Druze sections. This arrangement came to be known as the Double Qaimaqamate, both officials were to be responsible to the governor of Sidon, who resided in Beirut
32.
1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
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It soon spread to the south of the country where the rebellion changed its character, with Druze turning against the Maronite Christians. Around 20,000 Christians were killed by the Druze and 380 Christian villages and 560 churches destroyed, the Druze and Muslims also suffered heavy losses. On 3 September 1840, Bashir Shihab III, a distant cousin of the once-powerful Emir Bashir Shihab II, was appointed emir of Mount Lebanon by Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I. Geographically, the Mount Lebanon Emirate corresponded with the part of present-day Lebanon. In practice, the terms Lebanon and Mount Lebanon tend to be used interchangeably by historians until the establishment of the Mandate. Bitter conflicts between Christians and Druzes, which had been simmering under Ibrahim Pashas rule resurfaced under the new emir, hence, the sultan deposed Bashir III, on 13 January 1842, and appointed Umar Pasha as governor of Mount Lebanon. This appointment, however, created more problems than it solved, representatives of the European powers proposed to the sultan that Lebanon be partitioned into Christian and Druze sections. This arrangement came to be known as the Double Qaimaqamate, both officials were to be responsible to the governor of Sidon, who resided in Beirut. The Beirut-Damascus highway was the line between the two districts. This partition of Lebanon was nurtured by outside powers, and animosities between the religious sects increased and these tensions led to conflict between Christians and Druzes as early as May 1845. Consequently, the European powers requested that the Ottoman sultan establish order in Lebanon, composed of members of the various religious communities, these councils were intended to assist the deputy governor. This system failed to keep order when the peasants of Keserwan, overburdened by heavy taxes, in 1858 Tanyus Shahin, a Maronite Christian peasant leader, demanded that the feudal class abolish its privileges. The demand refused, the peasants began to prepare for a revolt, in January 1859, an armed uprising headed by Shahin flared up. The uprising targeted the Maronite Khazen muqatajis of Keserwan, pillaging their land, having driven the Maronite feudal lords out of Keserwan and seizing their land and property, the insurgent peasants set up their own rule. The Keserwan uprising, as it known, had a revolutionary effect on other regions in Lebanon. The disturbances spread to Latakia and to central Lebanon, Maronite peasants, actively supported by their clergy, began to prepare for an armed uprising against their Druze masters. In August 1859, a brawl occurred between Druze and Maronite locals in the Metn area of the Double Qaimaqamates Christian sector, the dispute enabled Maronite Bishop Tobia Aoun to mobilize his Beirut-based central committee to intervene in the matter. The Druze lords began making war preparations, allegedly in coordination with the local Ottoman authorities, in March, the father of a Catholic monastery in Aammiq was killed and the monastery looted, and shortly afterward, a Druze man from Ainab allegedly killed a Christian man from Abadiyeh
33.
Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate
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The Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate was one of the Ottoman Empires subdivisions following the Tanzimat reform. As the Ottoman Empire began to decline, the structure came under pressure. Both officials were to report to the governor of Sidon, who resided in Beirut, on May 22,1860, a small group of Maronites fired on a group of Druze at the entrance to Beirut, killing one and wounding two. This sparked a torrent of violence which swept through Lebanon, in a mere three days, from May 29 to 31,60 villages were destroyed in the vicinity of Beirut. 33 Christians and 48 Druze were killed, by June the disturbances had spread to the “mixed” neighborhoods of southern Lebanon and the Anti Lebanon, to Sidon, Hasbaya, Rashaya, Deir el Qamar, and Zahlé. The Druze peasants laid siege to Catholic monasteries and missions, burnt them, france intervened on behalf of the local Christian population and Britain on behalf of the Druze after the massacres, in which over 10,000 Christians were killed. Mount Lebanon became a semi-autonomous mutasarrifate, in September 1864, the statute became permanent. The mutasarrıf was to be assisted by a council of twelve members from the various religious communities in Lebanon. Each of the six religious groups inhabiting the Lebanon elected two members to the council and this Mutasarrifate system lasted from 1861 until 1918, although it was de facto abolished by Djemal Pasha in 1915, after which he appointed his own governors. The members of the international commission researched many names for the new administrative division, many titles were considered, Emir was quickly refuted because it was offensive to the Ottoman Porte and was reminiscent of the Emirate system that the Ottomans fought to abolish. The commission members also ruminated over the title of President but the designation was not approved by the Ottoman government, eight mutasarrıfs were appointed and ruled according to the basic mutasarrifate regulation that was issued in 1861 then modified by the 1864 reform. These were, The mnemonic word DaFRuWNaMYO helped school children memorize the name of the mutasarrıfs, when the First World War broke out in 1914, Djemal Pasha occupied Mount Lebanon militarily and revoked the mutasarrifate system. He appointed the mutasarrıfs during this period and those governors were, Ali Münif Bey Ismail Bey Mümtaz Bey The total population in 1895 was estimated as 399,530, with 80,234 Muslims and 319,296 Christians. In 1913, the population was estimated as 414,747. Source, History of Lebanon under Ottoman rule Beirut Vilayet Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem Principality of Lebanon US country studies
34.
1958 Lebanon crisis
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The 1958 Lebanon crisis was a Lebanese political crisis caused by political and religious tensions in the country that included a U. S. military intervention. The intervention lasted around three months until President Camille Chamoun, who had requested the assistance, completed his term as president of Lebanon, American and Lebanese government forces successfully occupied the port and international airport of Beirut. With the crisis over, the United States withdrew, in July 1958, Lebanon was threatened by a civil war between Maronite Christians and Muslims. These tensions were further increased when Chamoun showed closeness to the Baghdad Pact, Nasser felt that the pro-western Baghdad Pact posed a threat to Arab nationalism. As a response, Egypt and Syria united into the United Arab Republic, Lebanese Sunni Prime Minister Rashid Karami supported Nasser in 1956 and 1958. Karami formed a national government after the 1958 crisis ended. Lebanese Muslims pushed the government to join the newly created United Arab Republic, a Muslim rebellion that was allegedly supplied with arms by the UAR through Syria caused President Chamoun to complain to the United Nations Security Council. The United Nations sent a group of inspectors that reported that it didnt find any evidence of significant intervention from the UAR, the toppling of a pro-Western government in Iraqs 14 July Revolution, along with the internal instability, caused President Chamoun to call for American assistance. U. S. President Eisenhower responded by authorizing Operation Blue Bat on July 15,1958 and this was the first application of the Eisenhower Doctrine under which the U. S. announced that it would intervene to protect regimes it considered threatened by international communism. The goal of the operation was to bolster the pro-Western Lebanese government of President Camille Chamoun against internal opposition and threats from Syria and Egypt. The plan was to occupy and secure the Beirut International Airport, at the end of June Essex and Boston were anchored at Piraeus, Greece, while Des Moines, from which Vice Admiral Charles R. Brown was flying his flag, was at Villefranche-sur-Mer. Land forces included the 2nd Provisional Marine Force and the Army Task Force 201 at the tactical level. On July 16,1958, Admiral James L. Holloway, Jr. CINCNELM and CINCSPECCOMME, flew in from London to Beirut airport and boarded USS Taconic, the U. S. withdrew its forces on October 25,1958. President Eisenhower sent diplomat Robert D. Murphy to Lebanon as his personal representative, multinational Force in Lebanon Lebanese Civil War Mountain War Mohammed Shafi Agwani, The Lebanese Crisis,1958, A Documentary Study,1965. Erika G. Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis, pierrick el Gammal, Politique intérieure et politique extérieure au Liban de 1958 à1961 de Camille Chamoun à Fouad Chehab, Sorbonne University,1991. Irene L. Gendzier, Notes from the Minefield, United States Intervention in Lebanon, Intervention in Lebanon, 1958–1982, presidential decisionmaking,1991. Nawaf Salam, L’insurrection de 1958 au Liban, Sorbonne University,1979, United States Army Center of Military History. Historical Manuscript Collection 2–3.7 AC. F Tab D. Archived from the original on 12 June 2010, the Lebanese Crisis of 1958, The Risks of Inflated Self-Importance
35.
Greater Lebanon
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The State of Greater Lebanon was a state declared in September 1920, and the predecessor of modern Lebanon. The state was declared as a League of Nations Mandate under the terms of the French Mandate for Syria, the British were given Palestine and Iraq, while the French were given a mandate over Syria and Lebanon. The new territory was granted a flag, merging the French flag with the Lebanese cedar, the Mutasarrifate had been established in 1861 to protect the local Christian population by the European powers under the terms of the Règlement Organique. The term, in French Le Grand Liban, was first used by the Lebanese intellectuals Bulus Nujaym and Albert Naccache, during the buildup to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Nujaym was building on his widely read 1908 work La question du Liban, the work argued that a significant extension of Lebanons boundaries was required for economic success. On October 27,1919, the Lebanese delegation led by Maronite Patriarch Elias Peter Hoayek presented the Lebanese aspirations in a memorandum to the Paris Peace Conference. Following the peace conference, the French were awarded the French Mandate for Syria, most of the territory was controlled the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration, with the remainder controlled for a short time by the Arab Kingdom of Syria until the latters defeat in July 1920. Following the decisive Battle of Maysalun, Lebanese Maronites openly celebrated the Arab defeat, on August 24,1920, French Prime Minister Alexandre Millerand wrote to Archbishop Khoury, Your countrys claims on the Bekaa, that you have recalled for me, have been granted. This is the Greater Lebanon that France wishes to form to assure your country of its natural borders, Lebanon gained its independence in 1943 and the French left the country in 1946. The first Lebanese constitution was promulgated on May 23,1926, modeled after that of the French Third Republic, it provided for a bicameral parliament with Chamber of Deputies and a Senate, a President, and a Council of Ministers, or cabinet. Thus, for example, the president ought to be a Maronite Christian, the minister a Sunni Muslim. Under the Constitution, the French high commissioner still exercised supreme power, nevertheless, Charles Debbas, a Greek Orthodox, was elected the first president of Lebanon three days after the adoption of the Constitution. At the end of Debbass first term in 1932, Bishara al-Khuri and Émile Eddé competed for the office of president, thus dividing the Chamber of Deputies. To break the deadlock, some deputies suggested Shaykh Muhammad al Jisr, who was chairman of the Council of Ministers and the Muslim leader of Tripoli, as a compromise candidate. However, French high commissioner Henri Ponsot suspended the constitution on May 9,1932, dissatisfied with Ponsots conduct, the French authorities replaced him with Comte Damien de Martel, who, on January 30,1934, appointed Habib Pacha Es-Saad as president for a one-year term. Émile Eddé was elected president on January 30,1936, a year later, he partially reestablished the Constitution of 1926 and proceeded to hold elections for the Chamber of Deputies. However, the Constitution was again suspended by the French high commissioner in September 1939, emir Majid Arslan II Sykes-Picot Agreement Patriarch Elias Hoayek San Remo conference Mount Lebanon French Mandate of Syria Battle of Maysalun. List of French possessions and colonies French colonial empire Salibi, Kamal, a House of Many Mansions, The History of Lebanon Reconsidered
36.
Lebanese Civil War
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The Lebanese Civil War was a multifaceted civil war in Lebanon, lasting from 1975 to 1990 and resulting in an estimated 120,000 fatalities. As of 2012, approximately 76,000 people remain displaced within Lebanon, there was also an exodus of almost one million people from Lebanon as a result of the war. The government of Lebanon had been run under a significant influence of the elites among the Maronite Christians, however, the country had a large Muslim population and many pan-Arabist and left-wing groups opposed the pro-western government. Fighting between Maronite and Palestinian forces began in 1975, then Leftist, pan-Arabist and Muslim Lebanese groups formed an alliance with the Palestinians, during the course of the fighting, alliances shifted rapidly and unpredictably. Furthermore, foreign powers, such as Israel and Syria, became involved in the war, Peace keeping forces, such as the Multinational Force in Lebanon & UNIFIL, were also stationed in Lebanon. The 1989 Taif Agreement marked the beginning of the end of the fighting, in January 1989, a committee appointed by the Arab League began to formulate solutions to the conflict. In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that all political crimes prior to its enactment. In May 1991, the militias were dissolved, with the exception of Hezbollah, religious tensions between Sunnis and Shias remained after the war. An 1860 civil war between Druze and Maronites erupted in the Ottoman Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon, which had been divided between them in 1842 and it resulted in the massacre of about 10,000 Christians and at least 6,000 Druzes. The 1860 war was considered by the Druze as a military victory, World War I was hard for the Lebanese. While the rest of the world was occupied with the World War, with the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish rule ended. France took control of the area under the French Mandate for Syria, the French created the state of Greater Lebanon as a safe haven for the Maronites, but included a large Muslim population within the borders. In 1926, Lebanon was declared a republic, and a constitution was adopted, however, the constitution was suspended in 1932. Various factions sought unity with Syria, or independence from the French, in 1934, the countrys first census was conducted. In 1936, the Maronite Phalange party was founded by Pierre Gemayel, World War II and the 1940s brought great change to Lebanon and the Middle East. Lebanon was promised independence and on 22 November 1943, during World War II, Free French troops, who had invaded Lebanon in 1941 to rid Beirut of the Vichy French forces, left the country in 1946. The Maronites assumed power over the country and economy, a parliament was created, in which both Muslims and Christians each had a set quota of seats. Accordingly, the President was to be a Maronite, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine in late 1947 led to civil war in Palestine, the end of Mandatory Palestine, and the Israeli Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948
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