1.
Dukes County, Massachusetts
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Dukes County is a county located in the U. S. state of Massachusetts. As of the 2010 census, the population was 16,535, Dukes County comprises the Vineyard Haven, MA Micropolitan Statistical Area. The county consists of the island of Marthas Vineyard, the Elizabeth Islands, the island of Nomans Land, the original inhabitants of the islands were Wampanoag, who had several villages. Mayhew established a colony in his new domain, carefully purchasing land rights from the native inhabitants. In 1665, Mayhews lands were included in a grant to the Duke of York, in 1671, a settlement was arranged, allowing Mayhew to continue to rule while placing his territory under the jurisdiction of the Province of New York. Dukes County was thus established as Dukes County, New York, on November 1,1683, and included all of Mayhews lands – Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, and the Elizabeth Islands. The county was transferred to Massachusetts on October 7,1691, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 491 square miles, of which 103 square miles is land and 388 square miles is water. It is the third-smallest county by land area, the population density was 144 people per square mile. There were 14,836 housing units at a density of 143 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 90. 69% White,2. 40% Black or African American,1. 71% Native American,0. 46% Asian,0. 07% Pacific Islander,1. 48% from other races, and 3. 19% from two or more races. 1. 03% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,20. 4% were of English,13. 3% Irish,8. 6% Portuguese,6. 4% Italian and 5. 7% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 93. 1% spoke English,3. 7% Portuguese and 1. 7% Spanish as their first language and 0. 285% speak Irish at home. 32. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.91. In the county, the population was out with 22. 70% under the age of 18,5. 50% from 18 to 24,29. 60% from 25 to 44,27. 80% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 95.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.10 males, the median income for a household in the county was $45,559, and the median income for a family was $55,018. Males had an income of $38,945 versus $30,346 for females. The per capita income for the county was $26,472, about 5. 00% of families and 7. 30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10. 40% of those under age 18 and 5. 30% of those age 65 or over
2.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
3.
Elizabeth Islands
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The Elizabeth Islands are a chain of small islands extending southwest from the southern coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts in the United States. They are located at the edge of Buzzards Bay, north of Marthas Vineyard from which they are separated by Vineyard Sound. All of the Elizabeth Islands except Cuttyhunk and Penikese are privately owned by the Forbes family, the islands were claimed by England and named after Queen Elizabeth I. In 1641, Thomas Mayhew the Elder of Watertown, Massachusetts, bought the islands from William Alexander, the first known European inhabitant was Francis Usselton, who was banished for making secret trades with the local Indians without consent from the governor at the time. Before the creation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1691, the total land area of the islands is 34.55 km² and there was a permanent population of 75 persons as of the 2010 census. Stretching south-west from lands end at Falmouth, Massachusetts, the islands are, Nonamesset Island, the closest to the mainland Veckatimest, uncatena Island, uninhabited as of the 2000 Census Naushon Island,5.5 miles long and the largest. Composed of the island and small uninhabited Bull Island. The Weepecket Islands, three small, publicly accessible islands north of central Naushon owned by the Forbes family and these islands offer very few places to land, are nearly obscured by water, and are home to numerous shore birds, seals and other animals. Pasque Island,1.5 miles long, owned by a subset of the Forbes family, a shallow tidal creek cuts part way through the island. Nashawena Island,3 miles long, owned by another subset of the Forbes family, Penikese, located about 0.5 miles north of Nashawena and Cuttyhunk. Penikese is owned by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and has a colorful history, Cuttyhunk, farthest west in the chain, and home to most of Gosnolds municipal population. Like Penikese, Cuttyhunk is not owned by the Forbes family, channels with strong tidal currents, known locally as holes, separate the islands from each other and the mainland. Currents of up to 6 knots are driven by the different sizes and filling rates of Vineyard Sound to the southeast, at high tide, water flows from Buzzards Bay to the Vineyard Sound. Near mid-tide the water stops and reverses, filling the Bay at low tide, Cuttyhunk Harbor is sheltered on its east by Nashawena Island on its west by Cuttyhunk Island and on its north by Penikese Island. Bathymetry of the Waters Surrounding the Elizabeth Islands, Massachusetts United States Geological Survey Elizabeth Islands
4.
Massachusett language
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The language is also known as Natick or Wôpanâak and historically as Pokanoket, Indian or Nonantum. The language is most notable for creating a community of literate Indians, literacy spread quickly as Indian ministers and teachers, who were literate, spread literacy to the elites and other members of their communities. The use of the language in the communities of Christian converts—Praying towns— also spread the language to some groups of Nipmuc. The Massachusett people continue to inhabit the area around Boston and other Wampanoag tribes are found throughout Cape Cod, proto-Algonquian diverged and spread eastward as the Algonquian languages. Proto-Eastern Algonquian emerged from PA and later developed into the Eastern Algonquian languages from the Canadian Maritimes southward to the Carolinas, Massachusett has evolved certain features that differentiate it from most other SNEA languages, although many of these traits are also shared with Nipmuc and Narragansett. PEA *r becomes Massachusett /n/ This is the most defining feature of Massachusett in relation to other SNEA languages. PEA *r, itself a merger of PA *r and *θ appears as /n/ in Massachusett and sometimes in Narragansett, /l/ in Nipmuc, /j/ in Narragansett, PA *aθemwa, dog, becomes annùm /anəm/ in Massachusett, alùm in Nipmuc and ayimp in Narragansett. PA *aθankwa, star, becomes anogqs /anãkwees/ in Massachusett, anóckqus in Narragansett, PEA *ra-nk, young, as in a young boy, with the latter as Massachusett nunkomp /nãkãp/, Nipmuc langbasis and Unquachog rúngcump. PEA *rōtēw, fire or it burns, becomes nꝏhtau /nuːhtaːw/, lȣte in Nimpuc and it seems to have been a feature that originated in the Abenakian languages before spreading to Mahican and the SNEA languages. PA *keʔtahanwi, sea or sea water, becomes kehtahhan /kəhtahan/ in Massaachusett, kuthún in Naugatuck, Massachusett paskehheg /paskəhiːk/, gun, appears as posk_heege in Pequot, boshk_eag in Montauk and pask_ig in Nipmuc. PEA *manət, god, becomes mannit /manət/ in Massachusett, manìt in Narragansett, mon_dtu in Pequot and this feature, is rare in Nantucket and the Nauset areas and not universal in Nipmuc, indicating it was a novel feature of the Massachusett that was spreading. Massachusett/Wampanoag-language place names, Acushnet, Pawtucket, Nantucket, Shawmut, Neponset, Swampscott, nipmuc-language place names, Hassunet, Pascommuck, Quassuck and Quinnepoxet. Pocomtuc-language place names, Podatuck, Pocumtuck, Sunsicke, Norwotuck, Pachasock, mahican-language place names, Hoosic, Housatonic, Mahkeenak, Quassuck, Mananosick. Although this is universal, in verbs, *k reverted to its original non-palatized form. PA *weri-kiwa, it is good, becomes wunnet /wəniːtʲəw/ in Massachusett, differing word roots Within SNEA, Massachusett, Narragansett and Nipmuc share words with the same linguistic roots not shared with the western SNEA languages. Massachusett namohs /namaːhs/, fish, appears as namens in Nipmuc, namohs in Narragansett but peremock in Montauk, Massachusett kah /kah/, and, appears as kà in Narragansett but quah in Pequot and Quiripi. Massachusett peshai /pəʃaj/, it is appears as peshaûi in Narragansett but seewamp-wayo in Unquachog. As the Massachusett-speaking peoples spoke varieties existing along a dialect continuum, dialects that were readily understood were simply hettꝏonk /hətuːãk/, that which they speak to each other
5.
Island
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An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, an island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge. Example, Singapore and its causeway, or the various Dutch delta islands, there are two main types of islands in the sea, continental and oceanic. The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland, Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology, continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earths mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere. This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere, continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. A special type of island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable, oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, the few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, one type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring, examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles, another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples, Iceland, which is the second largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. A third type of oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the tectonic plate above it
6.
Cape Cod
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Cape Cod is a geographic cape extending into the Atlantic Ocean from the southeastern corner of mainland Massachusetts, in the northeastern United States. Its historic, maritime character and ample beaches attract heavy tourism during the summer months, as defined by the Cape Cod Commissions enabling legislation, Cape Cod is conterminous with Barnstable County, Massachusetts. It extends from Provincetown in the northeast to Woods Hole in the southwest, since 1914, Cape Cod has been separated from the mainland by the Cape Cod Canal. The canal cuts 17.5 miles roughly across the base of the peninsula, though portions of the Cape Cod towns of Bourne. Two highway bridges cross the Cape Cod Canal, the Sagamore Bridge, in addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight and limited passenger services onto the Cape. Cape territory is divided into fifteen towns with many villages, like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to become resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and other tourists. Both islands are also famous summer tourist destinations, commonly accessed by ferry from several locations on the cape, the phrases Cape Cod and the Islands and the Cape and Islands are often used to describe the whole region of Barnstable County, Dukes County, and Nantucket County. Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, the Forbes family-owned Naushon Island was first purchased by John Murray Forbes. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned, one of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk, with a year-round population of 52 people. Cape Cod in particular is a retirement area,27. 8% of the population of Barnstable County is 65 years old or older. And the average age of residents is the highest of any area in New England, by voter registration numbers, Democrats outnumber Republicans by less in the three counties than in the whole of Massachusetts, to varying degrees. The name Cape Cod, as it was first used in 1602 and it remained that way for 125 years, until the Precinct of Cape Cod was incorporated as the Town of Provincetown. No longer in use over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all of the land east of the Manomet and Scusset rivers – essentially along the line that became the Cape Cod Canal. The creation of the canal separated the majority of the peninsula from the mainland, most agencies, including the Cape Cod Commission and the Federal Emergency Management Agency, treat the Cape as an island with regard to disaster preparedness, groundwater management, and the like. Cape Cod Bay lies in between Cape Cod and the mainland – bounded on the north by a line between Provincetown and Marshfield. North of Cape Cod Bay is Massachusetts Bay, which contains the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east of Cape Cod, and to the southwest of the Cape is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay, Cape Cod extends 65 miles into the Atlantic Ocean, with a breadth of between 1–20 miles, and covers more than 400 miles of shoreline. Its elevation ranges from 306 feet at its highest point, at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of Joint Base Cape Cod, one of the biggest barrier islands in the world, Cape Cod shields much of the Massachusetts coastline from North Atlantic storm waves
7.
Chappaquiddick Island
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Chappaquiddick Island, a part of the town of Edgartown, Massachusetts, is a small peninsula and occasional island on the eastern end of Marthas Vineyard. Norton Point, a barrier beach, connects Marthas Vineyard. Occasional breaches occur due to hurricanes and strong storms separating the islands for periods of time, most recently, the two were separated for 8 years from 2007 to 2015. Though both land forms have, over the course of history, mostly connected to one another. Visitors come to the island for beaches, cycling, hiking, nature tours and birding, and the MyToi Gardens. Chappaquiddick has one business, the Chappy Store, occasionally open during the months to serve basic needs. Two fire trucks are stationed on the island from Edgartown, Chappaquiddick Road and Pocha Road, both paved, provide access to sandy, woodland roads, trails, and shorelines. Chappaquiddick became internationally recognized following the July 18,1969 incident, senator Ted Kennedy was accidentally driven off the islands Dike Bridge, which fatally trapped his young colleague, Mary Jo Kopechne, inside. The name Chappaquiddick comes from an Indian word cheppiaquidne meaning separated island, the island has been historically spelled as Chaubaqueduck or, alternatively, Chappaquidgick. The island was mainly the home territory of the Chappaquiddick band of Wampanoag Indians. They still have a reservation of about 100 acres of land in the interior. Early white colonists settled Edgartown in 1642, quickly proclaiming Chappaquiddick as village property as well, the first homes owned by people of exclusively European descent were built around 1750 where residents raised livestock and farmed the land. The Trustees of Reservations, a conservation organization, owns and manages nearly 1,000 acres of land from the southeastern point, Wasque, to Cape Poge. Wasque is a fishing spot for catching bluefish, striped bass. The Cape Poge Lighthouse, first erected in 1801, has served ships navigating the shoalwaters, the main interior bodies of water include Cape Poge Bay, Katama Bay, and Pocha Pond, all salty. Between 2007 and 2013, approximately 40 acres of land were lost at Wasque, where currents eroded bluffs, swallowed Swan Pond, damaged shoreline trails, Chappaquiddick is located at 41°22′34″N 70°28′33″W. The United States Census Bureau defines it as Block Group 1, Census Tract 2003 of Dukes County and it has 15.915 km² of land. Administratively, it is part of the town of Edgartown and Dukes County, as of the census of 2010, there were 179 people residing on the island
8.
Long Island
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Long Island is an island located just off the northeast coast of the United States and a region within the U. S. state of New York. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, more generally, Long Island may also refer collectively both to the main Island as well as its nearby, surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is the Long Island Sound, across from which lie the states of Connecticut, across the Sound, to the northwest, lies Westchester County on mainland New York. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from the New York City borough of Staten Island and the U. S. state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, to the east lie Block Island and numerous smaller islands. Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile, Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse. Some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere are located on Long Island, nine bridges and 13 tunnels connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut, the Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24/7. At the time of European contact, the Lenape people inhabited the western end of Long Island, giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor, adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands. Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka, sewan was one of the terms for wampum, and is also translated as loose or scattered, which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s, later, the English referred to the land as Nassau Island, after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange. It is unclear when the name Nassau Island was discontinued, the very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present-day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island, the first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21,1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first and he is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year, Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, and Brookhaven in 1655. While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present-day Brooklyn beginning in 1645 and these included, Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick
9.
Mount Desert Island
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Mount Desert Island, in Hancock County, Maine, is the largest island off the coast of Maine. With an area of 108 square miles it is the 6th largest island in the contiguous United States and it is the second-largest island on the Eastern seaboard, behind Long Island and ahead of Marthas Vineyard. According to the 2010 census, the island has a population of 10,615. The island is home to numerous summer colonies such as Northeast Harbor. Current notable summer residents include George Mitchell, Tim Robbins, David Rockefeller, Susan Sarandon, some natives stress the second syllable, in the French fashion, although many others pronounce it in a fashion similar to the English name of a landscape devoid of vegetation. Deep shell heaps indicate American Indian encampments dating back 6,000 years in Acadia National Park, the Wabanaki Indians knew Mount Desert Island as Pemetic, the sloping land. They built bark-covered conical shelters, and traveled in exquisitely designed birch bark canoes, historical notes record that the Wabanaki wintered in interior forests and spent their summers near the coast. Archeological evidence suggests the opposite pattern, in order to avoid harsh inland winters and to take advantage of salmon runs upstream, American Indians wintered on the coast, the first meeting between the people of Pemetic and the Europeans is a matter of conjecture. But it was a Frenchman, Samuel de Champlain, who made the first important contribution to the record of Mount Desert Island. Champlain led an expedition from the St. Croix Settlement and he was tasked with exploring the coast in a patache with twelve sailors and two American Indian guides. They were in search of a walled and wealthy American Indian city named Norumbega. On September 6,1604 the expedition crossed Frenchman Bay and sailed towards Otter Creek, during high tide the ship hit a ledge off Otter Cliff and while repairing a hole two American Indians boarded the ship as guides. Je l’ay nommée l’Isle des Monts-déserts, which translates to The mountain summits are all bare, I name it Isles des Monts Desert. In 1613, French Jesuits, welcomed by Indians, established the first French mission in America—Saint Sauveur Mission—on what is now Fernald Point, Saint Sauveur Mountain, overlooking the point, still bears the name of the mission. The French missionaries began to build a fort, plant their corn, two months later, on 2 July 1613, Captain Samuel Argall of the Colony of Virginia arrived on board the Treasurer and destroyed their mission. Three of the missionaries were killed and three were wounded, the rest of the company, some twenty in all, were taken prisoner. Argall took many of the prisoners to Jamestown and he eventually returned to Saint-Sauveur and cut down the cross the Jesuits had planted, replacing it with a Protestant version. He then set fire to the few buildings that were there and he then went on to burn the remaining French buildings on Saint Croix Island and Port Royal, Nova Scotia
10.
Nomans Land (Massachusetts)
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Nomans Land is an uninhabited island 612 acres in size, located in the town of Chilmark, Dukes County, Massachusetts. It is situated about 3 miles off the southwest corner of the island of Marthas Vineyard, the island was used by the United States Navy as a practice bombing range from 1943 to 1996. In 1998, the Navy transferred the island to the United States Fish, due to safety risks from unexploded ordnance and its value as a wildlife habitat, the island is closed to all public use. In 1602, during the British ship Concords exploration of Cape Cod, Captain Bartholomew Gosnold named Nomans Land Marthas Vineyard after his eldest daughter, however, the name was later transferred to the larger island currently known as Marthas Vineyard, which is located northeast of Nomans Land. The airfield was abandoned by the U. S. Navy sometime between 1945 and 1954, though usage as a bombing range continued until 1996, in 1952 the island was sold by the Crane family to the Navy. The eastern third of the island has been managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service since 1975. Blocks 3059 and 3060, Block Group 3, Census Tract 2004, the Nomans Runestone & Skywatching Shrines NEARA
11.
Sign language
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A sign language is a language which chiefly uses manual communication to convey meaning, as opposed to acoustically conveyed sound patterns. This can involve simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, Sign languages share many similarities with spoken languages, which depend primarily on sound, and linguists consider both to be types of natural language. They should not be confused with language, which is a kind of non-linguistic communication. Wherever communities of people exist, sign languages have developed. Although signing is used primarily by the deaf, it is used by others, such as people who can hear but cannot physically speak. It is not clear how many languages there are. A common misconception is that all languages are the same worldwide or that sign language is international. Aside from the pidgin International Sign, each country generally has its own, native sign language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue lists 137 sign languages. Some sign languages have obtained some form of recognition, while others have no status at all. Groups of deaf people have used sign languages throughout history, pedro Ponce de León is said to have developed the first manual alphabet. In 1620, Juan Pablo Bonet published Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos in Madrid and it is considered the first modern treatise of sign language phonetics, setting out a method of oral education for deaf people and a manual alphabet. In Britain, manual alphabets were also in use for a number of purposes, such as communication, public speaking. Arthrological systems had been in use by hearing people for some time, some have speculated that they can be traced to early Ogham manual alphabets, the vowels of this alphabet have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua and he suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted and he described codes for both English and Latin. By 1720, the British manual alphabet had found more or less its present form, frenchman Charles-Michel de lÉpée published his manual alphabet in the 18th century, which has survived basically unchanged in France and North America until the present time. In 1755, Abbé de lÉpée founded the first school for children in Paris. Clerc went to the United States with Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet to found the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1817
12.
Edgartown Harbor Light
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Edgartown Harbor Light is a lighthouse located in Edgartown, Massachusetts, United States, where it marks the entrance to Edgartown Harbor and Katama Bay. It is one of five lighthouses on the island of Marthas Vineyard, the first lighthouse, a two-story wooden structure that also served as the keepers house, was constructed in 1828. It was demolished, and replaced by the current cast-iron tower, the Edgartown Harbor Light was the first lighthouse constructed at the Edgartown Harbor entrance. The necessity for a lighthouse at this location was precipitated by the number of vessels frequenting the harbor during the whaling boom of the late 1700s. The original Edgartown Light was a wooden, Cape Cod Style, for the first two years of service, this offshore location required the Keeper to row a short distance. In 1830 Congress approved $2,500 for a causeway to be constructed. This wooden causeway was colloquially known as the Bridge of Sighs, a term that reflected the emotions of island people as they stood on the walkway watching whaling ships depart for voyages that lasted up to five years. The initial Edgartown lighthouse featured a glass lantern room protruding from the middle of the roof of the Keepers residence. This lantern room contained a white light that was visible for about 14 miles. In 1850 Congress appropriated $5,000 for construction of a new causeway with a walkway on top, in 1856, after the Keepers house was damaged by fire, the house was rebuilt, and the light replaced with a fourth-order Fresnel lens. In the 1890s, the fuel and storehouse were built, a new oil house was constructed, a fence was built around the pier, and this first Edgartown Light was destroyed in the Hurricane of 1938. In 1939, the United States Coast Guard demolished the existing buildings, when reconstructed at the mouth of Edgartown Harbor, the relocated conical tower was fitted with the fourth-order Fresnel lens, electrified, and automated. From 1939 through to the early 1980s, the automated Edgartown Harbor Light was maintained by the United States Coast Guard. Due to U. S. Coast Guard Congressional funding shortages through the 1970s and early 1980s, such designation was due to the high expense of maintaining the structures, and because the lights no longer served as vital aids to navigation. This obsolete status of the lighthouses was facilitated by enhanced satellite GPS, documentation of lighthouses destroyed in recent history is available from Lighthouse Digest, which maintains a record of destroyed lighthouses as well as a Doomsday List of threatened lights. According to the 2012 Doomsday List published by Lighthouse Digest, there are currently 43 lighthouses in the U. S. listed for destruction in the near future. Due to such funding shortages, the Edgartown Harbor Light and two other Marthas Vineyard lighthouses were designated for destruction by the government in the early 1980s. During and after the Congressional hearings, VERIs effort to save the three iconic lighthouses received support from Congressman Gerry Studds, and Senator Ted Kennedy
13.
Bartholomew Gosnold
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Bartholomew Gosnold was an English lawyer, explorer, and privateer who was instrumental in founding the Virginia Company of London, and Jamestown in colonial America. He led the first recorded European expedition to Cape Cod and he is considered by Preservation Virginia to be the prime mover of the colonization of Virginia. Gosnold was born in Grundisburgh in Suffolk, England in 1571 and his parents were Anthony Gosnold of Grundisburgh and Dorothy Bacon of Hessett. Henry Gosnold, the judge and friend of Francis Bacon, was his cousin, Bartholomew had a younger brother, born sometime between 1573 and 1578, who, according to tradition, accompanied him to Virginia. In 1578, the will of Bartholomews great-grandmother Ann Doggett Gosnold shows five sisters to Bartholomew, Gosnold graduated from the University of Cambridge and studied law at Middle Temple. He was a friend of Richard Hakluyt and sailed with Walter Raleigh and he married Mary Golding at Latton, Essex in 1595, and together they had seven children, six of whom were baptized at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, between 1597 and 1607. Mary Golding was daughter of Robert Golding and Martha Judd and her mother was daughter of Sir Andrew Judd a wealthy London merchant who, among other offices, was Lord Mayor of London, 1550–51. More importantly for Gosnolds story, he was grandfather to Thomas Smith. Gosnold married Mary Goldinge, daughter of Robert Goldinge of Bury St Edmunds and his wife Martha Judd and they had several children, daughter Mary married Richard Pepys, kinsman of the diarist Samuel Pepys. His biographer has suggested, based on evidence, that in 1597–98 he served under the Earl of Essex on his Azores voyages. Many of those involved in that voyage afterwards became involved in the colonization of Virgina, but it could as easily describe Gosnolds effort to interest his friends in a colonizing effort at the beginning of the 17th century. In the Elizabethan ages, exploration and colonization was a private endeavor, while the crown did not defray any of the expenses of these enterprises, it granted monopolizes to an individual or corporation to exploit a particular area that the crown claimed. This made the efforts profit-drive, much like privateering, so a would-be colonizer, like Gosnold, had to raise the capital for the expedition among private sources. As these ventures became more common great corporations would arise, much like the corporations which exploited the trading routes, substantial obstacles stood in the way of organizing a commercial colonizing venture to the New World. In the first place, Ireland beckoned as a prospect for colonization, one that was less expensive. Most of the capitalists who were considering New World ventures were also involved in Irish ventures. Thomas Smiths son, for example, was involved in the first substantial effort to colonize Ulster > There was also the financial risk involved in colonizing projects. Sir Walter Raleigh had lost 40 thousand pounds in founding Roanoke colony, the loss of that colony as well as colonial failures elsewhere seems to have prevented commercial efforts to colonize Virginia from the time of the failure of the Roanoke colony
14.
Martha
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Martha of Bethany is a biblical figure described in the Gospels of Luke and John. Together with her siblings Lazarus and Mary of Bethany, she is described as living in the village of Bethany near Jerusalem and she was witness to Jesus resurrection of her brother, Lazarus. The name Martha is a Latin transliteration of the Koine Greek Μάρθα, itself a translation of the Aramaic מַרְתָּא Martâ, The mistress or the lady, from מרה mistress, feminine of מר master. The Aramaic form occurs in a Nabatean inscription found at Puteoli, and now in the Naples Museum, it is dated AD5, also in a Palmyrene inscription, in the Gospel of Luke, Jesus visits the home of two sisters named Mary and Martha. The two sisters are contrasted, Martha was cumbered about many things while Jesus was their guest, while Mary had chosen the better part, the name of their village is not recorded, nor is there any mention of whether Jesus was near Jerusalem. Biblical commentator Heinrich Meyer notes that Jesus cannot yet be in Bethany, but the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges claims that it was undoubtedly Bethany. In the Gospel of John, Martha and Mary appear in connection with two incidents, the raising from the dead of their brother Lazarus and the anointing of Jesus in Bethany. In the account of the raising of Lazarus, Jesus meets with the sisters in turn, Martha goes immediately to meet Jesus as he arrives, while Mary waits until she is called. As one commentator notes, Martha, the more aggressive sister, went to meet Jesus, while quiet and this portrayal of the sisters agrees with that found in Luke 10, 38–42. In speaking with Jesus, both sisters lament that he did not arrive in time to prevent their brothers death, Lord, if you had been here, Jesus has Mary bring him to Lazarus tomb where he commands the stone to be removed from its entrance. Martha here objects, But, Lord, by this time there is a bad odor, for he has been four days, to which Jesus replies, Did I not tell you that if you believed. They then take away the stone and Jesus prays and calls Lazarus forth alive from the tomb, Martha appears again in John 12, 1–8, where she serves at a meal held in Jesus honor at which her brother is also a guest. It is at this meal that a woman anoints Jesus with expensive perfume, in medieval Western Christianity, Marthas sister Mary was often equated with Mary Magdalene. This identification led to information being attributed to Martha as well, Mary, Martha, and Lazarus are represented by St. John as living at Bethania. The words of St. John seem to imply a change of residence for the family and it is possible, too, that St. Luke has displaced the incident referred to in Chapter 10. The likeness between the pictures of Martha presented by Luke and John is very remarkable. Again the picture of Marthas anxiety accords with the picture of her who was busy about much serving, so also in John 12,2, They made him a supper there, and Martha served. In Orthodox Church tradition, though not specifically named as such in the gospels, Martha, the Myrrhbearers became the first witnesses to the Resurrection of Jesus, finding the empty tomb and hearing the joyful news from an angel
15.
St Edmundsbury Cathedral
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St Edmundsbury Cathedral is the cathedral for the Church of Englands Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich. It is the seat of the Bishop of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich and is in Bury St Edmunds. Originating in the 11th century, it was rebuilt in the 12th and 16th century as a church and became a cathedral in 1914. A church has stood on the site of the cathedral since at least 1065, in the early 12th century the Abbot, Anselm had wanted to make a pilgrimage along the Way of St James to Santiago de Compostela. He was unsuccessful and instead rebuilt St Deniss and dedicated the new church to Saint James and this church was largely rebuilt, starting in 1503, in the Perpendicular style by John Wastell, a master mason who also worked on Kings College, Cambridge. Further alterations to the building were undertaken in the 18th and 19th centuries, notably a new chancel, when the Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich was created in 1914, St Jamess Church was made the cathedral. In 1959 Benjamin Britten wrote the Fanfare for St Edmundsbury for a Pageant of Magna Carta held in the cathedral grounds, from 1959 onwards there was renewed building work designed to transform the former parish church into a cathedral building. The cathedral architect from 1943 to 1988 was Stephen Dykes Bower, in the cathedral grounds a new choir school and visitors centre were which were opened in 1990, built by Dykes Bowers successor, Alan Rome. The 150 foot structure was built from 600,000 bricks and faced with Barnack and its completion was officially celebrated on 22 July 2005. Further additions are the Chapel of the Transfiguration and the East Cloister, the font was designed in 1870 by George Gilbert Scott, constructed on a medieval shaft, with a cover by Frank Ernest Howard of Oxford. The decoration was added in 1960, a painting, The Martyrdom of St Edmund by Brian Whelan hangs in the Lady Chapel. A sculpture by Elizabeth Fink entitled Crucifixion stands by the Treasury steps, stained glass in the cathedral includes the medieval Susanna Window which has Flemish glass in the lower section and English glass at the top. The west window depicts the Last Judgement and dates from about 1900, the Dean of St Edmundsbury is the head and chair of the chapter of canons, the ruling body of the cathedral. Before 2000 the post was designated as a provost, which was then the equivalent of a dean at most English cathedrals, the first provost was John Orpen. The original ten bells were cast in 1785 by Thomas Osborn of Downham Market, in 1973 the bells were rehung in an iron frame at a lower level in the tower. Following a public appeal, a further two bells were added at Easter 2012, a thirteenth bell was added in 2013 which allows beginners to practice with a full octave, without having to use the four heaviest bells. The bells are rung on Sundays before the morning and evening services, list of cathedrals in the United Kingdom Official site Flickr images tagged Bury St Edmunds Cathedral Historic England
16.
Bury St Edmunds
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Bury St Edmunds is a market town in Suffolk, England. Bury St Edmunds Abbey is near the town centre, Bury is the seat of the Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich, with the episcopal see at St Edmundsbury Cathedral. The town, originally called Beodericsworth, was built on a pattern by Abbot Baldwin around 1080. It is known for brewing and malting and for a British Sugar processing factory, the town is the cultural and retail centre for West Suffolk and tourism is a major part of the economy. They all derive from Proto-Germanic *burgs meaning fortress and this in turn derives from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhrgh meaning fortified elevation, with cognates including Welsh bera and Sanskrit bhrant-. There is thus no justification for the folk etymology stating that the Cathedral Town was so called because St Edmund was buried there, the second section of the name refers to Edmund King of the East Angles, who was killed by the Vikings in the year 869. He became venerated as a saint and a martyr, and his shrine made Bury St Edmunds an important place of pilgrimage, the formal name of both the borough and the diocese is St Edmundsbury. Local residents often refer to Bury St Edmunds simply as Bury, Bury St Edmunds, supposed by some to have been the Villa Faustina of the Romans, was one of the royal towns of the Saxons. The town grew around Bury St Edmunds Abbey, a site of pilgrimage, by 925 the fame of St Edmund had spread far and wide, and the name of the town was changed to St Edmunds Bury. In 942 or 945 King Edmund had granted to the abbot and convent jurisdiction over the town, free from all secular services. Edward the Confessor made the lord of the franchise. Sweyn, in 1020, having destroyed the monastery and ejected the secular priests. Count Alan Rufus is said to have been interred at Bury St Edmunds Abbey in 1093, in the 12th and 13th centuries the head of the de Hastings family, who held the Lordship of the Manor of Ashill in Norfolk, was hereditary Steward of this abbey. On 18 March 1190, two days after the more well-known massacre of Jews at Clifford Tower in York, the people of Bury St Edmunds massacred 57 Jews. Later that year, Abbot Samson successfully petitioned King Richard I for permission to evict the towns remaining Jewish inhabitants on the grounds that everything in the town. Belonged by right to St Edmund, therefore, either the Jews should be St Edmund’s men or they should be banished from the town and this expulsion predates the Edict of Expulsion by 100 years. In 1198, a burned the shrine of St Edmund, leading to the inspection of his corpse by Abbot Samson. The town is associated with Magna Carta, by various grants from the abbots, the town gradually attained the rank of a borough
17.
Suffolk
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Suffolk is an East Anglian county of historic origin in England. It has borders with Norfolk to the north, Cambridgeshire to the west, the North Sea lies to the east. The county town is Ipswich, other important towns include Lowestoft, Bury St Edmunds, Newmarket and Felixstowe, the county is low-lying with very few hills, and is largely arable land with the wetlands of the Broads in the north. The Suffolk Coast and Heaths are an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, by the fifth century, the Angles had established control of the region. The Angles later became the folk and the south folk. Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia, Suffolk was originally divided into four separate Quarter Sessions divisions. In 1860, the number of divisions was reduced to two, the eastern division was administered from Ipswich and the western from Bury St Edmunds. Under the Local Government Act 1888, the two divisions were made the administrative counties of East Suffolk and West Suffolk, Ipswich became a county borough. A few Essex parishes were added to Suffolk, Ballingdon-with-Brundon and parts of Haverhill. On 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, East Suffolk, West Suffolk, the county was divided into several local government districts, Babergh, Forest Heath, Ipswich, Mid Suffolk, St. Edmundsbury, Suffolk Coastal, and Waveney. This act also transferred some land near Great Yarmouth to Norfolk, in 2007, the Department for Communities and Local Government referred Ipswich Borough Councils bid to become a new unitary authority to the Boundary Committee. The Boundary Committee consulted local bodies and reported in favour of the proposal and it was not, however, approved by the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government. Beginning in February 2008, the Boundary Committee again reviewed local government in the county, West Suffolk, like nearby East Cambridgeshire, is renowned for archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Bronze Age artefacts have been found in the area between Mildenhall and West Row, in Eriswell and in Lakenheath, other finds include traces of cremations and barrows. The majority of agriculture in Suffolk is either arable or mixed, Farm sizes vary from anything around 80 acres to over 8,000. Soil types vary from clays to light sands. The continuing importance of agriculture in the county is reflected in the Suffolk Show, although latterly somewhat changed in nature, this remains primarily an agricultural show. Below is a chart of regional gross value added of Suffolk at current basic prices published by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling, well-known companies in Suffolk include Greene King and Branston Pickle in Bury St Edmunds
18.
Bury St Edmunds Abbey
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The Abbey of Bury St Edmunds was once among the richest Benedictine monasteries in England, until the Dissolution of the monasteries in 1539. It is in the town grew up around it, Bury St Edmunds in the county of Suffolk. It was a centre of pilgrimage as the place of the Anglo-Saxon martyr-king Saint Edmund. To the small household of Benedictine monks who guarded the shrine the surrounding lands were granted in 1020, monks were introduced from St Benets Abbey under the auspices of the Bishop of Elmham and Dunwich. Two of them became Burys first two abbots, Ufi, prior of Holme, who was consecrated abbot by the Bishop of London, after Leofstans death, the king appointed his physician Baldwin to the abbacy. Baldwin rebuilt the church and reinterred St Edmunds body there with great ceremony in 1095, the cult made the richly endowed abbey a popular destination for pilgrimages. The abbey church of St Edmund was built in the 11th and 12th centuries on a cruciform plan, the shrine of St Edmund stood behind the high altar. The abbey was enlarged and rebuilt during the 12th century. At some 505 feet long, and spanning 246 ft across its westerly transept and it is now ruined, with only some rubble cores remaining, but two other separate churches which were built within the abbey precinct survive, having always functioned as parish churches for the town. St Jamess Church, now St Edmundsbury Cathedral, was finished around 1135, St Marys Church was first built around 1125, and then rebuilt in the Perpendicular style between 1425-35. Abbey Gate, opening onto the Great Courtyard, was the entrance which was used by the Abbeys servants. Thomas Hoving, who managed the acquisition of the cross while he was Associate Curator at The Cloisters, concluded that it was carved by Master Hugo at the Abbey. There is no evidence to suggest that the cross was even made in England, however, although this is accepted by most scholars. In 1327, it was destroyed during the Great Riot by the people, who were angry at the power of the monastery. Norman Gate dates from 1120–48 and was designed to be the gateway for the Abbey Church and it is still the belfry for the Church of St James and this four-storey gate-hall is virtually unchanged and is entered through a single archway. Abbey Gate is an impressive 14th century stone gatehouse, designed to be the gateway for the Great Courtyard, one of the best surviving examples of its type, this two storey gate-hall is entered through a single archway which retains its portcullis. The Crankles was the name of the fishpond near the river Lark, the vineyard was first laid out in the 13th century. There were three breweries in the Abbey as each monk was entitled to eight pints a day, the Abbeys charters granted extensive lands and rights in Suffolk
19.
United States Board on Geographic Names
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The United States Board on Geographic Names is a federal body within the United States Geological Survey, an agency of the Department of the Interior. The purpose of the board is to establish and maintain uniform usage of names throughout the federal government of the United States. The Board was created in 1890, its present form derives from a law of 1947, under the U. S. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, the BGN was created by presidential order. Mendenhall, superintendent of the U. S. President Benjamin Harrison signed an Executive Order on September 4,1890, to this Board shall be referred all unsettled questions concerning geographic names. The decisions of the Board are to be accepted … as the authority for such matters. The Board was given authority to resolve all unsettled questions concerning geographic names, Decisions of the Board were accepted as binding by all departments and agencies of the federal government. The Board has developed principles, policies, and procedures governing the use of domestic and it also deals with the names of geographical features underseas and in Antarctica. Although its official purpose is to resolve problems and new name proposals for the federal government. Any person or organization, public or private, may make inquiries or request the Board to render decisions on proposed new names, proposed name changes. Generally, the BGN defers federal name use to comply with local usage, for example, in rare cases where a locally used name is very offensive, the BGN may decide against adoption of the local name for federal use. In federal mapping and names collection efforts, there is often a phase lag where a delay occurs in adoption of a locally used name, sometimes the delay is several decades. Volunteers in the Earth Science Corps are used to assist the U. S. Geological Survey in collecting names of geographic features. The Geographic Names Information System, developed by the BGN in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey, includes topographic map names, the names of books and historic maps which confirm the feature or place name are cited. Variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded, the BGN has members from six federal departments as well as the Central Intelligence Agency, the Government Publishing Office, the Library of Congress, and the U. S. Postal Service. The BGN rules on hundreds of naming decisions annually and stores over two million records in its databases at geonames. usgs. gov. State and local governments, and private mapping organizations usually follow the BGNs decisions, the BGN has an executive committee and two permanent committees with full authority, the 10 to 15-member Domestic Names Committee and the 8 to 10-member Foreign Names Committee. The BGN does not create a name, the BGN responds to proposals for names from federal agencies, state, local, and tribal governments. The BGN does not translate terms, but instead accurately uses foreign names in the Roman alphabet, for non-Roman languages, the BGN uses transliteration systems or creates them for less well-known languages
20.
Apostrophe
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The apostrophe character is a punctuation mark, and sometimes a diacritical mark, in languages that use the Latin alphabet and some other alphabets. In English it is used for several purposes, The marking of the omission of one or more letters, the marking of plurals of individual characters. Apostrophe comes ultimately from Greek ἡ ἀπόστροφος, through Latin and French, the apostrophe looks the same as a closing single quotation mark, although they have different meanings. Such incorrect substitutes as ´ and are common in unprofessional texts, the apostrophe was first used by Pietro Bembo in his edition of De Aetna. It was introduced into English in the 16th century in imitation of French practice, introduced by Geoffroy Tory, the apostrophe was used in place of a vowel letter to indicate elision. It was also used in place of a final e when it was elided before a vowel. Modern French orthography has restored the spelling une heure, from the 16th century, following French practice, the apostrophe was used when a vowel letter was omitted either because of incidental elision or because the letter no longer represented a sound. English spelling retained many inflections that were not pronounced as syllables, notably verb endings and the noun ending -es, so apostrophe followed by s was often used to mark a plural, especially when the noun was a loan word. The use of elision has continued to the present day, but significant changes have made to the possessive. By the 18th century, apostrophe + s was used for all possessive singular forms. This was regarded as representing the Old English genitive singular inflection -es, the plural use was greatly reduced, but a need was felt to mark possessive plural. The solution was to use an apostrophe after the plural s, however, this was not universally accepted until the mid-19th century. The apostrophe is used to indicate possession and this convention distinguishes possessive singular forms from simple plural forms, and both of those from possessive plural forms. For singulars, the possessive or genitive inflection is a survival from certain genitive inflections in Old English. Summary of rules for most situations Possessive personal pronouns, serving as either noun-equivalents or adjective-equivalents, do not use an apostrophe, even when they end in s. The complete list of those ending in the s or the corresponding sound /s/ or /z/ but not taking an apostrophe is ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs. Other pronouns, singular nouns not ending in s, and plural nouns not ending in s all take ’s in the possessive, e. g. someone’s, a cat’s toys, women’s. Plural nouns already ending in s take only an apostrophe after the s when the possessive is formed
21.
Edgartown Village Historic District
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The Edgartown Village Historic District is a historic district encompassing the traditional center of Edgartown, Massachusetts, on the island of Marthas Vineyard. The district is bounded by Water St. and Peases Point Way. The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983, only portions of First Period construction have survived in Edgartown, one example is the Captain D. Fisher House on North Water Street. Most of the 18th century houses that survive are vernacular in their construction methods, edgartowns heyday during the 19th century was roughly during the second quarter of the 19th century, when the whaling industry dominated its economy. As a result, a portion of its architecture is in the most popular style from that time. The Fisher House on Morse Street is probably the most elaborate Greek Revival house in the village, because of the decline in the whaling industry and the village economy, there are comparatively few Victorian period buildings. Between 1895 and about 1930 a number of houses were built. National Register of Historic Places listings in Dukes County, Massachusetts
22.
Neoclassical architecture
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Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century. In its purest form, it is a style derived from the architecture of classical antiquity, the Vitruvian principles. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro, Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but may be labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporary buildings. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is referred to as Classicism. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée, the many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullées ideas and Edmund Burkes conception of the sublime, the baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. The most popular was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell, the book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book featured the work of Inigo Jones. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain, at the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic architect earl, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, in 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of Palladios Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and this severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of Englands finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk, the main block of this house followed Palladios dictates quite closely, but Palladios low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicising vein was also detectable, to a degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for S, by the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s, in France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden. A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire, in France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire or Empire. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg, indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved an audience in the 1760s
23.
Thomas Mayhew
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Governor Thomas Mayhew, the Elder established the first English settlement of Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket and adjacent islands in 1642. He is one of the editors of the Bay Psalm Book and his assistant Peter Foulger was the grandfather of Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Mayhew was born in Tisbury, in the county of Wiltshire in England and he married Anna Parkhurst, born about 1600, in Hampshire, England, daughter of Matthew Parkhurst. In 1621 they had a son, Thomas, the Younger, two years later they had another child, Robert Mayhew, baptized in Tisbury. The family left England in 1631/2 during the Great Migration of Puritans that brought 20,000 settlers to Massachusetts in thirteen years. Through the agency of Matthew Cradock of London, Mayhew had been appointed to manage properties in Medford, Massachusetts, in or about 1633, Mayhews wife Anna died, and about 1634 he returned to England for a business meeting with Cradock. While in England, he married Jane Gallion, and brought her back to New England with him and their daughter Hannah was born in 1635, and three more daughters, Mary, Martha, and Bethiah, followed. Martha is the singer and song-writer Taylor Swifts 7th Great-Grandmother. In 1641, Thomas secured Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, the Elizabeth Islands, and other islands as a colony from Sir Ferdinando Gorges. This enabled him to transfer his business operations there, with the help of his son Thomas, a settlement was established and farming and whaling enterprises were begun. The Mayhews had great success in regard to Indian policy, because of the fair treatment of the Indians there, the colony was protected from the bloodshed that occurred elsewhere, in King Philips War. In 1646, the General Court of Massachusetts directed the leaders of the colony to select two among them to serve as missionaries to the natives. So great was the interest aroused by this venture that a society was formed in England also to support the missionaries, unfortunately a massive conflict broke out, called King Philips War, which resulted in many deaths of both the settlers and the natives. They are, John Eliot, Thomas Mayhew, and Eleazar Wheelock, in 1657, the younger Thomas Mayhew was drowned when a ship he was travelling in was lost at sea on a voyage to England. Mayhews three grandsons Matthew Mayhew, Thomas, John Mayhew, and other members of his family assisted him in running his business and he bought the County for 40 pounds and two beaverskin hats from William Alexander, the 2nd Earl of Sterling. To resolve a conflicting ownership claim, he paid off Sir Ferdinando Gorges. Mayhew established himself as governor of Marthas Vineyard in 1642 and sent his son, Thomas the Younger and he himself followed four years later. Together he and the younger Thomas established Martha’s Vineyard’s first settlement and called it Great Harbor, Mayhew and his fellow settlers found a large and economically stable native population of about 3,000 living in permanent villages, led by four sachems
24.
Watertown, Massachusetts
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The Town of Watertown is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. It is part of the Greater Boston area, the population was 31,915 at the 2010 census. Watertown is one of fourteen Massachusetts municipalities that have applied for, Watertown is made up of six neighborhoods, Bemis, Brigham, Coolidge Square, East Watertown, Watertown Square and the West End. Archeological evidence suggests that Watertown was inhabited for thousands of years before the arrival of settlers from England, two tribes of Massachusett, the Pequossette and the Nonantum, had settlements on the banks of the river later called the Charles. The Pequossette built a weir to trap herring at the site of the current Watertown Dam. The annual fish migration, as both alewife and blueback herring swim upstream from their home in the sea to spawn in the fresh water where they were hatched. Watertown, first known as Saltonstall Plantation, was one of the earliest of the Massachusetts Bay settlements and it was begun early in 1630 by a group of settlers led by Richard Saltonstall and George Phillips and officially incorporated that same year. The alternate spelling Waterton is seen in early documents. The first buildings were upon land now included within the limits of Cambridge known as Gerrys Landing, for its first quarter century Watertown ranked next to Boston in population and area. Since then its limits have been greatly reduced, thrice portions have been added to Cambridge, and it has contributed territory to form the new towns of Weston, Waltham, Lincoln and Belmont. As early as the close of the 17th century, Watertown was the horse and cattle market in New England and was known for its fertile gardens. Here about 1632 was erected the first gristmill in the colony, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, after adjournment from Concord, met from April to July 1775 in the First Parish Church, the site of which is marked by a monument. The Massachusetts General Court held its sessions here from 1775 to 1778, committees met in the nearby Edmund Fowle House. Boston town meetings were held here during the siege of Boston, from 1832 to 1834 Theodore Parker conducted a private school here and his name is still preserved in the Parker School, though the building no longer operates as a public school. The Arsenal is notable for being the site of a 1911 strike prompted by the management methods of operations research pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor, taylors method, which he dubbed Scientific Management, broke tasks down into smaller components. The strike and its causes were controversial enough that they resulted in Congressional hearings in 1911, taylors methods spread widely, influencing such industrialists as Henry Ford, and the idea is one of the underlying inspirations of the factory line industrial method. The site includes the Arsenal Center for the Arts, an arts center that opened in 2005. The Arsenal is now owned by athenahealth, Arsenal Street features two shopping malls across the street from one another, with the Watertown Mall on one side, and The Arsenal Project of Watertown on the other
25.
Edgartown, Massachusetts
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Edgartown is a town located on Marthas Vineyard in Dukes County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 4,067 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Dukes County. Edgartown has the largest area in the entirety of Dukes County, in 1642, Rev. Thomas Mayhew, Jr. led a group of families to start a colony on the island after its purchase by his father Thomas Mayhew. Originally called Great Harbor, it was incorporated in 1671 as Edgar Towne, the towns current name is in honor of Edgar, the son of James II of England who died at the age of three in 1671. The younger Mayhew began his work led to his becoming the first church planting Protestant missionary after he settled in Edgartown. A Wampanoag Indian named Hiacoomes who lived nearby became his partner in founding the churches in the Indian communities, Edgartown is well known as having been one of the primary ports for the whaling industry during the 1800s. Ships from all over the world would dock in its sheltered bay and captains would build grand mansions for their families with ornate top floor rooms called widows walks, which overlooked the harbor. A myth developed that wives would watch for months from these tiny rooms, there is little or no evidence that widows walks were intended or regularly used for this purpose. As more economical alternatives became available the whaling industry began to decline, by the beginning of the 20th century, its influence on the tiny town which had made its fortunes through the industry, was ended. Today the town is known for tourism, as well as the site of Chappaquiddick. Edgartown was an old whaling port and is now a summer and tourist destination with a multitude of houses built by whaling captains, the growth of the population over the past 25 years has led to a period of intense renewal of these old houses. Water Street along the harbor is the location of many of these Captains Homes which line both sides of the street, the town has also encouraged renovation of historical structures. In addition to the architecture of the town, Edgartown is easily traversed on foot or bicycle, Edgartown was used as the main shooting location for the town of Amity in Steven Spielbergs 1975 blockbuster Jaws. Many landmarks and buildings in Edgartown that were filmed in the movie can still be seen today, the Edgartown Harbor Light at the end of north Water Street defines the entrance to the Harbor. The harbor is large and entered through a modest sized channel on the North side of Edgartown. It opens into Katama Bay, created by a beach that sometimes connects the south end of Chappaquiddick to the remainder of Edgartown. This has led to a 3 knot current through Katama Bay and this protected body of water provides ample mooring for small and large boats. The opening of the harbor will accommodate large sailing and motorized boats, another feature is South Beach, a small part of the ocean beach that runs the entire southern length of the island from Edgartown to Aquinnah
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Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
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King Philip's War
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King Philips War was an armed conflict between American Indian inhabitants of present-day New England and English colonists and their Indian allies in 1675–78. The war is named for Metacomet, the Wampanoag chief who adopted the English name Philip due to the relations between his father and the Mayflower Pilgrims. The war continued in the most northern reaches of New England until the signing of the Treaty of Casco Bay in April 1678, Metacom was the second son of Wampanoag chief Massasoit, who had coexisted peacefully with the Pilgrims. Metacom succeeded his brother in 1662 and reacted against the European settlers continued encroaching onto Wampanoag lands, at Taunton in 1671, he was humiliated when colonists forced him to sign a new peace agreement that included the surrender of Indian guns. Officials in Plymouth Colony hanged three Wampanoags in 1675 for the murder of an Indian, and Metacoms followers and allies launched an assault on colonial towns throughout the region. Metacoms forces gained initial victories in the first year, but then the Indian alliance began to unravel, by the end of the conflict, the Wampanoags and their Narragansett allies were almost completely destroyed. Metacom anticipated their defeat and returned to his home at Mt. Hope. More than half of New Englands towns were attacked by Indians, King Philips War began the development of a greater European-American identity. The colonists trials, without significant English government support, gave them an identity separate. The Pilgrims who arrived on the Mayflower and founded Plymouth Plantation expended great effort in forging friendship and they traveled long distances to make peace with Chief Massasoit, and Governor William Bradford made a gift of his magnificent and prized red horse coat upon seeing that the chief admired it. By 1675, the efforts at friendship failed. Plymouth, Massachusetts was established in 1620 with significant early help from local Indians, particularly Squanto and Massasoit, the colonists progressively expanded throughout the territories of the several Algonquian-speaking tribes in the region. Prior to King Philips War, tensions fluctuated between Indian tribes and the colonists, but relations were generally peaceful, many of the neighboring tribes had been traditional competitors and enemies. As the colonial population increased, the New Englanders expanded their settlements along the coastal plain. By 1675, they had established a few towns in the interior between Boston and the Connecticut River settlements. The Wampanoag tribe under Metacomets leadership had entered into an agreement with the Plymouth Colony, however, in the decades preceding the war it, became clear to them that the treaty did not mean that the Colonists were not allowed to settle in new territories. Metacomet became sachem of the Pokanoket and Grand Sachem of the Wampanoag Confederacy after the death in 1662 of his older brother, the latter had succeeded their father Massasoit as chief. Well known to the English before his ascension as paramount chief to the Wampanoag, the Plymouth colonists had put in place laws making it illegal to do commerce with the Wampanoags
28.
James II of England
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James II and VII was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, the second surviving son of Charles I, he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother, Charles II. Members of Britains Protestant political elite increasingly suspected him of being pro-French and pro-Catholic and he was replaced by his eldest, Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. James made one attempt to recover his crowns from William. After the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamites at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 and he lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally, King Louis XIV. James, the surviving son of King Charles I and his wife. Later that same year, he was baptised by William Laud and he was educated by private tutors, along with his brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers. At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral, the position was honorary, but would become a substantive office after the Restoration. He was designated Duke of York at birth, invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642, as the Kings disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War, James stayed in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold. When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646, in 1648, he escaped from the Palace, aided by Joseph Bampfield, and from there he went to The Hague in disguise. When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649, monarchists proclaimed Jamess older brother as Charles II of England, Charles II was recognised as king by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland, and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in 1651. Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey, Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France, like his brother, James sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies. In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where, according to one observer, he ventures himself, in the meantime, Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne, but France, although hosting the exiles, had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell. In 1656, Charles turned instead to Spain – an enemy of France – for support, in consequence, James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turennes army. James quarrelled with his brother over the choice of Spain over France. In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace, James, doubtful of his brothers chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy. Ultimately, he declined the position, by the year the situation in England had changed. After Richard Cromwells resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children
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Province of New York
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The majority of this land was soon reassigned by the Crown, leaving territory that included the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, and Vermont. The territory of western New York was Iroquois land, also disputed between the English colonies and New France, and that of Vermont was disputed with the Province of New Hampshire, the province resulted from the Dutch Republic surrender of Provincie Nieuw-Nederland to the Kingdom of England in 1664. Immediately after, the province was renamed for James, Duke of York, the colony was one of the Middle Colonies, and ruled at first directly from England. British claims on any part of New York ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1783, after the American Revolution, the former colony became the State of New York. This British crown colony was established upon the former Dutch colony of New Netherland, with its core being York Shire, in what today is typically known as Downstate New York. The Province of New York was divided into counties on November 1,1683, by New York Governor Thomas Dongan, Albany County. Also claimed the area, later disputed, that is now Vermont, in addition, as there was no fixed western border to the colony, Albany County technically extended to the Pacific Ocean. Most of this land, which was Indian land for most of the history, has now been ceded to other states. Cornwall County, that part of Maine between the Kennebec River and the St. Croix River from the Atlantic Ocean to the St. Lawrence River, ceded to the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1692. Dukes County, the Elizabeth Islands, Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket Island east of Long Island, Dutchess County, now Dutchess and Putnam counties. Kings County, the current Kings County, Brooklyn, New York County, the current New York County, Manhattan. Orange County, now Orange and Rockland counties, Queens County, now Queens and Nassau counties. Richmond County, the current Richmond County, Staten Island, Suffolk County, the current Suffolk County. Ulster County, now Ulster and Sullivan counties and part of what is now Delaware, Westchester County, now Bronx and Westchester counties. On March 24,1772, Tryon County was formed out of Albany County and it was renamed Montgomery County in 1784, with a later division to Herkimer County around Little Falls. Charlotte County was formed out of Albany County and it was renamed Washington County in 1784. In 1617 officials of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland created a settlement at present-day Albany, New Amsterdam surrendered to Colonel Richard Nicholls on August 27,1664, he renamed it New York. On September 24 Sir George Carteret accepted the capitulation of the garrison at Fort Orange, the capture was confirmed by the Treaty of Breda in July 1667
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Edmund Andros
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Sir Edmund Andros was an English colonial administrator in North America. He was the governor of the Dominion of New England during most of its three-year existence, at other times, Andros served as governor of the provinces of New York, East and West Jersey, Virginia, and Maryland. Before his service in North America, he served as Bailiff of Guernsey and his tenure in New England was authoritarian and turbulent, as his views were decidedly pro-Anglican, a negative quality in a region home to many Puritans. His actions in New England resulted in his overthrow during the 1689 Boston revolt and his actions and governance generally followed the instructions he was given upon appointment to office, and he received approbation from the monarchs and governments that appointed him. Andros was recalled to England from Virginia in 1698, and resumed the title of Bailiff of Guernsey, although he no longer resided entirely on Guernsey, he was appointed lieutenant governor of the island, and served in this position for four years. Andros was born in London on 6 December 1637, amice Andros, his father, was Bailiff of Guernsey and a staunch supporter of Charles I. His mother was Elizabeth Stone, whose sister was a courtier to the kings sister and it is possible that he fled Guernsey with his mother in 1645. In 1656, he was apprenticed to his uncle, Sir Robert Stone, Andros then served in two winter campaigns in Denmark, including the relief of Copenhagen in 1659. As a result of experiences he gained fluency in French, Swedish. He remained a supporter of the Stuarts while they were in exile. Charles II, after his restoration to the throne, specifically commended the Andros family for its support, Andros served as a courtier to Elizabeth of Bohemia from 1660 until her death in 1662. During the 1660s he served in the English army against the Dutch and he was next commissioned a major in the regiment of Sir Tobias Bridge, which was sent to Barbados in 1666. He returned to England two years later, carrying despatches and letters, after his father died in 1674, Andros acquired Sausmarez Manor and was named to succeed him as Bailiff of Guernsey. He was also appointed by the Duke of York to be the first proprietary governor of the Province of New York, Andros agreed to confirm the existing property holdings and to allow the Dutch inhabitants of the territory to maintain their Protestant religion. Andros was also involved in disputes with the neighboring Connecticut Colony. Yorks territorial claim did not acknowledge these, and Andros announced to Connecticut authorities his intentions to reclaim that territory in early 1675, Connecticut leaders pointed out the later revisions to Connecticuts boundaries, but Andros pressed his claim, arguing that those revisions had been superseded by Yorks grant. Andros used the outbreak of King Philips War in July 1675 as an excuse to go by ship to Connecticut with a military force to establish the dukes claim. When he arrived at Saybrook at the mouth of the river on 8 July he found the fort occupied by Connecticut militia
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Province of Massachusetts Bay
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The Province of Massachusetts Bay was a crown colony in British North America and, from 1776, one of the thirteen original states of the United States. It was chartered on October 7,1691, by William and Mary, the joint monarchs of the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The charter took effect on May 14,1692, and included the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Plymouth Colony, the Province of Maine, Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The modern Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the successor, Maine has been a separate U. S. state since 1820. The name Massachusetts comes from the Massachusett, an Algonquian tribe, the name has been translated as at the great hill, at the place of large hills, or at the range of hills, with reference to the Blue Hills, and in particular, Great Blue Hill. Colonial settlement of the shores of Massachusetts Bay began in 1620 with the founding of the Plymouth Colony, over the next ten years there was a major migration of Puritans to the area, leading to the founding of a number of new colonies in New England. By the 1680s the number of colonies had stabilized at five, in addition to Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay was the most populous and economically significant, housing a sizable merchant fleet. The colonies at times struggled against the Indian population, which had suffered a decline in population prior to the arrival of the first permanent settlers. In the 1630s the Pequot tribe was destroyed, and King Philips War in the 1670s resulted in the expulsion, pacification. The latter war was costly to the colonists of New England. Massachusetts and Plymouth were both somewhat politically independent from England in their days, but this situation changed after the restoration of Charles II to the English throne in 1660. Charles sought closer oversight of the colonies, and to introduce and enforce economic control over their activities, the Navigation Acts passed in the 1660s were widely disliked in Massachusetts, where merchants often found themselves trapped and at odds with the rules. These issues and others led to the revocation of the first Massachusetts Charter in 1684, when James was deposed in the 1688 Glorious Revolution, Massachusetts political leaders conspired against Andros, arresting him and other English authorities in April 1689. This led to the collapse of the Dominion, as the other colonies then quickly reasserted their old forms of government, the Plymouth colony had never had a royal charter, so its governance had always been on a somewhat precarious footing. Massachusetts, however, was placed into constitutional anarchy by the uprising, provincial agents traveled to London where Increase Mather, representing the old colony leaders, petitioned new rulers William and Mary to restore the old colonial charter. When King William learned that this result in a return to the predominantly entrenched religious rule. Instead, the Lords of Trade decided to solve two problems at once by combining the two colonies, accordingly, on October 7,1691, they issued a charter for the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and appointed Sir William Phips its governor. Although the effect of change has been subject to debate among historians
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Nantucket, Massachusetts
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Nantucket /ˌnænˈtʌkᵻt/ is an island about 30 miles by ferry south from Cape Cod, in the American state of Massachusetts. Together with the islands of Tuckernuck and Muskeget, it constitutes the Town of Nantucket, and the conterminous Nantucket County. As of the 2010 census, the population was 10,172, part of the town is designated the Nantucket CDP, or census-designated place. The region of Surfside on Nantucket is the southernmost settlement in Massachusetts, the name Nantucket is adapted from similar Algonquian names for the island, perhaps meaning faraway land or island. Nantucket is a tourist destination and summer colony, due to tourists and seasonal residents, the population of the island increases to at least 50,000 during the summer months. In 2008, Forbes magazine cited Nantucket as having home values among the highest in the US, home prices per square foot are considered much higher than those in the Hamptons on Long Island. The meaning of the term is uncertain, although it may have meant in the midst of waters, wampanoag is an Eastern Algonquian language of southern New England. The Nehantucket were an Algonquin-speaking culture of the area, Nantuckets nickname, The Little Grey Lady of the Sea, refers to the island as it appears from the ocean when it is fog-bound. The earliest French settlement in the region began on the island of Marthas Vineyard. Nantucket was part of Dukes County, New York, until 1691, as Europeans began to settle Cape Cod, the island became a place of refuge for Native Americans in the region, as Nantucket was not yet settled by Europeans. The growing population welcomed seasonal groups of other Native Americans who traveled to the island to fish and later harvest whales that washed up on shore. In October 1641, William, Earl of Sterling, deeded the island to Thomas Mayhew of Watertown, anxious to add to their number and to induce tradesmen to come to the island, the total number of shares were increased to twenty-seven. By 1667, twenty-seven shares had been divided between 31 owners, and also two beaver hats, one for myself, and one for my wife. The nine original purchasers were Tristram Coffin, Peter Coffin, Thomas Macy, Christopher Hussey, Richard Swain, Thomas Barnard, Stephen Greenleaf, John Swain and these men are considered the founding fathers of Nantucket, and many islanders are related to these families. Seamen and tradesmen began to populate Nantucket, such as Richard Gardner, John Gardner, sons of Thomas Gardner. In his 1835 history of Nantucket Island, Obed Macy wrote that in the early pre-1672 colony and this event started the Nantucket whaling industry. Herman Melville commented on Nantuckets whaling dominance in Moby-Dick, Chapter 14, for the sea is his, he owns it, as Emperors own empires. The Moby-Dick characters Ahab and Starbuck are both from Nantucket, by 1850, whaling was in decline, as Nantuckets whaling industry had been surpassed by that of New Bedford
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Benjamin Franklin
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Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a polymath and a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman. As a scientist, he was a figure in the American Enlightenment. As an inventor, he is known for the rod, bifocals. He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphias fire department and the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin earned the title of The First American for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, initially as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation, in the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat. To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin the most accomplished American of his age, Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at the age of 23. He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richards Almanack, which he authored under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, after 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British policies. He pioneered and was first president of The Academy and College of Philadelphia which opened in 1751 and he organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing shipments of crucial munitions from France, during the Revolution, he became the first US Postmaster General. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, from 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the 1750s, he argued against slavery from an economic perspective, Franklins father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23,1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15,1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrill, Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683, after her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9,1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their child, was Josiah Franklins fifteenth child and tenth
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Northampton, Massachusetts
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The city of Northampton is the county seat of Hampshire County, Massachusetts, United States. As of 2012, the total population of Northampton was 28,592. Northampton is known as an academic, artistic, musical, and it features a large politically liberal community along with numerous alternative health and intellectual organizations. Based on U. S. Census demographics, election returns, and other criteria, the city has a high proportion of residents who identify as gay and lesbian a high number of same-sex households, and is a popular destination for the LGBT community. Northampton is considered part of the Springfield Metropolitan Area, one of Western Massachusettss two separate metropolitan areas and it sits approximately 15 miles north of the city of Springfield, Massachusetts. Northampton is home to Smith College, Northampton High School, Northampton is also known as Norwottuck, or Nonotuck, meaning the midst of the river, named by its original Pocumtuc inhabitants. The Pocumtuc confederacy occupied the Connecticut River Valley from what is now southern Vermont, the Pocumtuc tribes were Algonquian and traditionally allied with the Mahican confederacy to the west. By 1606 an ongoing struggle between the Mahican and Iroquois confederacies led to attacks on the Pocumtuc by the Iroquoian Mohawk nation. The Mahican confederacy had been defeated by 1628, limiting Pocumtuc access to routes to the west. It was in context that the land making up the bulk of modern Northampton was sold to settlers from Springfield, Massachusetts. On May 18,1653 a petition for township was approved by the court of Springfield. While some settlers visited the land in the fall of 1653, they waited till early Spring 1654 to arrive and establish a permanent settlement. This coincided with a souring of relations between the Wampanoag and the Massachusetts Bay colonists, eventually leading to the expanded Algonquian alliance, Northampton was part of the Equivalent Lands compromise. Its territory would be enlarged beyond the settlement, but later portions would be carved up into separate cities, towns. Southampton, for example, was incorporated in 1775 and included parts of the territories of modern Montgomery, Westhampton was incorporated in 1778 and Easthampton in 1809. A section of Northampton called Smiths Ferry was once separated from the rest of the town by the boundaries of Easthampton, the shortest path to downtown was a road near the Connecticut River oxbow, which was subject to frequent flooding. Smiths Ferry was ceded to Holyoke, Massachusetts, in 1909, congregational preacher, theologian and philosopher Jonathan Edwards was a leading figure in a 1734 Christian revival in Northampton. In the winter of 1734 and the spring it reached such intensity that it threatened the towns businesses
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Massachusetts House of Representatives
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The Massachusetts House of Representatives is the lower house of the Massachusetts General Court, the state legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It is composed of 160 members elected from 12 counties each divided into electoral districts across the Commonwealth. The House of Representatives convenes at the Massachusetts State House in Boston, Representatives used to be apportioned by town. For the first 150 persons, one representative was granted, the largest membership of the House was 749 in 1812, the largest House without Maine was 635 in 1837. The original distribution was changed to the current regional system in the 20th century. Until 1978, there were 240 members of the house, a number in multi-member districts, today, each Representative represents about 40,000 residents. Their districts are named for the counties they are in and tend to stay within one county, Representatives serve two-year terms which are not limited. Within the Houses debating chamber hangs the Sacred Cod of Massachusetts, the 5-foot-long pine carving of the cod was offered by Representative John Rowe in 1784 in commemoration of the states maritime economy and history. Two previous carvings of the cod existed during the colonial era, the first destroyed in a fire in 1747. Since 1784, the current Sacred Cod has been present at nearly every House session, in 1933, members of the Harvard Lampoon stole the cod carving as part of a prank. The theft sparked a statewide search by the Boston and Massachusetts State Police. Following outrage from Boston newspapers and the General Court itself, the cod was anonymously handed back, the Democrats hold a supermajority in the House. The Speaker of the House presides over the House of Representatives, the Speaker is elected by the majority party caucus followed by confirmation of the full House through the passage of a House Resolution. As well as presiding over the body, the Speaker is also the chief leader, other House leaders, such as the majority and minority leaders, are elected by their respective party caucuses relative to their partys strength in the House. The current Speaker of the House is Robert DeLeo of the 19th Suffolk District, the Majority Leader is Ronald Mariano of the 3rd Norfolk District. The Republican Minority Leader is Bradley Jones, Jr. of the 20th Middlesex District, the most recent election of members was held on November 8,2016. Public Officers of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1947-1948,1951,1957,1961,1967,1971,1977,1981,1987,1993,1997,2001,2003,2005,2007 Massachusetts - State Legislative District Maps
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Massachusetts Governor's Council
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Councillors are elected by the general public and their duties are set forth in the Massachusetts Constitution. The Massachusetts Bay Colony received its first royal charter in 1629, with the founding of Boston following the arrival in 1630 of Governor John Winthrop, the colonys governance was based on this charter, which included the establishment of a council of assistants. The assistants were a body of magistrates who not only decided judicial cases, the assistants were elected by the colonys freemen. The charter for the called for eight and twenty assistants, or counsellors, to be advising and assisting to the governor who were to be chosen annually by the Great. The Council is composed of eight councilors and the governor or lieutenant governor, the eight councilors are elected every two years, one for each of eight councillor districts, residency in the district is not a requirement. The council membership was originally non elected appointment by the governor, the state constitution upon the prompting of the American Party in 1854 was changed to make the council an elected position open to all state residents. The Governors Council districts are specially composed, each district consists of the entirety of five contiguous Massachusetts Senate districts. There are provisions in the Massachusetts Constitution for filling unexpected vacancies, if a seat on the Council becomes vacant, the General Court may, by concurrent vote, select some person from the relevant councillor district to fill the opening. If the General Court is not in session, the Governor may select the new councillor, with the advice, the Council generally meets at noon on Wednesdays in its State House Chamber, next to the Governors Office. Pursuant to the Massachusetts Constitution, the Governor may, in general and at his discretion, annual compensation in 2016 was $36,025. The outside conduct of some councillors has drawn public scrutiny in recent years, felony assault charges were dismissed in July 2008 against one councilor, Marilyn Devaney. In the 2008 election, councillor Kelly A. Timilty falsified the endorsement of the governor, the 2008 election generated higher than usual interest in Council seats, but all of the incumbents were reelected. Originally, the Massachusetts Constitution placed the Governors Council in the line of executive succession, if the offices of Governor and Lieutenant Governor were both vacant, the Council would act as chief executive. During the colonial period this occurred three times, following statehood, it occurred only once. The constitutional line of succession was amended in 1918 to remove the Council and insert the secretary, attorney-general, treasurer and receiver-general, and auditor, in that order
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United States Customs Service
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The United States Customs Service was an agency of the U. S. federal government that collected import tariffs and performed other selected border security duties. Border Patrol and former INS inspectors, together with border agriculture inspectors, to form U. S. Customs and Border Protection, a single, unified border agency for the U. S. The United States Customs Service had three missions, collecting tariff revenue, protecting the U. S. economy from smuggling and illegal goods. Four weeks later, on July 31, the act of Congress established the United States Customs Service. As part of new government agency, a new role was created for government officials which was known as Customs Collector. In this role, one person would have responsibility to supervise the collection of duties in a particular city or region. For over 100 years after its birth, the U. S. Customs Service was the source of funds for the entire government. Purchases include the Louisiana and Oregon territories, Florida and Alaska, funding the National Road and the Transcontinental Railroad, building many of the nations lighthouses, military and Naval academies, and Washington, D. C. The original design had the Customs Service seal that was an eagle with three arrows in his left talon, a branch in his right and surrounded by an arc of 13 stars. In 1951, this was changed to the eagle depicted on the Great Seal of the United States and its actual name is the Revenue Ensign, as it was flown by ships of the Revenue Cutter Service, later the Coast Guard, and at customs houses. In 1910, President William Howard Taft issued an order to add an emblem to the flag flown by ships from the one flown on land at customs houses, the version with the badge continues to be flown by Coast Guard vessels. Until 2003, the version was flown at all United States ports of entry. The U. S. Customs Service employed a number of law enforcement officers throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Customs Special Agents investigated smuggling and other violations of customs, narcotics, Customs Inspectors were uniformed officers at airports, seaports and land border ports of entry who inspected people and vehicles entering the U. S. for contraband and dutiable merchandise. Customs Patrol Officers conducted uniformed and plainclothes patrol of the borders on land, sea and air to deter smuggling, in the 20th century, as international trade and travel increased dramatically, the Customs Service transitioned from an administrative bureau to a federal law enforcement agency. S. Postal Inspection Service, U. S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Border Patrol—to investigate cases often far from international airports, bridges and land crossings. With the passage of the Homeland Security Act, the U. S. Customs Service passed from under jurisdiction of the Treasury Department to the Department of Homeland Security, on March 1,2003, parts of the U. S. S. The Federal Protective Service, along with the arms of the U. S. Customs Service
