1.
Federal holidays in the United States
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In the United States, a federal holiday is an authorized holiday which has been recognized by the US government. Every year on a US federal holiday, non-essential federal government offices are closed, private-sector employees required to work on a legal holiday may receive holiday pay in addition to their ordinary wages. Federal holidays are designated by the United States Congress in Title V of the United States Code, Congress has authority to create holidays only for federal institutions and employees, and for the District of Columbia. However, as a general rule other institutions, including banks, post offices, in various parts of the country, state and city holidays may be observed in addition to the federal holidays. The history of federal holidays in the United States dates back to June 28,1870, and. in every State of the Union. Although at first applicable only to employees in the District of Columbia. The original four holidays were, New Years Day Independence Day Thanksgiving Day Christmas Day George Washingtons Birthday became a Federal holiday in 1880, in 1888 and 1894, respectively, Decoration Day and Labor Day were created. In 1938, Armistice Day was created to mark the end of World War I, the scope and the name of the holiday was expanded in 1954 to honor Americans who fought in World War II and the Korean War. In 1968, the Monday Holiday Act of 1968 shifted several holidays to always fall on a Monday, in 1983, the Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. became the nations most recently established holiday. Most of the ten U. S. federal holidays are also state holidays, a holiday that falls on a weekend is usually observed on the closest weekday. The official names came from the laws that define holidays for federal employees, New Years Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day are observed on the same calendar date each year. Holidays that fall on a Saturday are observed by federal employees who work a standard Monday to Friday week on the previous Friday, Federal employees who work on Saturday will observe the holiday on Saturday, Friday will be a regular work day. Holidays that fall on a Sunday are observed by workers the following Monday. The other holidays always fall on a day of the week. Although many states recognize most or all federal holidays as state holidays, furthermore, states can recognize other days as state holidays that are not federal holidays. Private employers also cannot be required to observe federal or state holidays, some private employers, often by a union contract, pay a differential such as time-and-a-half or double-time to employees who work on some federal holidays. However, most non-unionized private sector employees only receive their pay for working on a federal holiday if it is not a designated holiday at their company. Over the course of U. S. history, federal holidays were created, two holidays, the Eighth and Victory Day, were once celebrated
2.
Martin Luther King Jr.
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Martin Luther King Jr. was an American Baptist minister and activist who was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, with the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia, and helped organize the 1963 nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama. King also helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous I Have a Dream speech, on October 14,1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolent resistance. In 1965, he helped to organize the Selma to Montgomery marches, in the final years of his life, King expanded his focus to include opposition towards poverty and the Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled Beyond Vietnam. In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D. C. to be called the Poor Peoples Campaign, Kings death was followed by riots in many U. S. cities. Ray, who fled the country, was arrested two months later at London Heathrow Airport, King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Martin Luther King Jr. Day was established as a holiday in numerous cities and states beginning in 1971, hundreds of streets in the U. S. have been renamed in his honor, and a county in Washington State was also renamed for him. The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, King was born on January 15,1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, to the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King. It was during this time he chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the German reformer Martin Luther, King had Irish ancestry through his paternal great-grandfather, as well as African ancestry. King was a child, between an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King. King sang with his choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind. His mother was an accomplished organist and choir leader, and she took him to various churches to sing and he received attention for singing I Want to Be More and More Like Jesus. King later became a member of the choir in his church. King said that his father regularly whipped him until he was fifteen, King saw his fathers proud and fearless protests against segregation, such as King Sr. When King was a child, he befriended a boy whose father owned a business near his familys home. When the boys were six, they started school, King had to attend a school for African Americans, King lost his friend because the childs father no longer wanted the boys to play together. King suffered from depression throughout much of his life, in his adolescent years, he initially felt resentment against whites due to the racial humiliation that he, his family, and his neighbors often had to endure in the segregated South
3.
Uniform Monday Holiday Act
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The Uniform Monday Holiday Act is an Act of Congress that amended the federal holiday provisions of the United States Code to establish the observance of certain holidays on Mondays. The Act was signed into law on June 28,1968, the Act was designed to increase the number of three-day weekends for federal employees. Veterans Day was removed from this list of always-on-Monday holidays when it was moved back to its date of November 11, by act of Congress in 1975. The Act did not officially establish Presidents Day, nor did it combine the observance of Lincolns Birthday with Washingtons Birthday, as of 1998, a dozen U. S. states officially refer to the holiday as Presidents Day. The law relocated the date of Columbus Day to the date as Thanksgiving in Canada. Several Canadian provinces would later establish Family Day which coincides with Washingtons Birthday. Federal holiday provisions of the United States Code,5 U. S. C.6103 Holidays of United States Code,5 U. S. C.6103 Text of the Act from the U. S. National Archives
4.
Nonviolence
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Nonviolence is the personal practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth tirthankara of the Jain religion, was the torch-bearer of ahimsa and introduced the word to the world and he taught that to attain nirvana, one must abstain from violence. Nonviolence also has active or activist elements, in that believers accept the need for nonviolence as a means to political and social change. In modern times, nonviolent methods of action have been a tool for social protest. There are many examples of their use, fuller surveys may be found in the entries on civil resistance, nonviolent resistance and nonviolent revolution. The 1989 Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia that saw the overthrow of the Communist government is considered one of the most important of the largely nonviolent Revolutions of 1989. Most recently the nonviolent campaigns of Leymah Gbowee and the women of Liberia were able to achieve peace after a 14-year civil war and this story is captured in a 2008 documentary film Pray the Devil Back to Hell. In an essay, To Abolish War, evolutionary biologist Judith Hand advocated the use of nonviolent direct action to dismantle the global war machine. The term nonviolence is often linked with or used as a synonym for peace, and despite being frequently equated with passivity and pacifism, this is rejected by nonviolent advocates and activists. Nonviolence refers specifically to the absence of violence and is always the choice to do no harm or the least harm, sometimes nonviolence is passive, and other times it isnt. For example, if a house is burning down with mice or insects in it, there is at times confusion and contradiction written about nonviolence, harmlessness and passivity. A confused person may advocate nonviolence in a specific context while advocating violence in other contexts, for example, someone who passionately opposes abortion or meat eating may concurrently advocate violence to kill an abortionist or attack a slaughterhouse, which makes that person a violent person. On a national level, the strategy of nonviolent action seeks to undermine the power of rulers by encouraging people to withdraw their consent, the forms of nonviolence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs and political analysis. Commonly, both of these dimensions may be present within the thinking of particular movements or individuals, nicolas Walter noted the idea that nonviolence might work runs under the surface of Western political thought without ever quite disappearing. Walter noted Étienne de La Boéties Discourse on Voluntary Servitude and P. B, shelleys The Masque of Anarchy contain arguments for resisting tyranny without using violence. In 1838, William Lloyd Garrison helped found the New England Non-Resistance Society, in modern industrial democracies, nonviolent action has been used extensively by political sectors without mainstream political power such as labor, peace, environment and womens movements. Lesser known is the role that nonviolent action has played and continues to play in undermining the power of political regimes in the developing world. Also of primary significance is the notion that just means are the most likely to lead to just ends
5.
Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
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Martin Luther King Jr. was an American clergyman and civil rights leader who was fatally shot at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4,1968. King was rushed to St. Josephs Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 7,05 p. m. that evening and he was a prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement and Nobel Peace Prize laureate who was known for his use of nonviolence and civil disobedience. James Earl Ray, a fugitive from the Missouri State Penitentiary, was arrested on June 8,1968, in London at Heathrow Airport, extradited to the United States, and charged with the crime. On March 10,1969, Ray entered a plea of guilty and was sentenced to 99 years in the Tennessee State Penitentiary. Ray later made attempts to withdraw his guilty plea and be tried by a jury. The King family and others believe that the assassination was carried out by a conspiracy involving the U. S. government, as alleged by Loyd Jowers in 1993, in 1999 the King family filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Jowers for the sum of $10 million. During closing arguments, the Kings attorney asked the jury to award damages of $100, during the trial both the family and Jowers presented evidence alleging a government conspiracy. The government agencies accused could not defend themselves or respond because they were not named as defendants, based on the evidence, the jury concluded that Jowers and others were part of a conspiracy to kill King and awarded the Kings $100. The allegations and the finding of the Memphis jury were later rejected by the United States Department of Justice in 2000 due to lack of evidence, King received frequent death threats due to his prominence in the Civil Rights Movement. He had confronted the risk of death and made that part of his philosophy. He taught that murder could not stop the struggle for equal rights, after the assassination of President Kennedy in 1963, King told his wife Coretta, This is what is going to happen to me also. I keep telling you, this is a sick society, King traveled to Memphis, Tennessee, in support of striking African American city sanitation workers. The workers had staged a walkout on February 11,1968, to protest unequal wages, at the time, Memphis paid black workers significantly lower wages than whites. Several sanitation workers had been killed on the job due to working conditions. In addition, unlike workers, black workers received no pay if they stayed home during bad weather, consequently, most blacks were compelled to work even in driving rain. On April 3, King returned to Memphis to address a gathering at the Mason Temple and his airline flight to Memphis was delayed by a bomb threat but he made his planned speech. King delivered the speech, now known as the Ive Been to the Mountaintop address, as he neared the close, he referred to the bomb threat, And then I got to Memphis. And some began to say the threats, or talk about the threats that were out
6.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
7.
Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr.
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Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent African-American clergyman, a civil rights leader, and a Nobel laureate. King himself observed, In the quiet recesses of my heart, I am fundamentally a clergyman, the famous I Have a Dream address was delivered in August 1963 from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. Less well-remembered are the early sermons of that young, 25-year-old pastor who first began preaching at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama in 1954. As a political leader in the Civil Rights Movement and as a modest preacher in a Baptist church,1953 – The Three Dimensions of a Complete Life. 1954 – Rediscovering Lost Values, February 28,1954,1956 - The Death of Evil Upon the Seashore 1956 – Pauls Letter to American Christians, November 4,1956. 1957 – The Birth of a New Nation, April 7,1957,1957 – Loving Your Enemies, November 17,1957. 1963 – Eulogy for the Martyred Children, September 18,1963,1965 – How Long, Not Long, also known as Our God Is Marching On. 1966 – Guidelines for a Constructive Church, Delivered at Ebenezer Baptist Church, Atlanta, Georgia,1967 – The Three Dimensions Of A Complete Life, Delivered at New Covenant Baptist Church, Chicago, Illinois, on April 9,1967. Pisgah Missionary Baptist Church, Chicago, Illinois, on August 27,1967, -- see Video on YouTube 1968 – The Drum Major Instinct, February 4,1968. 1968 – Remaining Awake Through a Great Revolution, March 31,1968, Delivered at the National Cathedral in Washington, D. C.1968 – Ive Been to the Mountaintop, April 3,1968. 1968 – Why America May Go to Hell, planned to be delivered on April 7,1968, speech given at McFarlin Auditorium, Southern Methodist University March 17,1966, drawn from same sources as April 10,1957 St. Louis, Mo. speech. National Days/National Ways, Historical, Political, And Religious Celebrations Around The World, the Preacher King, Martin Luther King Jr. and the Word That Moved America. Martin Luther King and His Opposition to the Vietnam War - video by Democracy Now, episode 2 -- MLK, A Call to Conscience, -- Tavis Smiley Reports. The second episode of Tavis Smiley Reports examines Martin Luther King Jr. s stand against the Vietnam War, Tavis speaks with scholars and friends of King, including Cornel West, Vincent Harding and Susannah Heschel. March 31,2010 Valeria Franceschi, REMEMBERING THE REVEREND, AN ANALYSIS OF OBAMA’S SPEECHES COMMEMORATING MARTIN LUTHER KING
8.
Montgomery bus boycott
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Gayle, took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional. Many important figures in the Civil Rights Movement took part in the boycott, including Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. the local background for the Montgomery bus boycott lies in growing abuse and humiliation of the black passengers by white bus drivers due to three main reasons. First, drivers increasingly abused passengers due to their own frustrations over labor disputes, third, the 1954 Brown decision also resulted in increased animosity of bus drivers towards blacks -- many of whom joined the White Citizens Councils. On February 25,1953, the Baton Rouge, Louisiana city-parish council passed Ordinance 222, however, the ordinance was largely unenforced by the city bus drivers. The drivers later went on strike after city authorities refused to arrest Rev. T. J, Jemison for sitting in a front row. Four days after the strike began, Louisiana Attorney General and former Baton Rouge mayor Fred S. LeBlanc declared the ordinance unconstitutional under Louisiana state law and this led Rev. Jemison to organize what historians believe to be the first bus boycott of the civil rights movement. The boycott ended after eight days when an agreement was reached to only retain the first two front and back rows as racially reserved seating areas. On March 2,1955, Colvin was handcuffed, arrested, at the time, Colvin was an active member in the NAACP Youth Council, a group to which Rosa Parks served as Advisor. Colvins legal case formed the core of Browder v. Gayle, but neither the Supreme Courts Morgan ruling nor the ICCs Keys ruling addressed the matter of Jim Crow travel within the individual states. Under the system of segregation used on Montgomery buses, the ten front seats were reserved for whites at all times, the ten back seats were supposed to be reserved for blacks at all times. The middle section of the bus consisted of sixteen unreserved seats for whites, whites filled the middle seats from the front to back, and blacks filled seats from the back to front until the bus was full. If other black people boarded the bus, they were required to stand, when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white person, she was sitting in the first line of the middle section. Often when boarding the buses, black people were required to pay at the front, get off, occasionally, bus drivers would drive away before black passengers were able to reboard. National City Lines owned the Montgomery Bus Line at the time of the Montgomery bus boycott, Rosa Parks was a seamstress by profession, she was also the secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. Twelve years before her history-making arrest, Parks was stopped from boarding a city bus by driver James F. Blake, Parks vowed never again to ride a bus driven by Blake. As a member of the NAACP, Parks was an investigator assigned to cases of sexual assault, in 1945, she was sent to Abbeville, Alabama, to investigate the gang rape of Recy Taylor. The protest that arose around the Taylor case was the first instance of a civil rights protest. In 1955, Parks completed a course in Race Relations at the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee where nonviolent civil disobedience had been discussed as a tactic, on December 1,1955, Parks was sitting in the frontmost row for black people
9.
Birmingham campaign
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Led by Martin Luther King Jr. In the early 1960s, Birmingham was one of the most racially divided cities in the United States, Black citizens faced legal and economic disparities, and violent retribution when they attempted to draw attention to their problems. Martin Luther King Jr. called it the most segregated city in the country, when local business and governmental leaders resisted the boycott, SCLC agreed to assist. Organizer Wyatt Tee Walker joined Birmingham activist Shuttlesworth and began what they called Project C, when the campaign ran low on adult volunteers, James Bevel, SCLCs Director Direct Action, thought of the idea of having students become the main demonstrators in the Birmingham campaign. Not all of the bystanders were peaceful, despite the intentions of SCLC to hold a completely nonviolent walk. King and the SCLC drew both criticism and praise for allowing children to participate and put themselves in harms way, the Birmingham campaign was a model of nonviolent direct action protest and, through the media, drew the worlds attention to racial segregation in the South. Birmingham, Alabama was, in 1963, probably the most thoroughly segregated city in the United States, Black secretaries could not work for white professionals. Jobs available to blacks were limited to labor in Birminghams steel mills, work in household service and yard maintenance. When layoffs were necessary, black employees were often the first to go, the unemployment rate for blacks was two and a half times higher than for whites. The average income for blacks in the city was less than half that of whites, significantly lower pay scales for black workers at the local steel mills were common. Racial segregation of public and commercial facilities throughout Jefferson County was legally required, covered all aspects of life, only 10 percent of the citys black population was registered to vote in 1960. In addition, Birminghams economy was stagnating as the city was shifting from blue collar to white collar jobs, according to Time magazine in 1958, the only thing white workers had to gain from desegregation was more competition from black workers. Fifty unsolved racially motivated bombings between 1945 and 1962 had earned the city the nickname Bombingham, a neighborhood shared by white and black families experienced so many attacks that it was called Dynamite Hill. Black churches in which rights were discussed became specific targets for attack. Birminghams black population began to organize to effect change, when the courts overturned the segregation of the citys parks, the city responded by closing them. Shuttlesworths home was bombed, as was Bethel Baptist Church. After Shuttlesworth was arrested and jailed for violating the citys segregation rules in 1962, Hanes responded with a letter informing Shuttlesworth that his petition had been thrown in the garbage. Looking for outside help, Shuttlesworth invited Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC to Birmingham, saying, If you come to Birmingham, you not only gain prestige
10.
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
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The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, the March on Washington, or The Great March on Washington, was held in Washington, D. C. on Wednesday, August 28,1963. The purpose of the march was to stand up for civil, at the march, Martin Luther King Jr. standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial, delivered his historic I Have a Dream speech in which he called for an end to racism. The march was organized by A, philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, who built an alliance of civil rights, labor, and religious organizations that came together under the banner of jobs and freedom. Estimates of the number of participants varied from 200,000 to 300,000, observers estimated that 75–80% of the marchers were black. The march was one of the largest political rallies for human rights in United States history, the march is credited with helping to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and preceded the Selma Voting Rights Movement which led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. In the early 1960s, a system of discrimination, known as Jim Crow laws, were pervasive in the American South. They also experienced discrimination from businesses and governments, and in places were prevented from voting through intimidation. The impetus for a march on Washington developed over a period of time. Philip Randolph—the president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, president of the Negro American Labor Council, and vice president of the AFL-CIO—was a key instigator in 1941. With Bayard Rustin, Randolph called for 100,000 black workers to march on Washington, in protest of discriminatory hiring by U. S. military contractors, faced with a mass march scheduled for July 1,1941, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25. The order established the Committee on Fair Employment Practice and banned discriminatory hiring in the defense industry, Randolph and Rustin continued to organize around the idea of a mass march on Washington. They envisioned several large marches during the 1940s, but all were called off and their Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom, held at the Lincoln Memorial on May 17,1957, featured key leaders including Adam Clayton Powell, Martin Luther King Jr. and Roy Wilkins. The 1963 march was an important part of the rapidly expanding Civil Rights Movement,1963 also marked the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln. Members of The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, many whites and blacks also came together in the urgency for change in the nation. Violent confrontations broke out in the South, in Cambridge, Maryland, Pine Bluff, Arkansas, Goldsboro, North Carolina, Somerville, Tennessee, Saint Augustine, Florida, most of these incidents involved white people retaliating against nonviolent demonstrators. Many people wanted to march on Washington, but disagreed over how the march should be conducted, some called for a complete shutdown of the city through civil disobedience. Others argued that the movement should remain nationwide in scope, rather than focus its energies on the nations capital, there was a widespread perception that the Kennedy administration had not lived up to its promises in the 1960 election, and King described Kennedys race policy as tokenism. On May 24,1963, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy invited African-American novelist James Baldwin, along with a group of cultural leaders
11.
St. Augustine movement
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The St. Augustine movement was part of the wider Civil Rights Movement in 1963–1964. It was an event in St. Augustines long history and had a role in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The homes of two of the families of children were burned by local segregationists, while other families were forced to move out of the county because the parents were fired from their jobs. Dr. Robert Hayling is generally considered the father of the St. Augustine movement, a Tallahassee native originally, Hayling served as an Air Force officer, and then became the first black dentist in Florida to be elected to the American Dental Association. He set up business in St. Augustine in 1960 and joined the local National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the organization led a high-profile protest of the segregated celebration of the citys 400th anniversary in March 1963. While the campaign was successful at convincing Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson to speak before an audience in St. Augustine. The NAACP campaign lacked a direct action component and Hayling believed that this was a major failing, Hayling founded an NAACP Youth Council that engaged in nonviolent direct action, including wade-ins at the local segregated swimming pools. A sit-in protest at the local Woolworths lunch counter ended in the arrest and imprisonment of 16 young black protesters, Four of the children, two of whom were 16-year-old girls, were sent to reform school and retained for six months. These four children were JoeAnn Anderson, Audrey Nell Edwards, Willie Carl Singleton, and Samuel White and their case was publicized as an egregious injustice by Jackie Robinson, the NAACP, the Pittsburgh Courier, and others. Finally, an action of the governor and cabinet of Florida freed them in January 1964. In addition to nonviolent direct action, the St. Augustine movement practiced armed self-defense and this led to the Ku Klux Klan stepping up its death threats against activists. In June, Dr. Hayling publicly stated, I and the others have armed and we will shoot first and answer questions later. We are not going to die like Medgar Evers, when Klan nightriders terrorized black neighborhoods in St. Augustine, Haylings NAACP members often drove them off with gunfire. In September 1963, the Klan staged a rally of several hundred Klansmen on the outskirts of town and they seized Robert Hayling and three other NAACP activists, and beat them with fists, chains, and clubs. The four men were rescued by Florida Highway Patrol officers, St. Johns County Sheriff L. O. Davis arrested four white men for the beating and also arrested the four unarmed blacks for assaulting the large crowd of armed Klansmen. Charges against the Klansmen were dismissed, but Hayling was convicted of assault against the KKK mob. After the incident at the September Klan rally, tensions escalated further, in October, a carload of KKK night riders raced through the black neighborhood of Lincolnville shooting into homes. When blacks returned fire, one Klansman was killed, NAACP activist Rev. Goldie Eubanks and three others were indicted for murder
12.
Selma to Montgomery marches
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The Selma to Montgomery marches were three protest marches, held in 1965, along the 54-mile highway from Selma, Alabama to the state capital of Montgomery. By highlighting racial injustice, they contributed to passage that year of the Voting Rights Act, the African-American group known as the Dallas County Voters League launched a voters registration campaign in Selma in 1963. Joined by organizers from the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, they began working that year in an effort to register black voters. SCLC brought many prominent civil rights and civic leaders to Selma in January 1965, local and regional protests began, with 3,000 people arrested by the end of February. Bevel had been working on his Alabama Project for voting rights since late 1963, the first march took place on March 7,1965, organized locally by Bevel, Amelia Boynton, and others. State troopers and county possemen attacked the marchers with billy clubs and tear gas after they passed over the county line. Law enforcement beat Boynton unconscious, and the media publicized worldwide a picture of her wounded on the bridge. The second march took place March 10, troopers, police, and marchers confronted each other at the county end of the bridge, but when the troopers stepped aside to let them pass, King led the marchers back to the church. He was obeying a federal injunction while seeking protection from court for the march. That night, a white group beat and murdered civil rights activist James Reeb, a Unitarian Universalist minister from Boston, many other clergy and sympathizers from across the country also gathered for the second march. The violence of the Bloody Sunday and of Reebs death led to an outcry and some acts of civil disobedience. The protesters demanded protection for the Selma marchers and a new voting rights law to enable African Americans to register. With Governor Wallace refusing to protect the marchers, President Johnson committed to do so, the third march started March 21. The marchers arrived in Montgomery on March 24 and at the Alabama State Capitol on March 25, with thousands having joined the campaign,25,000 people entered the capital city that day in support of voting rights. The route is memorialized as the Selma To Montgomery Voting Rights Trail, subjective application of the laws effectively closed most blacks out of politics. Selma is a town and the seat of Dallas County. In 1961, the population of Dallas County was 57% black, with the literacy test administered subjectively by white registrars, even educated blacks were prevented from registering or voting. Led by the Boynton family, Rev. L. L. Anderson, J. L. Chestnut, and Marie Foster and their efforts were blocked by state and local officials, the White Citizens Council, and the Ku Klux Klan
13.
Memphis sanitation strike
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The Memphis sanitation strike began in February 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee. They then did not turn out for work on the following day and they also sought to join the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees Local 1733. Memphiss mayor, Henry Loeb, declared the strike illegal and refused to meet with black leaders. Heavily redacted files released in 2012 suggest that FBI monitored the strike, on Monday February 12, most of the citys sanitation and sewage workers did not show up for work. Some of those who did show up walked off when they found out about the apparent strike, mayor Loeb, infuriated, refused to meet with the strikers. The workers marched from their hall to a meeting at the City Council chamber, there. Loeb led the workers to an auditorium, where he asked them to return to work. They laughed and booed him, then applauded union leaders who spoke, at one point, Loeb grabbed the microphone from AFSCME International organizer Bill Lucy and shouted Go back to work. Storming out of the soon after. By 15 February, piles of trash were noticeable, and Loeb began to hire strikebreakers and these individuals were white and traveled with police escorts. They were not well received by the strikers, and the strikers assaulted the strikebreakers in some cases, as of 21 February 1968, the sanitation workers established a daily routine of meeting at noon with nearly a thousand strikers and then marching from Clayborn Temple to downtown. The marchers faced police brutality in the forms of mace, tear gas, Rev. Lawsons comments embody the message behind the iconic placards from the sanitation workers’ strike, I Am A Man. On the evening of 26 February, Clayborn Temple held over a thousand supporters of the movement, Rev. Ralph Jackson charged the crowd to not rest until justice and jobs prevailed for all black Americans. That night they raised $1,600 from to support the Movement, — Sanitation Workers’ Prayer recited by Reverend Malcolm Blackburn The local news media were generally favorable to Loeb, portraying union leaders as meddling outsiders. The Commercial Appeal wrote editorials praising the mayor for his toughness, newspapers and television stations generally portrayed the mayor as calm and reasonable, and the protesters and organizers as unruly and disorganized. The Tri-State Defender, an African American newspaper, and The Souwester and these publications emphasized the brutality of the police reactions to the protestors. From the beginning, strikers refused to erase the racial dimension of the issues at hand, various speakers from the NAACP addressed the strikers in the union hall. Many of these leaders, including Rev. Samuel Kyles, opposed the alliance with union leaders who seemed to be riding the strikers coattails
14.
Poor People's Campaign
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The Poor Peoples Campaign, or Poor Peoples March on Washington, was a 1968 effort to gain economic justice for poor people in the United States. It was organized by Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, the campaign demanded economic and human rights for poor Americans of diverse backgrounds. The Poor People’s Campaign was motivated by a desire for economic justice, King and the SCLC shifted their focus to these issues after observing that gains in civil rights had not improved the material conditions of life for many African Americans. The Poor People’s Campaign was a multiracial effort—including African-Americans, whites, Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, at the same time, the nature of poverty itself was changing as Americas population increasingly lived in cities, not farms. Poor African-Americans, particularly women, suffered from racism and sexism that amplified the impact of poverty, the Poor People’s Campaign sought to address poverty through income and housing. The campaign would help the poor by dramatizing their needs, uniting all races under the commonality of hardship, the Poor People’s Campaign was part of the second phase of the civil rights movement. King said, We believe the highest patriotism demands the ending of the war, the Poor People’s Campaign had complex origins. King considered bringing poor people to the capital since at least October 1966. The SCLC resolved to expand its civil rights struggle to include demands for economic justice, in his concluding address to the conference, King announced a shift from reform to revolution and stated, We have moved from the era of civil rights to an era of human rights. Moreover, it is difficult for government to quell it by superior force. Mass civil disobedience can use rage as a constructive and creative force and it is purposeless to tell Negroes they should not be enraged when they should be. Indeed, they will be mentally healthier if they do not suppress rage but vent it constructively, Civil disobedience can utilize the militancy wasted in riots to seize clothes or groceries many did not even want. Civil disobedience has never used on a mass scale in the North. It has rarely been seriously organized and resolutely pursued, too often in the past was it employed incorrectly. It was resorted to only when there was an absence of mass support, the exceptions were the massive school boycotts by Northern Negroes. They shook educational systems to their roots but they lasted only single days and were never repeated and this is not an easy program to implement. Riots are easier just because they need no organization, to have effect we will have to develop mass disciplined forces that can remain excited and determined without dramatic conflagrations. At another SCLC retreat in September, Edelman transmitted Kennedys message to King and suggested that King, stanley Levison proposed an even more ambitious crusade that modeled itself on the Bonus Army of 1932
15.
Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
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The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial is located in West Potomac Park in Washington, D. C. next to the National Mall. The Memorial covers four acres and includes the Stone of Hope, the memorial opened to the public on August 22,2011, after more than two decades of planning, fund-raising, and construction. The national memorial is Americas 395th unit in the National Park Service, the official address of the monument,1964 Independence Avenue, S. W. commemorates the year the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became law. Although this is not the first memorial to an African American in Washington, King is the first African American honored with a memorial on or near the National Mall and only the fourth non-President to be memorialized in such a way. The King Memorial is administered by the National Park Service, although during his life he was monitored by the FBI for presumed communist sympathies, King is now presented as a heroic leader in the history of modern American liberalism. At the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, King imagined an end to racial inequality in his I Have a Dream speech and this speech has been canonized as one of the greatest pieces of American oratory. In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to end segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience. At the time of his death, he had refocused his efforts on ending poverty and stopping the Vietnam War. King was backing the Memphis Sanitation Strike and organizing a mass occupation of Washington, D. C. – the Poor Peoples Campaign – when he was killed in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4,1968. King remained involved with the fraternity after the completion of his studies, in 1968, after Kings assassination, Alpha Phi Alpha proposed erecting a permanent memorial to King in Washington, D. C. The fraternitys efforts gained momentum in 1986, after Kings birthday was designated a national holiday, in 1998, Congress authorized the fraternity to establish a foundation—the Washington, D. C. National Memorial Project Foundation—to manage the memorials fundraising and design, in 1999, the United States Commission of Fine Arts and the National Capital Planning Commission approved the site location for the memorial. The memorials design, by ROMA Design Group, a San Francisco-based architecture firm, was selected out of 900 candidates from 52 countries. On December 4,2000, a marble and bronze plaque was laid by Alpha Phi Alpha to dedicate the site where the memorial was to be built, soon thereafter, a full-time fundraising team began the fundraising and promotional campaign for the memorial. A ceremonial groundbreaking for the memorial was held on November 13,2006, in August 2008, the foundations leaders estimated the memorial would take 20 months to complete with a total cost of $120 million USD. The figure also includes $10 million in matching funds provided by the United States Congress, in October 2009, the memorials final project was approved by federal agencies and a building permit was issued. Construction began in December 2009 and was expected to take 20 months to complete, the foundation conducted a press tour on December 1,2010, as the Stone of Hope was nearing completion. At that time only $108 million of the $120 million project cost had been raised, the street address for the memorial is 1964 Independence Avenue SW in Washington, D. C
16.
Martin Luther King Jr. National Historic Site
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In total, the buildings included in the site make up 35 acres. The visitor center contains a museum that chronicles the American Civil Rights Movement, an 1894 firehouse served the Sweet Auburn community until 1991, and now contains a gift shop and an exhibit on desegregation in the Atlanta Fire Department. Annual events celebrating Martin Luther King Jr. Day in January typically draw large crowds, speakers have included Presidents of the United States, national and local politicians, and civil rights leaders. Remembrances are also held during Black History Month, and on the anniversary of Kings April 4,1968, assassination in Memphis,6, and the Triangle Building at the intersection of Old Wheat Street and Auburn Avenue. Much of the area was designated as a historic landmark district on May 5,1977. Congressional legislation, the site with associated buildings and gardens was authorized as a historic site on October 10,1980. A22. 4-acre area including 35 contributing properties was covered, the area covered in the NRHP designation was enlarged on June 12,2001. The King Birth Home is located at 501 Auburn Avenue in the Sweet Auburn historic district, built in 1895, it sits about a block east of Ebenezer Baptist Church. Kings maternal grandparents, Reverend Adam Daniel Williams, who was pastor of the Ebenezer Baptist Church, in 1926, when Kings father married Alberta Williams, the couple moved into the house, where King Jr. was born in 1929. The King family lived in the house until 1941 and it was then converted into a two-family dwelling. The Rev. A. D. Williams King, Dr. Kings brother, lived on the floor in the 1950s. The first level includes the front porch, parlor, study, dining room, kitchen, laundry, bedroom, the second level includes four bedrooms and a bathroom. The visitor center offers tours of the house led by National Park Service rangers. Coretta Scott King started the Martin Luther King Jr, Center for Nonviolent Social Change in the basement of the couples home in the year following Kings 1968 assassination. In 1981, the center was moved into a facility on Auburn Avenue, near Kings birth home and next to Ebenezer Baptist Church. In 1977, a tomb was dedicated to King. His remains were moved to the tomb, on a plaza between the center and the church, Kings gravesite and a reflecting pool are located next to Freedom Hall. After her death, Mrs. King was interred with her husband on February 7,2006, an eternal flame is located nearby
17.
Coretta Scott King
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Coretta Scott King was an American author, activist, civil rights leader, and the wife of Martin Luther King, Jr. from 1953 until his death in 1968. Coretta Scott King helped lead the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, King was an active advocate for African-American equality. King met her husband while in college, and their participation escalated until they became central to the movement, in her early life, Coretta was an accomplished singer, and she often incorporated music into her civil rights work. King played a prominent role in the years after her husbands 1968 assassination when she took on the leadership of the struggle for racial equality herself, King founded the King Center and sought to make his birthday a national holiday. King finally succeeded when Ronald Reagan signed legislation which established Martin Luther King and she later broadened her scope to include both opposition to apartheid and advocacy for LGBT rights. King became friends with many politicians before and after Martin Luther Kings death, most notably John F. Kennedy, John F. Kennedys phone call to her during the 1960 election was what she liked to believe was behind his victory. In August 2005, King suffered a stroke paralyzed her right side and left her unable to speak. Her funeral was attended by some 10,000 people, including four of five living US presidents and she was temporarily buried on the grounds of the King Center until being interred next to her husband. She was inducted into the Alabama Womens Hall of Fame and was the first African-American to lie in State in the Georgia State Capitol, King has been referred to as First Lady of the Civil Rights Movement. Coretta Scott was born in Marion, Alabama, the third of four children of Obadiah Scott and she was born in her parents home with her paternal great-grandmother Delia Scott, a former slave, presiding as midwife. Corettas mother became known for her talent and singing voice. As a child Bernice attended the local Crossroads School and only had a fourth grade education, bernices older siblings, however, attended boarding school at the Booker T. Washington founded Tuskegee Institute. The senior Mrs. Scott worked as a bus driver, a church pianist. She served as Worthy Matron for her Eastern Star chapter and was a member of the local Literacy Federated Club, Obie, Corettas father, was the first black person in their neighborhood to own a vehicle. Before starting his own businesses he worked as a policeman, along with his wife, he ran a clothes shop far from their home and later opened a general store. He also owned a mill, which was burned down by white neighbors after Scott refused to lend his mill to a white male logger. Her maternal grandparents were Mollie and Martin van Buren McMurry – both were of African-American and Irish descent, Mollie was born a slave to plantation owner Jim Blackburn and Adeline Smith. Corettas maternal grandfather, Martin, was born to a slave of Black Native American ancestry and he eventually owned a 280-acre farm
18.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
19.
John Conyers
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John James Conyers Jr. is the U. S. Representative for Michigans 13th congressional district and he has been a member of Congress since 1965 and is currently its longest-serving current member, making him the Dean of the House of Representatives. The district includes the western half of Detroit, as well as River Rouge, Ecorse, Redford Township, Dearborn Heights, Highland Park, Westland, Garden City, Inkster, Wayne and he is a member of the Democratic Party. After graduating from Northwestern High School in Detroit, Conyers served in the Michigan National Guard 1948–50, U. S. Army 1950–54, and the U. S. Army Reserves 1954–57. Conyers served for a year in Korea as an officer in the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and was awarded combat, Conyers grew up in Detroit, and received both his B. A. and his bachelor of law degree from Wayne State University. Conyers was present in Selma, Alabama, on October 7,1963 and he served as an assistant to U. S. Congressman John Dingell, Jr. prior to his election to Congress, while serving in the U. S. House, Conyers made two unsuccessful runs for mayor of Detroit, one in 1989 against incumbent Coleman Young and again in 1993. Incumbent Democratic Mayor Coleman Young decided to run for a term, despite growing unpopularity. In the September primary, Young won with 51% of the vote, accountant Tom Barrow qualified for the November run off by getting second place with 24% and Conyers got third place with 18% of the vote. Young defeated Barrow in the run off with 56% of the vote, in a Detroit News poll in February, 81% said Young should retire. Conyers was one of the 23 candidates who qualified for ballot access, dennis Archer was a clear front runner from the beginning. He was a 51-year-old former State Supreme Court Justice who raised over $1.6 million and he won the September primary with 54% of the vote. In 1964, he ran for a seat in what was then the 1st District. He was reelected 13 times with larger margins. After the 1990 United States Census, Michigan lost a congressional district, in 1992, he won re-election to his 15th term in his new district with 82% of the vote against Republican nominee John Gordon. He won re-election another nine times after that and his worst re-election performance was in 2010, when he got 77% of the vote against Republican nominee Don Ukrainec. In 2013, his district was renamed to the 13th district, in total, he has won re-election twenty-five times and is serving in his twenty-sixth term. He is the second-longest serving member of house of Congress in Michigans history, trailing only his former boss
20.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
21.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
22.
Edward Brooke
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Edward William Brooke III was an American Republican politician. In 1966, he became the first African American popularly elected to the United States Senate and he was elected to the Senate from Massachusetts, defeating former Massachusetts governor Democrat Endicott Peabody in a landslide. He served for two terms, and was defeated by Paul Tsongas in 1978, upon the death of Harry F. Byrd Jr. on July 30,2013, he became the oldest living former Senator, and remained so until his death on January 3,2015. Edward William Brooke III was born on October 26,1919, in Washington, D. C. to Edward William Brooke, Jr. and Helen Brooke. After graduating in 1936, he enrolled in Howard University, where he first considered medicine, Brooke graduated in 1941, and enlisted in the United States Army immediately after the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor. Brooke was commissioned as an officer, served five years in the Army, saw combat in Italy during World War II as a member of the segregated 366th Infantry Regiment, and earned a Bronze Star Medal. In Italy Brooke met his future wife Remigia Ferrari-Scacco, with whom he had two daughters, Remi and Edwina, following his discharge, Brooke graduated from the Boston University School of Law in 1948. I never studied much at Howard, he reflected, but at Boston University, I didnt do much else and his papers are stored at Boston Universitys Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center. In 1950 he ran for a seat in the Massachusetts House of Representatives in both the Democratic and Republican primaries, Brooke won the Republican nomination, but lost the general election. Brooke made two more tries for office, including one for secretary of state, but lost both races, the loss in the secretarys race was particularly close. Republican leaders took notice of Brookes potential, Governor John Volpe sought to reward Brooke for his effort, and offered him a number of jobs, most judicial in nature. He was described in the press as having the tenacity of a terrier and he parlayed his achievements there into a successful election as Attorney General of Massachusetts in 1962, he was the first elected African-American Attorney General of any state. He also coordinated with local police departments on the Boston strangler case, Brooke was portrayed in the 1968 film dramatizing the case by William Marshall. In 1966, Brooke defeated former Governor Endicott Peabody with 1,213,473 votes to 744,761, and served as a United States Senator for two terms, from January 3,1967, to January 3,1979. The black vote had, Time wrote, no measurable bearing on the election as less than 3% of the population was black. Brooke, who supported Michigan Governor George W, in 1967, Brooke was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. By his second year in the Senate, Brooke had taken his place as an advocate against discrimination in housing. With Walter Mondale, a Minnesota Democrat and fellow member of the Senate Banking Committee, he co-authored the 1968 Fair Housing Act, the Act also created HUDs Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity as the primary enforcer of the law
23.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
24.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
25.
Christopher Columbus
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Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer, and citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean and those voyages and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola initiated the European colonization of the New World. Western imperialism and economic competition were emerging among European kingdoms through the establishment of routes and colonies. During his first voyage in 1492, he reached the New World instead of arriving at Japan as he had intended, landing on an island in the Bahamas archipelago that he named San Salvador. Over the course of three voyages, he visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America. These voyages had, therefore, an impact in the historical development of the modern Western world. He spearheaded the transatlantic trade and has been accused by several historians of initiating the genocide of the Hispaniola natives. Columbus himself saw his accomplishments primarily in the light of spreading the Christian religion, Columbus never admitted that he had reached a continent previously unknown to Europeans, rather than the East Indies for which he had set course. He called the inhabitants of the lands that he visited indios, the name Christopher Columbus is the Anglicisation of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. His name in Italian is Cristoforo Colombo and, in Spanish and he was born before 31 October 1451 in the territory of the Republic of Genoa, though the exact location remains disputed. His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who worked both in Genoa and Savona and who also owned a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked as a helper. Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo were his brothers, Bartolomeo worked in a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood. He also had a sister named Bianchinetta, Columbus never wrote in his native language, which is presumed to have been a Genoese variety of Ligurian. In one of his writings, he says he went to sea at the age of 10, in 1470, the Columbus family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. In the same year, Christopher was on a Genoese ship hired in the service of René of Anjou to support his attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. Some modern historians have argued that he was not from Genoa but, instead and these competing hypotheses have generally been discounted by mainstream scholars. In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the important Centurione, Di Negro, later, he allegedly made a trip to Chios, an Aegean island then ruled by Genoa. In May 1476, he took part in a convoy sent by Genoa to carry valuable cargo to northern Europe
26.
Stevie Wonder
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Stevland Hardaway Morris, known by his stage name Stevie Wonder, is an American musician, singer, songwriter, record producer, and multi-instrumentalist. A child prodigy, he is considered to be one of the most critically and commercially successful musical performers of the late 20th century, Wonder signed with Motowns Tamla label at the age of 11, and he continued performing and recording for Motown into the 2010s. He has been blind since shortly after birth, Wonder is also noted for his work as an activist for political causes, including his 1980 campaign to make Martin Luther King Jr. s birthday a holiday in the United States. In 2009, Wonder was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace, in 2013, Billboard magazine released a list of the Billboard Hot 100 All-Time Top Artists to celebrate the US singles charts 55th anniversary, with Wonder at number six. Stevie Wonder was born in Saginaw, Michigan, in 1950, the third of six children of Calvin Judkins and Lula Mae Hardaway, when Wonder was four, his mother left his father and moved to Detroit with her children. She changed her back to Lula Hardaway and later changed her sons surname to Morris. Wonder has retained Morris as his legal surname and he began playing instruments at an early age, including piano, harmonica and drums. He formed a partnership with a friend, calling themselves Stevie and John, they played on street corners. Before signing, producer Clarence Paul gave him the name Little Stevie Wonder, because of Wonders age, the label drew up a rolling five-year contract in which royalties would be held in trust until Wonder was 21. He and his mother would be paid a stipend to cover their expenses, Wonder received $2.50 a week. Wonder was put in the care of producer and songwriter Clarence Paul, tribute to Uncle Ray was recorded first, when Wonder was still 11 years old. Mainly covers of Ray Charless songs, it included a Wonder and Paul composition, the Jazz Soul of Little Stevie was recorded next, an instrumental album consisting mainly of Pauls compositions, two of which, Wondering and Session Number 112, were co-written with Wonder. At the end of 1962, when Wonder was 12 years old, he joined the Motortown Revue, at the Regal Theater, Chicago, his 20-minute performance was recorded and released in May 1963 as the album Recorded Live, The 12 Year Old Genius. A single, Fingertips, from the album was released in May. The song, featuring a confident and enthusiastic Wonder returning for a spontaneous encore that catches out the replacement bass player, was a No.1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 when Wonder was aged 13, making him the youngest artist ever to top the chart. The single was simultaneously No.1 on the R&B chart and his next few recordings, however, were not successful, his voice was changing as he got older, and some Motown executives were considering cancelling his recording contract. During 1964, Wonder appeared in two films as himself, Muscle Beach Party and Bikini Beach, but these were not successful either, sylvia Moy persuaded label owner Berry Gordy to give Wonder another chance. He also began to work in the Motown songwriting department, composing songs both for himself and his mates, including The Tears of a Clown, a No.1 hit for Smokey Robinson
27.
Happy Birthday (Stevie Wonder song)
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This song has no relation to the traditional song of the general title. Happy Birthday is a 1981 single written, produced, and performed by Stevie Wonder for the Motown label. Wonder, a social activist, was one of the figures in the campaign to have the birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. become a national holiday. Besides being released as a single, the song appears on Wonders album Hotter Than July. The holiday, he proposes, would facilitate the realization of Dr. Kings dreams of integration and love, Wonder used the song to popularize the campaign, and continued his fight for the holiday, holding the Rally for Peace Press Conference in 1981. United States President Ronald Reagan approved the creation of the holiday, signing it into existence on November 2,1983. Although the single failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100, it charted on the R&B chart, Wonder also performed this song at the Diamond Jubilee Concert in London for the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Stevie Wonder - Vocals, Synthesizer, Drums, Background Vocals, Arp, Keyboards, Bass Melodeon Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
28.
The Nation
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The Nation is the oldest continuously published weekly magazine in the United States, and the most widely read weekly journal of liberal/progressive political and cultural news, opinion, and analysis. It is published by The Nation Company, L. P. at 33 Irving Place and it is associated with The Nation Institute. The Nation has bureaus in Washington, D. C, London and South Africa, with departments covering architecture, art, corporations, defense, environment, films, legal affairs, music, peace and disarmament, poetry, and the United Nations. Circulation peaked at 187,000 in 2006 but by 2010 had dropped to 145,000 in print, the Nation was established in July 1865 on Newspaper Row at 130 Nassau Street in Manhattan. The publisher was Joseph H. Richards, and the editor was Edwin Lawrence Godkin, dennett interviewed Confederate veterans, freed slaves, agents of the Freedmens Bureau, and ordinary people he met by the side of the road. The articles, since collected as a book, have been praised by The New York Times as examples of masterly journalism, closely related to this was the publications advocacy of the elimination of protective tariffs in favor of lower prices of consumer goods associated with a free trade system. Wendell Phillips Garrison, son of William Lloyd Garrison, was Literary Editor from 1865 to 1906, the magazine would stay at Newspaper Row for 90 years. In 1881, newspaperman-turned-railroad-baron Henry Villard acquired The Nation and converted it into a literary supplement for his daily newspaper the New York Evening Post. The offices of the magazine were moved to the Evening Posts headquarters at 210 Broadway, in 1900, Henry Villards son, Oswald Garrison Villard, inherited the magazine and the Evening Post, selling off the latter in 1918. Villards takeover prompted the FBI to monitor the magazine for roughly 50 years, the FBI had a file on Villard from 1915. Villard sold the magazine in 1935 and it became a nonprofit in 1943. Almost every editor of The Nation from Villards time to the 1970s was looked at for subversive activities and ties. S, during the 1930s, The Nation showed enthusiastic support for Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. This organization was responsible for academic responsibilities, including conducting research and organizing conferences. Nation Associates became responsible for the operation and publication of the magazine on a nonprofit basis, before Pearl Harbor, The Nation repeatedly called on the United States to enter World War II to resist Fascism, and after the US entered the war, supported the American war effort. It also supported the use of the bomb on Hiroshima. During the late 1940s and again in the early 1950s, a merger was discussed by The Nations Freda Kirchwey, the new publication would have been called The Nation and New Republic. Kirchwey was the most hesitant, and both attempts to merge failed, the two magazines would later take very different paths, with The Nation having a higher circulation and The New Republic moving more to the right. In the 1950s, The Nation was attacked as pro-communist because of its advocacy of friendship with the Soviet Union, one of the magazines writers, Louis Fischer resigned from the magazine afterwards, claiming The Nations foreign coverage was too pro-Soviet
29.
Jesse Helms
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Jesse Alexander Helms Jr. was an American politician and a leader in the conservative movement. He was elected five times as a Republican to the United States Senate from North Carolina, as chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee from 1995 to 2001 he had a major voice in foreign policy. Helms helped organize and fund the resurgence in the 1970s. Helms was the popularly elected Senator in North Carolinas history. He was widely credited with shifting the one-party state into a competitive two-party state and he successfully advocated the movement of conservatives from the Democratic Party – which they deemed too liberal – to the Republican Party. Helms was the most stridently conservative politician of the post-1960s era, Helms was credited by even his most critical opponents with providing excellent constituent services through his Senate office. As long-time chairman of the powerful Senate Foreign Relations Committee, he demanded a staunchly anti-communist foreign policy that would reward Americas friends abroad and his relations with the State Department were often acrimonious, and he blocked numerous presidential appointees. However, he worked smoothly with Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, in domestic affairs, Helms promoted industrial development in the South, seeking low taxes and few labor unions so as to attract northern and international corporations to relocate to North Carolina. On social issues, Helms was conservative and he was a master obstructionist who relished his nickname, Senator No. He combined cultural, social and economic conservatism, which helped his legislation win wide public support. Helms brought an aggressiveness to his conservatism, as in his rhetoric against homosexuality and he used racially charged language in his campaigns and editorials. The Almanac of American Politics once wrote that no American politician is more controversial, beloved in some quarters and hated in others, than Jesse Helms. Helms was born in 1921 in Monroe, North Carolina, where his father, nicknamed Big Jesse, Helms was of English ancestry on both sides. Helms briefly attended Wingate Junior College, now Wingate University, near Monroe, Helms met Dorothy Dot Coble, editor of the society page at The News & Observer, and they married in 1942. Helms first interest in politics came from conversations with his conservative father-in-law, in 1945, he and Dots first child Jane was born. Helmss first full-time job after college was as a reporter with The Raleigh Times. During World War II, Helms served stateside as a recruiter in the United States Navy, after the war, he pursued his twin interests of journalism and Democratic Party politics. Helms became the city editor of The Raleigh Times
30.
John Porter East
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John Porter East was a Republican U. S. senator from the state of North Carolina from 1981 until his suicide in 1986. A paraplegic since 1955, because of polio, East was a professor of science at East Carolina University in Greenville. East ran unsuccessfully for a vacancy in the United States House of Representatives in an election in 1966. In the Senate, he earned a reputation as a social conservative. Alongside Jesse Helms, East led opposition to the bill to create a holiday to honor Martin Luther King. In 1986, he announced that he would not seek re-election and that summer, East, suffering from hypothyroidism, killed himself at his North Carolina home. John Porter East was born in Springfield, Illinois on May 5,1931 and he received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Earlham College in Indiana where he was left tackle on the football team. After his graduation in 1953, he married Priscilla Sherk and was commissioned as an officer in the United States Marine Corps, in 1955, East contracted polio while serving at Camp Lejeune. He received a LL. B. degree from the University of Illinois College of Law and practiced law in Naples and he went on to receive his M. A. and Ph. D. in Political Science from the University of Florida. On Friday, June 27,1986, Senator East completed work on the galleys of his collected essays. He met with Supreme Court nominee Antonin Scalia, then, commitments met, the Senator drove to Greenville with his aide, John Petree, and arrived home about noon on Saturday. Petree stayed with him until daughter Kathryn arrived for a visit, Kathryn left her father in good spirits about midnight. Petree returned to Easts house on Sunday morning, June 29 and he found the front door ajar. The senator was dead in his garage, a victim of suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning, North Carolina Governor James G. Martin appointed U. S. Representative James Thomas Broyhill to serve out the rest of Easts term, Broyhill was later defeated in his election bid in November 1986 by former Democratic Governor Terry Sanford. East is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. John Porter East Memorial Service transcript John Porter East at Find a Grave John Porter Easts grave site
31.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
32.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
33.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
34.
Marxism
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
35.
Communism
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Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
36.
Daniel Patrick Moynihan
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Daniel Patrick Pat Moynihan was an American politician and sociologist. A member of the Democratic Party, he was first elected to the United States Senate for New York in 1976 and he declined to run for re-election in 2000. Kennedy, and continuing through that of Gerald Ford and he is currently the longest-serving Senator from the State of New York, if Chuck Schumer completes his current term, he will tie Moynihan for the record. Moynihan was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the son of Margaret Ann, a homemaker, and John Henry Moynihan and he moved at the age of six with his family to New York City. Brought up in a neighborhood, he shined shoes, attended various public, private, and parochial schools. He was a parishioner of St. Raphaels Church, Hells Kitchen and he and his brother, Michael Willard Moynihan, spent most of their childhood summers at their grandfathers farm in Bluffton, Indiana. Moynihan briefly worked as a longshoreman before entering the City College of New York, following a year at CCNY, Moynihan joined the United States Navy in 1944. He completed active service as officer of the USS Quirinus at the rank of lieutenant in 1947. Moynihan then returned to Tufts, where he completed an undergraduate degree in sociology cum laude in 1948 and earned an M. A. from the Fletcher School of Law. After failing the Foreign Service Officer exam, he continued his studies at the Fletcher School as a Fulbright fellow at the London School of Economics from 1950 to 1953. During this period, Moynihan was a delegate to the 1960 Democratic National Convention as part of John F. Kennedys delegate pool. In this capacity, he did not have operational responsibilities, allowing him to all of his time to trying to formulate national policy for what would become the War on Poverty. He had a staff including Paul Barton, Ellen Broderick. They took inspiration from the book Slavery written by Stanley Elkins, Elkins essentially contended that slavery had made black Americans dependent on the dominant society, and that that dependence still existed a century later. Moynihans research of Labor Department data demonstrated that even as people were unemployed. These recipients were families with children but only one parent, the laws at that time permitted such families to receive welfare payments in certain parts of the United States. Moynihan issued his research under the title The Negro Family, The Case For National Action, Moynihans report fueled a debate over the proper course for government to take with regard to the economic underclass, especially blacks. Critics on the left attacked it as blaming the victim, a slogan coined by psychologist William Ryan, some suggested that Moynihan was propagating the views of racists because much of the press coverage of the report focused on the discussion of children being born out of wedlock
37.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
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The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
38.
Katie Hall (politician)
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Katie Beatrice Hall, served as a U. S. Representative from Indiana from 1982 to 1985, Katie Beatrice Green was born in Mound Bayou, Bolivar County, Mississippi. She attended the schools of Mound Bayou. Hall received a B. S. from Mississippi Valley State University, Itta Bena, Mississippi in 1960, Hall served as a member of the Indiana House of Representatives 1974–1976 and a member of the Indiana Senate 1976–1982. She was a delegate to the Democratic Mini Convention in Memphis, Tennessee, Hall chaired the Indiana State Democratic convention in 1980. Following the sudden death of Congressman Adam Benjamin, Jr. in September 1982 and she was appointed the Democratic nominee over more experienced candidates by the mayor of Gary, Indiana, who was also serving as the head of the 1st Districts Democratic committee. She would go on to defeat the Republican candidate in the 1982 general election by 56% to 43%, Hall ultimately served as a Democrat in the last months the 97th Congress and the entire term of the 98th Congress. Hall led the Capitol Hill drive to make Martin Luther King, on November 2,1983, President Ronald Reagan signed the bill into law. In 1984, she faced two candidates in the Democratic primary, former Benjamin aide Peter Visclosky and Lake County prosecutor Jack Crawford, Visclosky narrowly prevailed with 34% to Halls 33% and Crawfords 31%. After leaving Congress, she became chair of the Gary Housing Board of Commissioners. In both 1988 and 1990 she made unsuccessful attempts against Visclosky in the Democratic primaries, junifer Hall was also charged with five counts of perjury. Katie Hall eventually pleaded guilty to fraud and was sentenced to house arrest. Junifer Hall was sentenced to 16 months in federal prison, Katie Hall died on February 20,2012 at 11,23 A. M. of heart failure. List of African-American United States Representatives Catlin, Robert A, “Organizational Effectiveness and Black Political Participation, The Case of Katie Hall. ”Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. This article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http, //bioguide. congress. gov
39.
George H. W. Bush
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George Herbert Walker Bush is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Republican Party, he was previously a congressman, ambassador, and he is the oldest living former President and Vice President. Prior to his sons presidency, he was referred to as George Bush or President Bush. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts, to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Bush postponed his university studies, enlisted in the U. S. Navy on his 18th birthday and he served until the end of the war, then attended Yale University. Graduating in 1948, he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business, Bush became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company, serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence, among other positions. He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980, but was chosen as a mate by party nominee Ronald Reagan. During his tenure, Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation, in 1988, Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President, defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis. Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later. Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and, after a struggle with Congress and his presidential library was dedicated in 1997, and he has been active—often alongside Bill Clinton—in various humanitarian activities. Besides being the 43rd president, his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas and is one of only two other being John Quincy Adams—to be the son of a former president. His second son, Jeb Bush, served as the 43rd Governor of Florida, George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12,1924, to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Bush. The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich, Connecticut, shortly after his birth, growing up, his nickname was Poppy. Bush began his education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Bush decided to join the US, Navy, so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942, he became a naval aviator at the age of 18. He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron as the officer in September 1943. The following year, his squadron was based on USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51, during this time, the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II, the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After Bushs promotion to Lieutenant on August 1,1944, San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands, Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima
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New Hampshire
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New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, New Hampshire is the 5th smallest by land area and the 9th least populous of the 50 United States. Concord is the capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state and in northern New England, including Vermont. It has no sales tax, nor is personal income taxed at either the state or local level. The New Hampshire primary is the first primary in the U. S. presidential election cycle and its license plates carry the state motto, Live Free or Die. The states nickname, The Granite State, refers to its extensive granite formations, the state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire by Captain John Mason. New Hampshire is part of the New England region and it is bounded by Quebec, Canada, to the north and northwest, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Massachusetts to the south, and Vermont to the west. New Hampshires major regions are the Great North Woods, the White Mountains, the Lakes Region, the Seacoast, the Merrimack Valley, the Monadnock Region, and the Dartmouth-Lake Sunapee area. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any U. S. coastal state, New Hampshire was home to the rock formation called the Old Man of the Mountain, a face-like profile in Franconia Notch, until the formation disintegrated in May 2003. Major rivers include the 110-mile Merrimack River, which bisects the lower half of the state north–south and ends up in Newburyport and its tributaries include the Contoocook River, Pemigewasset River, and Winnipesaukee River. The 410-mile Connecticut River, which starts at New Hampshires Connecticut Lakes and flows south to Connecticut, only one town – Pittsburg – shares a land border with the state of Vermont. The northwesternmost headwaters of the Connecticut also define the Canada–U. S, the Piscataqua River and its several tributaries form the states only significant ocean port where they flow into the Atlantic at Portsmouth. The Salmon Falls River and the Piscataqua define the southern portion of the border with Maine, the U. S. Supreme Court dismissed the case in 2002, leaving ownership of the island with Maine. New Hampshire still claims sovereignty of the base, however, the largest of New Hampshires lakes is Lake Winnipesaukee, which covers 71 square miles in the east-central part of New Hampshire. Umbagog Lake along the Maine border, approximately 12.3 square miles, is a distant second, Squam Lake is the second largest lake entirely in New Hampshire. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any state in the United States, Hampton Beach is a popular local summer destination. It is the state with the highest percentage of area in the country. New Hampshire is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome, much of the state, in particular the White Mountains, is covered by the conifers and northern hardwoods of the New England-Acadian forests
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Holidays, observances, and celebrations in the United States