1.
Martha Washington (comics)
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Martha Washington is a fictional character created by Frank Miller, first appearing in the four-issue comic book series Give Me Liberty, published in 1990 by Dark Horse Comics. She is a student, but one who displays a gift for computer programming and hacking. Her teacher, Donald, encourages her to be a student and, because he lives outside the Green. One night, Martha shows up at Donald’s classroom and finds that he’s been murdered by the Ice Man, before dying, Donald managed to stab the Ice Man in the wrist. This distraction allowed Martha to seize his weapon, a longshoreman’s hook, the Ice Man chases her through the school to a locker room, but before he can kill her, he dies of blood loss. Martha is later remanded to a psychiatric hospital, in the institution, she discovers that experiments are being secretly performed on children to genetically alter their minds, effectively turning them into human computers. Their heads are covered with wires plugged into their brains, Martha believes one of them resembles the Raggedy Ann doll she played with as a child. This institution is closed due to budget cuts, and Martha is left homeless. She later joins the PAX Peace Force, where her heroic tale begins and she fights in many battles during the second American Civil War. During the second American Civil War, her mother and brother die when Chicago is destroyed by a nuclear weapon. It features Martha joining the PAX Peace Force — a reinvented U. S. Army — and engaging in heroic efforts. She eventually has to thwart the plans of Colonel Moretti before he brings the country to the brink of destruction. A five-issue series published in 1994, and closely based on Ayn Rands Atlas Shrugged, the war effort is undermined by frequent technology failures, the disappearances of Americas brightest minds, and a general malaise among the people. Washington is crippled in an attack, shes secretly visited by Wasserstein, her old boyfriend, who heals her with unknown technology. Washington is later brought onboard PAXs orbiting satellite Harmony, Wasserstein returns and seems to kill Coogan, Harmonys chief engineer. Washington pursues Wassersteins flying craft into the wasteland in Oklahoma. She penetrates the field at the core of the wasteland, Wasserstein, Raggyann, and the missing scientists have hidden themselves here to develop technologies and strategies to improve the world. Meanwhile, the Surgeon General, living through robot doubles, has control of Harmony
2.
First Lady of the United States
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First Lady of the United States is the informal but accepted title held by the wife of the President of the United States, concurrent with the presidents term of office. Although the first lady’s role has never been codified or officially defined, melania Trump is the current First Lady. While the title was not in use until much later, Martha Washington, the wife of George Washington. During her lifetime she was referred to as Lady Washington. Since the 1790s the role of first lady has changed considerably and it has come to include involvement in political campaigns, management of the White House, championship of social causes, and representation of the president at official and ceremonial occasions. Additionally, over the individual first ladies have held influence in a range of sectors. Historically, should a president be unmarried, or a widower, the use of the title First Lady to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive began in the United States. In the early days of the republic, there was not a generally accepted title for the wife of the president. Indulging in no indolence, she left the pillow at dawn, sometime after 1849, the title began being used in Washington, D. C. social circles. The title first gained recognition in 1877, when newspaper journalist Mary C. Ames referred to Lucy Webb Hayes as the First Lady of the Land while reporting on the inauguration of Rutherford B, the frequent reporting on Lucy Hayes activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington. A popular 1911 comedic play about Dolley Madison by playwright Charles Nirdlinger, titled The First Lady in the Land, by the 1930s, it was in wide use. Use of the later spread from the United States to other nations. The wife of the Vice President of the United States is sometimes referred to as the Second Lady of the United States, the position of the First Lady is not an elected one and carries only ceremonial duties. Nonetheless, first ladies have held a highly visible position in American society, the role of the First Lady has evolved over the centuries. She is, first and foremost, the hostess of the White House and she organizes and attends official ceremonies and functions of state either along with, or in place of, the president. Lisa Burns identifies four main themes of the first ladyship, as public woman, as political celebrity, as political activist. Martha Washington created the role and hosted many affairs of state at the national capital and this socializing became known as the Republican Court and provided elite women with an opportunity to play backstage political role
3.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
4.
Abigail Adams
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Abigail Adams was the closest advisor and wife of John Adams, as well as the mother of John Quincy Adams. John frequently sought the advice of Abigail on many matters, and their letters are filled with discussions on government. Her letters also serve as eyewitness accounts of the American Revolutionary War home front, Abigail Adams was born at the North Parish Congregational Church in Weymouth, Massachusetts, to William Smith and Elizabeth Smith. On her mothers side she was descended from the Quincy family, through her mother she was a cousin of Dorothy Quincy, wife of John Hancock. Adams was also the great-granddaughter of John Norton, founding pastor of Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts, the only remaining 17th-century Puritan meetinghouse in Massachusetts. Smith married Elizabeth Quincy in 1742, and together they had four children and their only son, born in 1746, died of alcoholism in 1787. As with several of her ancestors, Adamss father was a liberal Congregationalist minister, Smith did not focus his preaching on predestination or original sin, instead he emphasized the importance of reason and morality. In July 1775 his wife Elizabeth, with whom he had married for 33 years. In 1784, at age 77, Smith died, Abigail did not receive formal schooling, she was frequently sick as child, which may have been a factor which prevented her from receiving an education. Later in life, Adams would also consider that she was deprived an education because females were given such an opportunity. Her grandmother, Elizabeth Quincy, also contributed to Adams education, as she grew up, Adams read with friends in an effort to further her learning. As an intellectually open-minded woman for her day, Adams ideas on womens rights and government would play a major role, albeit indirectly. She became one of the most erudite women ever to serve as First Lady, as third cousins, Abigail and John had known each other since they were children. In 1762, John accompanied his friend Richard Cranch to the Smith household, Cranch was engaged to Adams older sister, Mary, and they would be the parents of federal judge William Cranch. John was quickly attracted to the petite, shy, 17-year-old brunette who was bent over some book. He was surprised to learn she knew so much poetry, philosophy. Smith, Abigails father, presided over the marriage of John Adams, after the reception, the couple mounted a single horse and rode off to their new home, the small cottage and farm John had inherited from his father in Braintree, Massachusetts. Later they moved to Boston, where his law practice expanded, the couple welcomed their first child nine months into their marriage
5.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
6.
Mount Vernon, Virginia
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Mount Vernon is a census-designated place and unincorporated community in Fairfax County, Virginia, United States. The population was 12,416 at the 2010 census. S, Route 1 to the north, and Little Hunting Creek to the east. Mount Vernon is located at 39°44′07″N 77°05′43″W at an elevation of 79 feet, located on U. S. Route 1 in Northern Virginia, Mount Vernon is 13 miles south-southwest of downtown Washington, D. C. and 13 miles southeast of Fairfax, the county seat. Mount Vernon sits on the Atlantic Coastal Plain on the side of the Potomac River. Two small tributaries of the river south through the CDP, Dogue Creek runs through the western part of the CDP. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 6.07 square miles of which 5.24 square miles is land and 0.83 square miles is water. As a suburb of Washington, D. C, Mount Vernon is a part of both the Washington Metropolitan Area and the larger Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area. As of the census of 2000, there were 28,582 people,10,575 households, there were 10,926 housing units at an average density of 1,435. 7/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 54. 42% White,27. 65% African American,0. 33% Native American,6. 33% Asian,0. 13% Pacific Islander,6. 87% from other races, and 4. 26% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14. 50% of the population,22. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 4. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70 and the family size was 3.16. In the CDP, the population was out with 26. 3% under the age of 18,7. 9% from 18 to 24,32. 4% from 25 to 44,24. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 94.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.8 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $61,119, and the median income for a family was $67,892. Males had an income of $42,049 versus $33,543 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $29,299, about 5. 3% of families and 7. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9. 7% of those under age 18 and 2. 4% of those age 65 or over. Mount Vernon is within Fairfax County Public Schools, Mount Vernon High School serves the community. Previously The Islamic Saudi Academy of Washington had a campus in Mount Vernon, Mount Vernon is, most famously, the home of the first President of the United States, General of the Armies, and tobacco planter George Washington and his wife Martha Dandridge Custis Washington
7.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
8.
Dower
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Dower is a provision accorded by law, but traditionally by a husband or his family, to a wife for her support in the event that she should become widowed. It was settled on the bride by agreement at the time of the wedding, however, in popular parlance, the term may be used for a life interest in property settled by a husband on his wife at any time, not just at the wedding. The verb to dower is sometimes used, in popular usage, the term dower may be confused with, A dowager is a widow. The term is used of a noble or royal widow who no longer occupies the position she held during the marriage. For example, Queen Elizabeth was technically the queen after the death of George VI. Such a dowager will receive the income from her dower property, property brought to the marriage by the bride is called a dowry. But the word dower has been used since Chaucer in the sense of dowry, property made over to the brides family at the time of the wedding is a bride price. This property does not pass to the bride herself, mahr, a payment that a husband is required to make to his wife at the time of an Islamic marriage or, failing that, in the event of a divorce. Unlike mahr, dower is optional and was paid only after the husbands death. In Europe, dower was only possible with actual assignment of property, being for the widow and being accorded by law, dower differs essentially from a conventional marriage portion such as the English dowry. The bride received a right to property from the bridegroom or his family. It was intended to ensure her livelihood in widowhood, and it was to be kept separate, the practice of dower was prevalent in those parts of Europe influenced by Germanic Scandinavian culture, such as Sweden, Germany, Normandy and successor states of the Langobardian kingdom. The husband was legally prevented from using the wifes dower — as contrasted with her dowry and this often meant that the womans legal representative, usually a male relative, became guardian or executor of the dower, to ensure that it was not squandered. Usually, the wife was free from kin limitations to use her dower to whatever and whomever she pleased. It may have become the property of her marriage, been given to an ecclesiastical institution. In English legal history, there were five kinds of dower, ad ostium ecclesiae, or at the church porch, ex assensu patris, de la plus belle, at common law. Dower ad ostium ecclesiae, was the closest to modern meaning of dower and it was the property secured by law, in brides name at the church porch. Dower wasnt the same as price, rather, it was legal assignment of movable or fixed property that became the brides property
9.
Cherokee
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The Cherokee language is part of the Iroquoian language group. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizens of the United States. The Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma has around 300,000 tribal members, in addition, numerous groups claiming Cherokee lineage, some of which are state-recognized, have members who are among those 819, 000-plus people claiming Cherokee ancestry on the US census. Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians have headquarters in Tahlequah, the UKB are mostly descendants of Old Settlers, Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817. They are related to the Cherokee who were relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina, the Cherokee refer to themselves as Ani-Yunwiya, which means Principal People. Many theories—though none proven—abound about the origin of the name Cherokee and it may have originally been derived from the Choctaw word Cha-la-kee, which means people who live in the mountains, or Choctaw Chi-luk-ik-bi, meaning people who live in the cave country. The earliest Spanish rendering of the name Cherokee, from 1755, is Tchalaquei, Another theory is that Cherokee derives from a Lower Creek word, Cvlakke. The Iroquois in New York have historically called the Cherokee Oyata’geronoñ, Tsalagi is sometimes misused as a name for the people, Tsalagi is actually the Cherokee word for the Cherokee language. There are two theories of Cherokee origins. Another theory is that the Cherokee had been in the Southeast for thousands of years, researchers in the 19th century recorded conversations with elders who recounted an oral tradition of the Cherokee peoples migrating south from the Great Lakes region in ancient times. They may have moved south into Muscogee Creek territory and settled at the sites of mounds built by the Mississippian culture, in the 19th century, European-American settlers mistakenly attributed several Mississippian culture sites to the Cherokee, including Moundville and Etowah Mounds. However, the Cherokee did not reach this part of Georgia until the late 18th century, pre-contact Cherokee are considered to be part of the later Pisgah Phase of Southern Appalachia, which lasted from circa 1000 to 1500. During the late Archaic and Woodland Period, Indians in the region began to cultivate plants such as elder, lambsquarters, pigweed, sunflowers. People created new art forms such as shell gorgets, adopted new technologies, during the Mississippian Culture-period, local women developed a new variety of maize called eastern flint corn. It closely resembled modern corn and produced larger crops, the successful cultivation of corn surpluses allowed the rise of larger, more complex chiefdoms with several villages and concentrated populations during this period. Corn became celebrated among numerous peoples in ceremonies, especially the Green Corn Ceremony. Much of what is known about pre-18th-century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions, the earliest ones of the mid-16th-century encountered people of the Mississippian culture, the ancestors to later tribes in the Southeast such as the Muscogee and Catawba
10.
White House (plantation)
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Troops of the Army of the Potomac under the command of George B. McClellan burned the house to the ground on June 28,1862, as they retreated during the Seven Days Battles. Rooney Lee rebuilt the house, but it burned to the ground in 1875 and was not rebuilt, a wealthy widow, Martha Custis was courted by George Washington, whom she married in 1759. Shortly thereafter, he resigned his Virginia military commission and they moved to his farm at Mount Vernon in Fairfax County overlooking the Potomac River, George and Martha Washington had no children of their own, but raised her two surviving children. Her son, John Parke Jacky Custis married Eleanor Calvert on February 3,1774, the couple then moved to the White House plantation. After the couple had lived at the White House plantation for more than two years, John Parke Custis purchased the Abingdon plantation, into which the couple settled during 1778, John Parke Custis died in 1781 after contracting camp fever at the Siege of Yorktown. Martha and George Washington then raised his two children, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis. George Washington became the first President of the United States and his wife, Martha, became the nations initial First Lady, the title of First Lady was traditionally given the Presidents wife in years thereafter. Arlington House later became the home of his daughter, Mary Anna Randolph Custis, born in 1807, who in 1831 married Robert E. Lee. In 1846, most of the area of the District of Columbia south of the Potomac River was retroceded to Virginia, including the land occupied by Arlington House and the surrounding plantation. Robert E. and Mary Anna Custis Lee had seven children, of these, the second son was William H. F. Rooney Lee, who was born at Arlington House. Rooney Lee was educated at Harvard University, and then followed his fathers footsteps into service with the U. S. Army, however, in 1859, he resigned his commission. Rooney Lee moved to White House Plantation, which he had inherited from his grandfather and he married Charlotte Wickham, a descendant of attorney John Wickham. They had two children, a boy and a girl, both of whom died in infancy and his wife, Charlotte, died in 1863. The plantation house at White House Plantation, which was burned in 1862, had been the second of three occupied the site of over the years, all destroyed by fires. All three of his sons joined him in service for the Confederacy. Robert E. Lees wife suffered from arthritis, and this became increasingly debilitating with advancing age. By 1861, she was using a wheelchair, general McClellan made arrangements for Mrs. Lees safe passage through the Union lines, and she relocated to Richmond, where she resided at 707 E. Franklin Street for the duration of the War. During the Peninsula Campaign, Frederick Law Olmsted, designer of New York Citys Central Park among his many accomplishments, sanitary Commission, a precursor to the Red Cross in Washington D. C. which tended to the Union wounded during the Civil War
11.
Pamunkey River
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The Pamunkey River is a tributary of the York River, about 93 miles long, in eastern Virginia in the United States. Via the York River it is part of the watershed of Chesapeake Bay, the Pamunkey River is formed by the confluence of the North Anna and South Anna rivers on the boundary of Hanover and Caroline counties, about 5 miles northeast of the town of Ashland. It flows generally southeastwardly past the Pamunkey Indian Reservation to the town of West Point, the rivers course is used to define all or portions of the southern boundaries of Caroline and King William counties and the northern boundaries of Hanover and New Kent counties. Board on Geographic Names settled on Pamunkey River as the official name in 1892
12.
Mezzotint
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Mezzotint is a printmaking process of the intaglio family, technically a drypoint method. It was the first tonal method to be used, enabling half-tones to be produced without using line- or dot-based techniques like hatching, cross-hatching or stipple. Mezzotint achieves tonality by roughening the plate with thousands of little dots made by a tool with small teeth. In printing, the pits in the plate hold the ink when the face of the plate is wiped clean. A high level of quality and richness in the print can be achieved, the mezzotint printmaking method was invented by the German amateur artist Ludwig von Siegen. His earliest mezzotint print dates to 1642 and is a portrait of Countess Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg and this was made by working from light to dark. The rocker seems to have been invented by Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a cavalry commander in the English Civil War, who was the next to use the process. Sir Peter Lely saw the potential for using it to publicise his portraits, the process was especially widely used in England from the mid-eighteenth century, to reproduce portraits and other paintings. Since the mid-nineteenth century it has relatively little used. Robert Kipniss and Peter Ilsted are two notable 20th-century exponents of the technique, M. C, British mezzotint collecting was a great craze from about 1760 to the Great Crash of 1929, also spreading to America. The favourite period to collect was roughly from 1750 to 1820, leading collectors included William Eaton, 2nd Baron Cheylesmore and the Irishman John Chaloner Smith. This became the most common method, the whole surface of a metal, usually copper, plate is roughened evenly, manually with a rocker, or mechanically. If the plate were printed at this point it would show as solid black, a burnisher has a smooth, round end, which flattens the minutely protruding points comprising the roughened surface of the metal printing plate. Areas smoothed completely flat will not hold ink at all, such areas will print white, by varying the degree of smoothing, mid-tones between black and white can be created, hence the name mezzo-tinto which is Italian for half-tone or half-painted. This is called working from dark to light, or the subtractive method, alternatively, it is possible to create the image directly by only roughening a blank plate selectively, where the darker parts of the image are to be. This is called working from light to dark, or the additive method, the first mezzotints by Ludwig von Siegen were made in this way. Especially in this method, the mezzotint can be combined with other techniques, such as engraving, on areas of the plate not roughened. The plate is put through a printing press next to a sheet of paper
13.
Mount Vernon
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Mount Vernon was the plantation house of George Washington, the first President of the United States, and his wife, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington. The estate is situated on the banks of the Potomac River in Fairfax County, Virginia, near Alexandria, across from Prince Georges County, the Washington family had owned land in the area since the time of Washingtons great-grandfather in 1674. In 1739 they embarked on an expansion of the estate that continued under George Washington, who came into possession of the estate in 1754, the mansion is built of wood in a loose Palladian style, and was constructed by George Washington in stages between 1758 and 1778. It occupies the site of an earlier, smaller house built by George Washingtons father Augustine and it remained Washingtons country home for the rest of his life. Following his death in 1799, under the ownership of successive generations of the family. Escaping the damage suffered by many plantation houses during the American Civil War, Mount Vernon was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and is today listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is still owned and maintained in trust by The Mount Vernon Ladies Association, allowing the public to see the estate is not an innovation, but part of a 200-year-old tradition started by George Washington himself. In 1794 he wrote, I have no objection to any sober or orderly persons gratifying their curiosity in viewing the buildings, Gardens, when George Washingtons ancestors acquired the estate, it was known as Little Hunting Creek Plantation, after the nearby Little Hunting Creek. Vernon had been Lawrences commanding officer in the British Royal Navy, when George Washington inherited the property, he retained the name. The current property consists of 500 acres, the main buildings, the present house was built in phases from 1758, by an unknown architect, on the site of the Washingtons former farmhouse. This staggered and unplanned evolution is indicated by the main door. As completed and seen today, the house is in a loose Palladian style, the principal block, dating from 1758, is a two-storied corps de logis flanked by two single-story secondary wings, built in 1775. These secondary wings, which house the hall on the northern side. The corps de logis and secondary wings have hipped roofs with dormers, the rooms at Mount Vernon have mostly been restored to their appearance at the time of George and Martha Washingtons occupancy. These rooms include Washingtons study, two dining rooms, the West Parlour, the Front Parlour, the kitchen and some bedrooms, instead they range from severe Palladianism to a finer and later neoclassicism in the style of Robert Adam. This varying of the style is best exemplified in the doorcases. Today, visitors to Mount Vernon are shown Washingtons study, a room to which in the century only a privileged few were granted entrée. It is a furnished room Washington used as a combined bathroom, dressing room and office
14.
Siege of Yorktown
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The battle boosted faltering American morale and revived French enthusiasm for the war, as well as undermining popular support for the conflict in Great Britain. In 1780, approximately 5,500 French soldiers landed in Rhode Island to assist their American allies in operations against British-controlled New York City. On the advice of Rochambeau, de Grasse informed them of his intent to sail to the Chesapeake Bay, where Cornwallis had taken command of the army. Cornwallis, at first given confusing orders by his officer, Henry Clinton, was eventually ordered to build a defensible deep-water port. Cornwallis movements in Virginia were shadowed by a Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette, the French and American armies united north of New York City during the summer of 1781. When word of de Grasses decision arrived, the armies began moving south toward Virginia. De Grasse sailed from the West Indies and arrived at the Chesapeake Bay at the end of August, bringing additional troops and providing a naval blockade of Yorktown. He was transporting 500,000 silver pesos collected from the citizens of Havana, Cuba, to fund supplies for the siege, while in Santo Domingo, de Grasse met with Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, an agent of Carlos III of Spain. De Grasse had planned to leave several of his warships in Santo Domingo, Saavedra promised the assistance of the Spanish navy to protect the French merchant fleet, enabling de Grasse to sail north with all of his warships. In the beginning of September, he defeated a British fleet led by Sir Thomas Graves that came to relieve Cornwallis at the Battle of the Chesapeake, as a result of this victory, de Grasse blocked any escape by sea for Cornwallis. By late September Washington and Rochambeau arrived, and the army, after initial preparations, the Americans and French built their first parallel and began the bombardment. With the British defense weakened, on October 14,1781 Washington sent two columns to attack the last major remaining British outer defenses, a French column took redoubt #9 and an American column took redoubt #10. With these defenses taken, the allies were able to finish their second parallel, with the American artillery closer and more intense than ever, the British situation began to deteriorate rapidly and Cornwallis asked for capitulation terms on the 17th. After two days of negotiation, the ceremony took place on the 19th, Lord Cornwallis was absent from the ceremony. With the capture of more than 7,000 British soldiers, on December 20,1780, Benedict Arnold sailed from New York with 1,500 troops to Portsmouth, Virginia. He first raided Richmond, defeating the militia, from January 5–7 before falling back to Portsmouth. The Marquis de Lafayette was sent south with 1,200 men to help with the assault, however, Destouches was reluctant to dispatch many ships, and in February sent only three. Destouches withdrew due to the damage sustained to his fleet, leaving Arbuthnot, on March 26, Arnold was joined by 2,300 troops under command of Major General William Phillips, who took command of the combined forces
15.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
16.
Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis
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Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis, known as Nelly, was the granddaughter of Martha Washington and the step-granddaughter of George Washington. Nelly was the daughter of John Parke Custis and Eleanor Calvert Custis and her father was the only surviving child of Daniel Parke Custis and his widow, Martha Dandridge Custis, who married George Washington in 1759. She was also the granddaughter of Benedict Swingate Calvert, illegitimate son of Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore and he was certainly descended from Charles II through the Kings daughter by Barbara Villiers, Charlotte FitzRoy. Following the premature death of John Parke Custis in 1781, Nelly and her brother, George Washington Parke Custis, were adopted by the Washingtons. The talented and beautiful woman often accompanied her grandparents to social events. On February 22,1799, Nelly Custis married George Washingtons nephew, the Washingtons wedding gift was 2,000 acres adjacent to Mount Vernon, on which the Lewises built Woodlawn Plantation. The Lewises had eight children, five of whom did not survive to adulthood, the three who did survive were, Frances Parke Lewis Butler Lorenzo Lewis Mary Eliza Lewis Conrad Upon her marriage, Nelly Lewis inherited about 80 slaves from her fathers estate. Her grandfather, Daniel Parke Custiss estate was liquidated following Martha Washingtons death in 1802, following the death of her mother in 1811, the John Parke Custis estate was liquidated, and she inherited approximately 40 additional slaves. About 1830 the Lewises moved to Audley plantation in Clarke County, beginning in the mid-1830s they began dividing their time between Virginia and their daughters homes in Louisiana. Nelly Custis Lewis continued to live at Audley after her husbands death in 1839, throughout her life, she regarded herself as a preserver of George Washingtons legacy. She shared memories and mementos, entertained and corresponded with those seeking information on the first president, a shaft to the east of the Washingtons tomb at Mount Vernon marks her burial site. Kneebone, John T. et al. eds, ribblett, David L. Nelly Custis, Child of Mount Vernon. Woodlawn Plantation Portraits of Eleanor Custis Lewis and Lawrence Lewis at Kenmore
17.
George Washington Parke Custis
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He spent part of his large inherited fortune constructing Arlington House on a plantation in the present Arlington County, Virginia, that was directly across the Potomac River from Washington, D. C. After Custis died, his daughter, Mary Anna Randolph Custis, the United States government confiscated the Custis estate during the American Civil War. George Washington Custis Lee then sold the estate back to the United States government, Arlington House is now the Robert E. Lee Memorial. The remainder of the Arlington plantation is now Arlington National Cemetery, George Washington Parke Custis was born on April 30,1781, at his mothers family home at Mount Airy, which is now a restored mansion in Rosaryville State Park in Prince Georges County, Maryland. Custis was born, his father died of fever at Yorktown, Virginia. Custis grandmother, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington, had earlier married George Washington and had raised at Mount Vernon G. W. P Custis father, John Parke Custis. After John Parke Custis died, George Washington adopted his namesake, G. W. P Custis, and with Martha Washington raised Custis and his sister, Nelly Custis, at Mount Vernon. Custis two oldest sisters, Elizabeth and Martha, remained at Abingdon with their mother, who in 1783 married Dr. David Stuart. The Washingtons brought George and Nelly,8 and 10 years old, respectively, to New York City in 1789 to live in the first, following the transfer of the national capital to Philadelphia, the original First Family occupied the Presidents House from 1790 to 1797. Custis attended the Germantown Academy in Germantown, Pennsylvania, the College of New Jersey and St. Johns College in Annapolis, George Washington repeatedly expressed frustration about young Custis, as well as his own inability to improve the youths attitude. Upon young Custis return to Mount Vernon after only one term at St, in January 1799, Custis was commissioned as a cornet in the United States Army and was promoted to second lieutenant in March. He served as aide-de-camp to General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and was honorably discharged 15 June 1800, Custis came of age, he inherited large amounts of money, land and property from the estates of his father and grandfather. Upon Martha Washingtons death in 1802, he received a bequest from her as well as his fathers former plantations because of the termination of her life estate, however, her executor, Bushrod Washington, refused to sell to G. W. P. Custis the Mt. Vernon estate on which Custis had been living, Custis thereupon moved into the four-room, 80-year-old house on land inherited from his father, who had called it Mount Washington. Custis began constructing Arlington House on his land, which at the time was within Alexandria County in the District of Columbia, hiring George Hadfield as architect, he constructed a mansion exhibiting the first example of Greek Revival architecture in America. He located the building on a prominent hill overlooking the Georgetown-Alexandria Turnpike, the Potomac River, using slave labor and materials on site, and interrupted by the War of 1812, G. W. P. Custis finally completed the exterior in 1818. Custis intended the mansion to serve as a memorial to George Washington
18.
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
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A close friend of George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette was a key figure in the French Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of 1830. Born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in south central France and he followed its martial tradition, and was commissioned an officer at age 13. He became convinced that the American cause in its war was noble. There, he was made a general, however, the 19-year-old was initially not given troops to command. Wounded during the Battle of Brandywine, he managed to organize an orderly retreat. He served with distinction in the Battle of Rhode Island, in the middle of the war, he returned home to lobby for an increase in French support. He again sailed to America in 1780, and was given positions in the Continental Army. In 1781, troops in Virginia under his command blocked forces led by Cornwallis until other American, Lafayette returned to France and, in 1787, was appointed to the Assembly of Notables, which was convened in response to the fiscal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates-General of 1789, where representatives met from the three orders of French society—the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. He helped write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, after the storming of the Bastille, Lafayette was appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guard and tried to steer a middle course through the French Revolution. In August 1792, the radical factions ordered his arrest, fleeing through the Austrian Netherlands, he was captured by Austrian troops and spent more than five years in prison. Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release in 1797, after the Bourbon Restoration of 1814, he became a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies, a position he held for most of the remainder of his life. During Frances July Revolution of 1830, Lafayette declined an offer to become the French dictator, instead, he supported Louis-Philippe as king, but turned against him when the monarch became autocratic. Lafayette died on 20 May 1834, and is buried in Picpus Cemetery in Paris, for his accomplishments in the service of both France and the United States, he is sometimes known as The Hero of the Two Worlds. Lafayettes lineage was likely one of the oldest and most distinguished in Auvergne and, perhaps, males of the Lafayette family enjoyed a reputation for courage and chivalry and were noted for their contempt for danger. One of Lafayettes early ancestors, Gilbert de Lafayette III, a Marshal of France, had been a companion-at-arms of Joan of Arcs army during the Siege of Orléans in 1429, according to legend, another ancestor acquired the crown of thorns during the Sixth Crusade. Lafayettes father likewise died on the battlefield, on 1 August 1759, Michel de Lafayette was struck by a cannonball while fighting a British-led coalition at the Battle of Minden in Westphalia. Lafayette became marquis and Lord of Chavaniac, but the estate went to his mother, in 1768, when Lafayette was 11, he was summoned to Paris to live with his mother and great-grandfather at the comtes apartments in Luxembourg Palace
19.
Rembrandt Peale
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Rembrandt Peale was an American artist and museum keeper. A prolific portrait painter, he was acclaimed for his likenesses of presidents George Washington. Peales style was influenced by French Neoclassicism after a stay in Paris in his early thirties, Rembrandt Peale was born the third of six surviving children to his mother, Rachel Brewer, and father, Charles Willson Peale in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, on February 22,1778. The father, Charles, also a notable artist, named him after the noted 17th-century Dutch painter and engraver Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn. His father also taught all of his children, including Raphaelle Peale, Rubens Peale and Titian Peale, to paint scenery and portraiture, Rembrandt began drawing at the age of 8. A year after his mother’s death and the remarriage of his father, Peale left the school of the arts, the canvas displays the young artists early mastery. The clothes, however, give the notion that Peale exaggerated what a 13-year-old would look like, later in his life, Peale often showed this painting to young beginners, to encourage them to go from bad to better. In July 1787, Charles Willson Peale introduced his son Rembrandt to George Washington, in 1795, at the age of 17, Rembrandt painted an aging Washington, making him appear far more aged than in reality. The portrait was well received, and Rembrandt had made his debut, at the age of 20, Peale married 22-year-old Eleanor May Short at St. Josephs Catholic Church in Philadelphia. During their marriage, Peale and Short had nine children, Rosalba, Eleanor, Michael Angelo, Angelica, in 1822, Peale moved to New York City where he embarked on an attempt to paint what he hoped would become the standard likeness of Washington. He studied portraits by artists including John Trumbull, Gilbert Stuart and his own father. Peale subsequently attempted to capitalize on the success of what became known as his Porthole picture. Patriae Pater was purchased by Congress in 1832 for $2,000 and it currently hangs in the Old Senate Chamber. In 1826 he helped found the National Academy of Design in New York City, Peale went on to create over 70 detailed replicas, including one of Washington in full military uniform that currently hangs in the Oval Office. Peale continued to paint other noted portraits, such as those of the third president Thomas Jefferson while he was in office, noted for his itinerant nature, Peale visited Europe several times to study art. Throughout his life, Peale traveled across the Western Hemisphere in search of inspiration and his father helped pay his way to Paris, where he stayed from June to September 1808, and again from October 1809 to November 1810. In Paris, Peale studied the works of Jacques-Louis David, which influenced him to paint in the Neoclassical style and he painted the famous explorer Alexander von Humboldt and several other noted patrons such as Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and François André Michaux. After his successes in France, Peale returned to Philadelphia in 1810 and his efforts to establish his knowledge and mastery of art were displayed in his painting The Roman Daughter
20.
Charles Willson Peale
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Charles Willson Peale was an American painter, soldier, scientist, inventor, politician and naturalist. He is best remembered for his paintings of leading figures of the American Revolution. Peale was born in 1741 in Chester, Queen Annes County, Maryland and he had a younger brother, James Peale. Charles became an apprentice to a saddle maker when he was thirteen years old, upon reaching maturity, he opened his own saddle shop, however, when his Loyalist creditors discovered he had joined the Sons of Liberty, they conspired to bankrupt his business. He was also, not very good at saddle making and he then tried fixing clocks and working with metals, but both of these endeavors failed as well. Finding that he had a talent for painting, especially portraiture, Peale studied for a time under John Hesselius, John Beale Bordley and friends eventually raised enough money for him to travel to England to take instruction from Benjamin West. Peale studied with West for three years beginning in 1767, afterward returning to America and settling in Annapolis, Maryland, there, he taught painting to his younger brother, James Peale, who in time also became a noted artist. Peales enthusiasm for the nascent national government brought him to the capital, Philadelphia, in 1776 and his estate, which is on the campus of La Salle University in Philadelphia, can still be visited. He also raised troops for the War of Independence and eventually gained the rank of captain in the Pennsylvania militia by 1776, while in the field, he continued to paint, doing miniature portraits of various officers in the Continental Army. He produced enlarged versions of these in later years and he served in the Pennsylvania state assembly in 1779–1780, after which he returned to painting full-time. Peale was quite prolific as an artist, while he did portraits of scores of historic figures, he is probably best known for his portraits of George Washington. The first time Washington sat for a portrait was with Peale in 1772, in January 2005, a full-length portrait of Washington at Princeton from 1779 sold for $21.3 million, setting a record for the highest price paid for an American portrait. One of his most celebrated paintings is The Staircase Group, a portrait of his sons Raphaelle and Titian. It is in the collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Peale had a great interest in natural history, and organized the first U. S. scientific expedition in 1801. These two major interests combined in his founding of what became the Philadelphia Museum, later known as Peales American Museum and it housed a diverse collection of botanical, biological, and archaeological specimens. Most notably, the museum contained a variety of birds which Peale himself acquired. In 1792, Peale initiated a correspondence with Thomas Hall, of the Finsbury Museum, City Road, Finsbury, eventually, an exchange system was established between the two, whereby Peale sent American birds to Hall in exchange for an equal number of British birds. This arrangement continued until the end of the century, the Peale Museum was the first to display a mastodon skeleton that Peale found in New York State
21.
Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben
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Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand Steuben, also referred to as the Baron von Steuben, was a Prussian and American military officer. He served as general and major general of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He is credited with being one of the fathers of the Continental Army in teaching them the essentials of military drills, tactics, and disciplines. He wrote Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States and he served as General George Washingtons chief of staff in the final years of the war. Baron von Steuben was born in the town of Magdeburg on September 17,1730. Baron Wilhelm von Steuben, and his wife, Silvia Sue Steuben, in 1740 Steubens father returned to Prussia and Friedrich was educated in the garrison towns Neisse and Breslau by Jesuits. It is said that at age 14 he served as volunteer with his father in one of the campaigns of the War of the Austrian Succession, Baron von Steuben joined the Royal Prussian Army at age 17. He served as a lieutenant during the Seven Years War in 1756. He served as adjutant to the battalion of General Johann von Mayer and was promoted to first lieutenant in 1759. In August 1759 he was wounded a second time at the Battle of Kunersdorf, in June 1761, he was appointed deputy quartermaster at the general headquarters. Later that year he was prisoner by the Russians at Treptow. Upon the reduction of the army at the end of the war, in 1763, towards the end of his life, Steuben indicated in a letter that an inconsiderate step and an implacable personal enemy led to his leaving the Prussian army. In 1764 Steuben became Hofmarschall to Fürst Josef Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, in 1769 the Duchess of Wurttemberg, niece of Frederick the Great, presented him with the Cross of the Order of De la Fidelite. In 1771 he was made a baron and that same year he accompanied the prince to France in 1771, hoping to borrow money. Failing to find funds, they returned to Germany in 1775, in 1763 Steuben had been formally introduced to the future French Minister of War, Claude Louis, Comte de Saint-Germain in Hamburg. They met again in Paris in 1777, the Count, fully realizing the potential of an officer with Prussian general staff training, introduced him to Benjamin Franklin. Franklin, however, was unable to offer Steuben a rank or pay in the American army, the Continental Congress had grown tired of foreign mercenaries coming to America and demanding a high rank and pay. Promoting these men over qualified American officers caused discontent in the ranks, Von Steuben would have to go to America strictly as a volunteer, and present himself to Congress
22.
Joseph Addison
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Joseph Addison was an English essayist, poet, playwright, and politician. He was the eldest son of The Reverend Lancelot Addison and his name is usually remembered alongside that of his long-standing friend, Richard Steele, with whom he founded The Spectator magazine. Addison was born in Millstone, Wiltshire, but soon after his birth his father, Lancelot Addison, was appointed Dean of Lichfield and he was educated at Charterhouse School, where he first met Richard Steele, and at The Queens College, Oxford. He excelled in classics, being noted for his Latin verse. In 1693, he addressed a poem to John Dryden, and his first major work and his translation of Virgils Georgics was published in the same year. While in Switzerland in 1702, he heard of the death of William III and he returned to England at the end of 1703. For more than a year he remained without employment, but the Battle of Blenheim in 1704 gave him an opportunity to distinguish himself. In 1705, with the Whigs in political power, Addison was made Under-Secretary of State, Addisons biographer states, In the field of his foreign responsibilities Addisons views were those of a good Whig. He had always believed that Englands power depended upon her wealth, her wealth upon her commerce, and her commerce upon the freedom of the seas, from 1708 to 1709 he was MP for the rotten borough of Lostwithiel. Addison was shortly afterwards appointed secretary to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Wharton, under the influence of Wharton, he was Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons for Cavan Borough from 1709 until 1713. From 1710, he represented Malmesbury, in his county of Wiltshire. He encountered Jonathan Swift in Ireland and remained there for a year, subsequently, he helped found the Kitcat Club and renewed his association with Richard Steele. In 1709 Steele began to bring out Tatler, to which Addison became almost immediately a contributor, thereafter he started The Spectator and this paper, which at first appeared daily, was kept up until 20 December 1714. His last undertaking was The Freeholder, a paper, 1715–16. He wrote the libretto for Thomas Claytons opera Rosamond, which had a premiere in London in 1707. In 1713 Addisons tragedy Cato was produced, and was received with acclamation by both Whigs and Tories and he followed this effort with a comedic play, The Drummer. In 1712, Addison wrote his most famous work of fiction, Cato and it has a prologue written by Alexander Pope and an epilogue by Dr. Garth. The play was a success throughout Britain and its possessions in the New World and it continued to grow in popularity, especially in the American colonies, for several generations
23.
Cato, a Tragedy
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Cato, a Tragedy is a play written by Joseph Addison in 1712, and first performed on 14 April 1713. It has a written by Alexander Pope, and an epilogue by Samuel Garth. The play was a success throughout England and her possessions in the New World and it continued to grow in popularity, especially in the American colonies, for several generations. Indeed, it was almost certainly an inspiration for the American Revolution. In fact, George Washington allegedly had it performed for the Continental Army while they were encamped at Valley Forge, the letter which proves the performance has questionable authenticity. The action of the play involves the forces of Cato at Utica, the noble sons of Cato, Portius and Marcus, are in love with Lucia, the daughter of Lucius, a senatorial ally of Cato. Juba, prince of Numidia, another fighting on Catos side, meanwhile, Sempronius, another senator, and Syphax, general of the Numidians, are conspiring secretly against Cato, hoping to draw off the Numidian army from supporting him. Some scholars, including historian David McCullough—author of 1776—believe that several famous quotations from the American Revolution came from, or were inspired by and these include, Patrick Henrys famous ultimatum, Give me Liberty or give me death. Nathan Hales valediction, I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country, washingtons praise for Benedict Arnold in a letter to him, It is not in the power of any man to command success, but you have done more—you have deserved it. They may pass, as one of our poets says, through many varieties of untried being, before their state obtains its final form. The poet in reference is, of course, Addison and the passage Burke quoted is from Cato, Through what variety of untried being, /Through what new scenes and changes must we pass. For example, John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon were inspired by the play to write a series of essays on individual rights, addisons tragedy also inspired the Portuguese playwright Almeida Garrett to write Catão, in 1821. The play was premiered on 29, september of the same year, celebrating the anniversary of the 1820 Liberal Revolution, in Portugal, by a group of Portuguese liberal intellectuals. It was staged a few times in Portugal, the following years, in 1828, it had the British premiere, in Plymouth, by a group of exiled officers and intellectuals, reviewed by British newspapers. Catão had its first edition in 1822, there were four other editions, being one of them in London, in 1828. Wilkins Micawber, a character in the 1850 novel David Copperfield by Charles Dickens, quotes Cato from the play, Plato, thou reasonest well. Andersons young adult novel The Astonishing Life of Octavian Nothing, the character also quotes the play, A day. The play also inspired the name of the Cato Institute, a prominent libertarian think tank based in Washington D. C, Joseph Addison, Cato, A Tragedy, and Selected Essays—Online version
24.
John Trumbull
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John Trumbull was an American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary War and was notable for his historical paintings. His Declaration of Independence was used on the reverse of the two-dollar bill, Trumbull was born in Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1756, to Jonathan Trumbull and his wife Faith Trumbull. His father served as Governor of Connecticut from 1769 to 1784, both sides of his family were descended from early Puritan settlers in the state. The young Trumbull entered the 1771 junior class at Harvard College at age fifteen, due to a childhood accident, Trumbull lost use of one eye, which may have influenced his detailed painting style. As a soldier in the American Revolutionary War, Trumbull rendered a service at Boston by sketching plans of the British works. He witnessed the Battle of Bunker Hill and he was appointed second personal aide to General George Washington, and in June 1776, deputy adjutant-general to General Horatio Gates. He resigned from the army in 1777 after a dispute over the dating of his officer commission, in 1780 he traveled to London, where he studied under Benjamin West. At Wests suggestion, Trumbull painted small pictures of the War of Independence and he painted about 250 in his lifetime. On September 23,1780, British agent Major John André was captured by Continental troops in North America, after news reached Great Britain, outrage flared and Trumbull was arrested, as having been an officer in the Continental Army of similar rank to André. He was imprisoned for seven months in Londons Tothill Fields Bridewell, after being released, Trumbull returned to the United States. In 1784, following the British recognition of the United States independence, while working in his studio, Trumbull painted Battle of Bunker Hill and Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec. Both works are now in the Yale University Art Gallery, in 1785 Trumbull went to Paris, where he made portrait sketches of French officers for the Surrender of Lord Cornwallis. With the assistance of Thomas Jefferson, serving there as the US minister, while in Paris, Trumbull is credited with having introduced Jefferson to the Italian painter Maria Cosway, they became lifelong intimate friends. Trumbulls painting became widely known due to an engraving of it by Asher Brown Durand. All now hang in rotunda of the United States Capitol, congress reportedly authorized only funds sufficient to purchase these four paintings. Trumbulls The Sortie Made by the Garrison of Gibraltar,1789, in 1831 Trumbull sold a series of 28 paintings and 60 miniature portraits to Yale University for an annuity of $1,000. This is by far the largest single collection of his works, the collection was originally housed in a neoclassical art gallery designed by Trumbull on Yales Old Campus, along with portraits by other artists. His portraits include full lengths of General Washington and George Clinton, New York also bought his full-length paintings of Alexander Hamilton and John Jay
25.
First inauguration of George Washington
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The first inauguration of George Washington as the first President of the United States was held on April 30,1789 on the balcony of Federal Hall in New York City, New York. The inauguration marked the commencement of the first four-year term of George Washington as President, chancellor of New York Robert Livingston administered the presidential oath of office. With his inauguration, the branch of the United States government officially began operations under the new frame of government established by the 1787 Constitution. The first term of John Adams as Vice President commenced on April 21,1789, when he took the vice presidential oath of office. The first presidential term started on March 4,1789, the set by the Congress of the Confederation for the beginning of operations of the federal government under the new U. S. Constitution. However, due to delays, that did not happen. On that date, the House of Representatives and the Senate convened, as a result, the Presidential Electoral Votes could not be counted or certified. On April 1, the House convened with a present for the first time. The Senate first achieved a quorum on April 6 and that same day, the House and Senate met in joint session and the electoral votes were counted. Washington and Adams were certified as having been elected president and vice president respectively. It was 5 p. m. at Mount Vernon on April 14,1789, the letter had been sent by Senator John Langdon of New Hampshire, the first president pro tempore of the United States Senate, who had presided over the counting of the electoral votes. He left early the morning for another welcome awaiting him in Trenton. On April 23 he took a barge with 13 pilots through the Kill Van Kull tidal strait into the Upper New York Bay. Thousands had gathered on the waterfront to see him arrive, Washington landed at Murrays Wharf, where he was greeted by New York Governor George Clinton as well as other congressmen and citizens. A plaque now marks the landing site and they proceeded through the streets to what would be Washingtons new official residence,3 Cherry Street. Washington dressed in an American-made dark brown suit with silk stockings and silver shoe buckles, he also wore a steel-hilted sword. Washington moved to the second-floor balcony, chancellor of New York Robert Livingston administered the presidential oath of office in view of throngs of people gathered on the streets. The Bible used in the ceremony was from St. Johns Lodge No,1, A. Y. M. and due to haste, it was opened at random to Genesis 49,13
26.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
27.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
28.
President's House (Philadelphia)
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The Presidents House, at 524–30 Market Street in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the third Presidential Mansion. It housed George Washington from November 27,1790, to March 10,1797, the three-and-a-half-story brick mansion on the south side of Market Street was built in 1767 by widow Mary Lawrence Masters. In 1772, she gave it as a gift to her elder daughter, who married Richard Penn, the lieutenant-governor of the Colony. The Penns and the Masterses moved to England during the days of the American Revolutionary War. During the British occupation of Philadelphia, September 1777 to June 1778, following the British evacuation, it housed the American military governor, Benedict Arnold, and it was here that he began his treason. After Arnold left Philadelphia, the resident was John Holker. Holker was an agent for the French, who were American allies at the time. Under his care the house suffered a fire, and was sold to a man whom Holker knew well, in 1781, it was purchased, refurbished, and expanded by Robert Morris, who lived here while Superintendent of Finance. Washington lodged here with Morris during the 1787 Constitutional Convention, in 1790, Morris gave up the house for his friend to use as the Executive Mansion, moving to the house next door. President Washington occupied it from November 1790 to March 1797, Adams oversaw the transfer of the federal government to the District of Columbia, and first occupied the White House on November 1,1800. The main house was demolished in 1832, although the four-story east and west walls survived as party walls shared with the adjoining buildings and these, along with surviving sections of the backbuildings, were demolished in the 1950s during the creation of Independence Mall. A public toilet was built on the site, in late 2000, during excavation for the new Liberty Bell Center, foundations of the Presidents House were uncovered. Intense interest arose in the project, especially after it was revealed that the planned main entrance would be just feet from the site of Washingtons slave quarters. It undertook a public project in 2007 that uncovered foundations of the backbuildings, the Presidents office. Washington had a staff of about 24, plus an office staff of 4 or 5. His wife Martha and two of her grandchildren, Wash Custis and Nelly Custis, were part of the First Family, the house was too small for the 30-plus occupants, so the President made additions. Although Pennsylvania had begun an abolition of slavery in 1780, it permitted slaveholders from other states to hold slaves in the state for up to six months, after that time, slaves would gain their freedom. Members of Congress were exempt from Pennsylvanias Gradual Abolition Act, but not officers of the executive, Washington and other slaveholders rotated their slaves out of the state to prevent the slaves from establishing the 6-month residency needed to qualify for manumission
29.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
30.
Oney Judge
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Oney Ona Judge, known as Oney Judge Staines after marriage, was a mixed-race slave on George Washingtons plantation, Mount Vernon, in Virginia. Beginning in 1789, she worked as a slave to First Lady Martha Washington in the presidential households in New York City. With the aid of Philadelphias free black community, Judge escaped to freedom in 1796, more is known about her than any other of the Mount Vernon slaves because she was twice interviewed by abolitionist newspapers in the mid-1840s. She was born about 1773 at Mount Vernon and her mother, Betty, was an enslaved seamstress, her father, Andrew Judge, was an English tailor working as an indentured servant at Mount Vernon. Oney had a half-brother Austin, and later a half-sister Delphy, Betty had been among the 285 African slaves held by Martha Washingtons first husband, Daniel Parke Custis. Custis died intestate, so his widow received a dower share – the lifetime use of one third of his Estate, Martha had control over these dower slaves, but did not have the legal power to sell or free them. Upon Marthas marriage to George Washington in 1759, the slaves came with her to Mount Vernon, including Betty. Because Betty was a slave, Austin, Oney and Delphy also were dower slaves. Upon the completion of his indenture, Andrew Judge settled in Alexandria, Virginia, at about age 10, Oney was brought to live at the Mansion House at Mount Vernon, likely as a playmate for Martha Washingtons granddaughter Nelly Custis. She eventually became the personal attendant or body servant to Martha Washington, in an interview when she was nearly 75, Oney said she had received no education under the Washingtons, nor religious instruction. With the 1780 Gradual Abolition Act, Pennsylvania became the first state to establish a process to emancipate its slaves, but no one was freed at first. The process was to play out over decades and not end until the death of the last enslaved person in Pennsylvania, the law immediately prohibited importation of slaves into the state, and required an annual registration of those already held there. Every future child of a mother would be born free. Congress, then the branch of the federal government, was meeting in Philadelphia in 1780. Significantly, Pennsylvania exempted members of Congress from the Gradual Abolition Act, Constitution was ratified, creating a federal government with three branches. New York City was the first national capital under the Constitution, in 1790, Congress transferred the national capital to Philadelphia for a ten-year period while the permanent national capital was under construction on the banks of the Potomac River. With the move, there was uncertainty about whether Pennsylvanias slavery laws would apply to officers of the federal government, by a strict interpretation, the Gradual Abolition Act exempted only slaveholding members of Congress. But there were slaveholders among the officers of the judicial branch, Washington contended that his presence in Philadelphia was solely a consequence of the citys being the temporary seat of the federal government
31.
Portsmouth, New Hampshire
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Portsmouth is a city in Rockingham County, New Hampshire, in the United States. It is the city in the county, but only the fourth-largest community. The first known European to explore and write about the area was Martin Pring in 1603, the Piscataqua River is a tidal estuary with a swift current, but forms a good natural harbor. The west bank of the harbor was settled by English colonists in 1630 and named Strawbery Banke, the village was fortified by Fort William and Mary. Strategically located for trade between upstream industries and mercantile interests abroad, the port prospered, fishing, lumber and shipbuilding were principal businesses of the region. Enslaved Africans were imported as laborers as early as 1645 and were integral to building the citys prosperity, Portsmouth was part of the Triangle Trade, which made significant profits from slavery. At the towns incorporation in 1653, it was named Portsmouth in honor of the colonys founder and he had been captain of the port of Portsmouth, England, in the county of Hampshire, for which New Hampshire is named. In 1774, in the lead-up to the Revolution, Paul Revere rode to Portsmouth warning that the British were coming, although the harbor was protected by Fort William and Mary, the rebel government moved the capital inland to Exeter, safe from the Royal Navy. The Navy bombarded Falmouth on October 18,1775, African Americans helped defend Portsmouth and New England during the war. Their petition was not answered then, but New Hampshire later ended slavery, Thomas Jeffersons 1807 embargo against trade with Britain withered New Englands trade with Canada, and a number of local fortunes were lost. Others were gained by men who acted as privateers during the War of 1812, in 1849, Portsmouth was incorporated as a city. Once one of the nations busiest ports and shipbuilding cities, Portsmouth expressed its wealth in fine architecture and it contains significant examples of Colonial, Georgian, and Federal style houses, a selection of which are now museums. Portsmouths heart contains stately brick Federalist stores and townhouses, built all-of-a-piece after devastating early 19th-century fires, the worst was in 1813 when 244 buildings burned. A fire district was created that required all new buildings within its boundaries to be built of brick with slate roofs, the city was also noted for the production of boldly wood-veneered Federalist furniture, particularly by the master cabinet maker Langley Boardman. The Industrial Revolution spurred economic growth in New Hampshire mill towns such as Dover, Keene, Laconia, Manchester, Nashua and Rochester and it shifted growth to the new mill towns. The port of Portsmouth declined, but the city survived through Victorian-era doldrums, in the 20th century, the city founded a Historic District Commission, which has worked to protect much of the citys irreplaceable architectural legacy. In 2008, Portsmouth was named one of the Dozen Distinctive Destinations by the National Trust for Historic Preservation, the compact and walkable downtown on the waterfront draws tourists and artists, who each summer throng the cafes, restaurants and shops around Market Square. Portsmouth annually celebrates the revitalization of its downtown with Market Square Day, Portsmouth shipbuilding history has had a long symbiotic relationship with Kittery, Maine, across the Piscataqua River
32.
Hercules (chef)
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Hercules – also known as Herculas or Uncle Harkless – was a slave who worked at Mount Vernon, George Washingtons Virginia plantation on the Potomac River. He was the cook at the mansion in the 1780s, cooking for the Washington family. In 1790 President Washington brought him to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to cook in the kitchen of the Presidents House, Hercules escaped to freedom from Mount Vernon in 1797, and later was legally manumitted under the terms of Washingtons will. Hercules was probably born around 1755, and was either the child of Washingtons slaves or was purchased following Washingtons 1759 marriage to the widow Martha Custis and he would have grown up on the plantation. He chose Alice, one of Martha Washingtons dower slaves, as his wife and he, Alice, and the three children were listed in the February 1786 Mount Vernon Slave Census, which records him as one of two cooks in the Mansion House. Following her death, he may have had another daughter, Hercules was one of nine enslaved Africans brought to Philadelphia in 1790 by Washington to work in the presidential household. The others were his son Richmond, Oney Judge, Moll, Austin, Christopher Sheels, Giles, Paris, in the memoirs of Martha Washingtons grandson, G. W. P. Custis, Hercules was recalled as a celebrated artiste. as highly accomplished a proficient in the art as could be found in the United States. The cook was given the privilege of selling the food from the Philadelphia kitchen which, by Custiss estimate, earned him nearly $200 a year. According to Custis, Hercules was a dresser and was given freedom to walk about in the city. Pennsylvania passed a gradual abolition law in 1780 which prohibited non-residents from holding slaves in the longer than six months. If held beyond that period, the states Gradual Abolition Act gave slaves the legal power to free themselves, members of Congress were specifically exempted from the act. Officers of the executive and judicial branches of the government were not mentioned since those branches didnt exist until the U. S. When the national capital moved to Philadelphia in 1790, there was a question whether the state law would apply to federal officials. This rotation was itself a violation of Pennsylvania law, but no one challenged the Presidents actions, the U. S. Supreme Court later found Pennsylvanias 1788 amendment to the Gradual Abolition Act to be unconstitutional in Prigg v. Pennsylvania. Washington allowed Hercules son Richmond to work alongside his father in the Philadelphia kitchen for about a year, in November 1796, Richmond was implicated in a theft of money at Mount Vernon. Washington had suspicions that the father and son were planning a joint escape, stephen Decaturs book The Private Affairs of George Washington stated that Hercules escaped to freedom from Philadelphia in March 1797, at the end of Washingtons presidency. Decatur, a descendant of Washingtons secretary, Tobias Lear, discovered a cache of family papers unavailable to scholars, New research documents that Hercules was left behind at Mount Vernon when the Washingtons returned to Philadelphia following Christmas 1796
33.
Manumission
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Manumission, from manumit /ˌmænjəˈmɪt/, is the act of a slave owner freeing his or her slaves. Different approaches developed, each specific to the time and place of a slave system. The motivations of slave owners in manumitting slaves were complex and varied, firstly, manumission may present itself as a sentimental and benevolent gesture. One typical scenario was the freeing in the masters will of a servant after long years of service. A trusted bailiff might be manumitted as a gesture of gratitude, for working as agricultural laborers or in workshops. Such feelings of benevolence may have been of value to slave owners themselves as it allowed them to focus on a component in the human traffic of slavery. In general, it was common for older slaves to be given freedom. Legislation under the early Roman Empire put limits on the number of slaves that could be freed in wills, freeing slaves could serve the pragmatic interests of the owner. The prospect of manumission worked as an incentive for slaves to be industrious, Roman slaves were paid a wage with which they could save up to, in effect, buy themselves. Manumission contracts found in abundance at Delphi specify in detail the prerequisites for liberation. Manumission was not always charitable or altruistic, in one of the stories in the Arabian Nights, in the Sir Richard Francis Burton translation, a slave owner threatens to free his slave for lying to him. The slave says, thou shall not manumit me, for I have no handicraft whereby to gain my living, greek slaves were generally not permitted to become citizens on being manumitted, being merely allowed to remain as a metic. Even in freedom, the ex-slave could be bound to some continuing duty to the master and were required to live nearby the former master. Breaches of these conditions could lead to beatings, prosecution at law, sometimes extra payments were specified by which a freed slave could liberate himself from these residual duties. But ex-slaves were able to own property outright, and their children were free of all constraint, under Roman law, a slave had no personhood and was protected under law mainly as his or her masters property. In ancient Rome, a slave who had been manumitted was a libertus, a freed slave customarily took his or her former owners family name, that is, the nomen of his or her masters gens. The former owner became his or her patron, as a client, the freed person retained certain obligations to his or her master, who in turn owed mutual favors. A freed slave could also acquire multiple patrons, a freed slave became a citizen
34.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
35.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
36.
Eliphalet Frazer Andrews
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He received many commissions to copy images of famous Americans, those copies are displayed by federal, state and local institutions, including the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Born in Steubenville, Ohio, to Dr, following the election of his friend Rutherford B. Hayes as President Andrews moved to Washington, D. C. William Wilson Corcoran hired Andrews to establish an art instruction curriculum at his Corcoran School of Art, Andrews served as its director, 1877–1902, and later as the Corcoran Art Gallery until his death. Several federal government agencies, mostly through the Architect of the Capitol, Edward Clark, thus, several of his portraits, are in The White House collection, including posthumous full-length portraits of Martha Washington, Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Johnson. His Poppies and Edge of a Stream are at the Smithsonian American Art Museum, former Kentucky Lieutenant Governor John C. Underwood, President of the United Confederate Veterans commissioned Andrews to make twenty portraits of prominent Confederates for a proposed Confederate Museum in Richmond, the project was embroiled in litigation, and eleven paintings were sold in 1910 for unpaid storage fees by a Covington, Kentucky warehouse. Most ended up in Virginia, but three are in the collection of the Kentucky Museum at Western Kentucky University, perhaps the most famous paintings therein are the Four Seasons of the Confederacy murals by Charles Hoffbauer. In 1895 Andrews married Marietta Fauntleroy Minnigerode and she was the daughter of Charles Ernest Frederick Minnigerode, rector of St. Pauls Church in Richmond, Virginia and active in the Daughters of the Confederacy. E. F. Andrews was a member of the Metropolitan Club in Washington, D. C. Andrews died in Washington, D. C. on March 15,1915, and his remains were returned to Steubenville, Ohio. In 1917, his widow presented his portrait of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest to the Confederate Memorial in Chattanooga, Tennessee
37.
Edward Savage (artist)
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Edward Savage was an American portrait painter and engraver. He was born in Princeton, Mass. and at first worked as a goldsmith, although seemingly untrained in painting, he came into prominence in 1790 through his portrait of George Washington, intended as a gift to Harvard University. In 1791 he visited London, where he studied for a time under Benjamin West, upon his return to the United States in 1794, he practiced in Philadelphia and New York City, maintaining for several years a picture gallery and art museum on Water Street in New York. Robert Edge Pine began the first representation of Congress Voting Independence in 1784, Savage completed the painting in 1801, and mass-produced the image as a mezzotint. Its portraits of Anthony Wayne, Benjamin Rush, and Thomas Jefferson are highly esteemed, the painting was in the collection formed by William F. Havemeyer, New York, until bought by Andrew Mellon and donated to the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. C. H. Hart, in Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society Ancestry. com This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed, American paintings & historical prints from the Middendorf collection, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Savage
38.
William Lee (valet)
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William Billy Lee, also known as Will Lee, was George Washingtons personal servant and the only one of Washingtons slaves freed outright by Washington in his will. William kept the surname Lee from this previous owner, also purchased at this time was Williams brother Frank, as well as two other slaves. Washington paid high prices for William and Frank, as they were to be slaves rather than field laborers. William and Frank were often chosen to serve as domestic servants, Frank became Washingtons butler at Mount Vernon, while William served in a variety of roles, including Washingtons valet or manservant. As valet, Lee performed chores such as brushing Washingtons long hair, Washington was a frequent fox hunter, and Lee became his huntsman, a role that required expert horsemanship. Will had but one order, which was to keep with the hounds and this fearless horseman would rush, at full speed, through brake or tangled wood, in a style at which modern huntsmen would stand aghast. Lee served at Washingtons side throughout the eight years of the Revolutionary War, including the winter at Valley Forge and at the siege of Yorktown. According to historian Fritz Hirschfeld, Lee rode alongside Washington in the thick of battle, Lees wife was Margaret Thomas Lee, a free African American from Philadelphia who had worked as a servant in Washingtons headquarters during the war. Although slave marriages were not recognized by Virginia law, in 1784, at the couples request, whether or not she ever came to Mount Vernon is unknown. In 1785, Lee injured a knee while on an expedition with Washington. Three years later, while going to the post office in Alexandria, he fell and injured his other knee, rendering him seriously disabled. When Washington was elected president in 1789, Lee attempted to make the journey to New York City for the inauguration and he was attended by several physicians, who made a steel brace for his knee that allowed him to join Washingtons presidential household. Franks nephew, Christopher Sheels, assisted Lee in New York City, Revolutionary War veterans who visited Mount Vernon often stopped to reminisce with Lee about the war. When Washington died in 1799, he freed William Lee in his will, Lee was the only one of Washingtons 124 slaves freed outright in his will, the remaining slaves owned by Washington were to be freed upon the death of Martha Washington. Lee was given a pension of thirty dollars a year for the rest of his life, Lee chose to live out the rest of his life at Mount Vernon, where he is buried. But because he was a servant, a humble slave. List of slaves George Washington and slavery Samuel Osgood House — First Presidential Mansion, alexander Macomb House — Second Presidential Mansion. Presidents House — Third Presidential Mansion, George Washington and Slavery, A Documentary Portrayal
39.
Christopher Sheels
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Christopher Shields, was an enslaved house servant at George Washingtons plantation, Mount Vernon, in Virginia, United States. As a teenager, he worked as Washingtons body servant in the households in New York City, 1789–90. In September 1799, Washington foiled an attempt by Shields from Mount Vernon. Three months later he was present at the former-presidents deathbed, Shields was the property of the Estate of Daniel Parke Custis, Martha Washingtons first husband. As widow, she was granted the use of one-third of the Custis Estate slaves. At the time of her January 1759 marriage to George Washington, under Virginia law, the legal status of a slave was traced through the female, so all the children of an enslaved mother were born enslaved, no matter who the father was. Multiple generations of slaves were born at Mount Vernon. The July 1799 Mount Vernon Slave Census lists 153 dower slaves, while George Washington freed his 123 slaves through his 1799 Will, the dower slaves remained the property of the Custis Estate. Following Martha Washingtons 1802 death, the Custis Estate was settled, Shields was the son of Alyce, an enslaved spinner at the Mansion. His father may have been Christopher Sheldes, a wagon driver. Shields is listed as 11 yrs. old in the February 1786 Mount Vernon Slave Census and his grandmother, Old Doll, was a cook at the Mansion, and had been among the original dower slaves who were brought to Mount Vernon in 1759. Will Lee had been Washingtons body servant through the Revolutionary War, the 1787 Constitutional Convention, in April 1789, when Washington set out for New York City to be inaugurated as the first President of the United States, Lee was too ill to make the trip. Fourteen-year-old Shields went in Lees place, although Lee joined Shields in the presidential household several weeks later, the two were related, Lees brother was married to Shields aunt. Following ratification of the U. S. Constitution, New York City served as the capital from December 1788 to December 1790. Washington was inaugurated on April 30,1789, the first presidential household consisted of about twenty servants, including seven slaves from Mount Vernon — Oney Judge, Austin, Giles, Paris, Moll, Christopher Shields, William Lee. Under the July 1790 Residence Act, Congress moved the capital to Philadelphia for a ten-year period. Will Lee was never part of the Philadelphia presidential household and he was permanently returned to Mount Vernon, where he became the plantations shoemaker. Following Austins 1794 death, Postilion Joe joined the Philadelphia presidential household, with the 1780 Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery, Pennsylvanias government was the first to begin an abolition of slavery
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"First Lady Martha Washington", First Ladies: Influence & Image, C‑SPAN[44]
