1.
Labin
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Labin is a town in Istria, Croatia, with a town population of 6,893 and 11,642 in the greater municipality. Labin developed from the site of the Roman settlement of Albona and its name predates classical antiquity and is derived from Proto-Indo-European *alb-. Before and under the Roman occupation, Albona was an important commune, on a marble tablet the Roman inscription we read that under the Emperor Marco Iulio Severo Filippo noble Caesar noble Prince made Albona a Republic. To be a republic it had to have two joined Magistrates called Duumviri and Public officers called Aediles which took care of Public buildings and other official duties. From 1295 it was under the rule of the dukes of Pazin, from 1420 until 1797 it was ruled from Venice and after that belonged to Austria. Labin, as a Croatian-speaking town, was for a time the centre of Croatias largest coal mining district. The mine in downtown Albona closed in the 1950s, while the last mine was closed down in 1989, the large, coal-fired power plant in nearby Fianona now has its coal imported from outside sources once the mines were closed. The famous Lutheran reformer Matthias Flacius Illyricus, was born in Albona and his chief literary legacy was in the area of biblical exegesis. Albona Republic Labinština Brovinje Koromačno Cerovica Skitača Šimunović, Petar, zagreb, Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, 147–214. Official website Labin. com is the first site about Labin
2.
Republic of Venice
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It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
3.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
4.
Free City of Frankfurt
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Due to its imperial significance, Frankfurt survived mediatisation in 1803. The Catholic clergy Dalberg emancipated the Catholics living with the city boundary, in 1810 Dalberg merged Frankfurt with the Principality of Aschaffenburg, the County of Wetzlar, Fulda, and Hanau to form the Grand Duchy of Frankfurt. During the period of the German Confederation, Frankfurt continued to be a major city, the confederations governing body, the Bundestag was located in the palace of Thurn und Taxis in Frankfurts city centre. During the Revolutions of 1848, the Frankfurt Parliament was formed in an attempt to unite the German states in a democratic manner and it was here that Prussian king, Frederick William IV refused the offer of the crown of Little Germany. In 1866 the Kingdom of Prussia went to war with the Austrian Empire over Schleswig-Holstein, Frankfurt, remaining loyal to the German Confederation, did not join with Prussia. Following Prussias victory, Frankfurt was annexed by Prussia, becoming part of the newly formed province of Hesse-Nassau and they also endowed several scientific societies, for example the Polytechnische Gesellschaft and the Physikalischen Verein. In 1819 Freiherr vom Stein founded the Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, in 1825, municipal architect Johann Friedrich Christian Hess built the representative city library. At the same time, the new construction of the Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft was developed at the Eschenheimer Turm and this is where Eduard Rüppell started his extended research expeditions to Africa. The Städelschule, which was opened in 1829, attracted renowned artists from all over Europe, among others Bertel Thorvaldsen, Philipp Veit, Eduard von Steinle and Moritz von Schwind. Civic foundations and clubs also fostered the citys life, e. g. the Frankfurter Kunstverein, the Museumsgesellschaft, the Cäcilienverein. In 1828 city gardener Sebastian Rinz set aside land for a new main cemetery, the old cemeteries, which dated back to the Middle Ages, the Peterskirchhof and the old Jewish cemetery were closed. Also in 1828 the company Knoblauch & Schiele, the first gasworks, in 1830 the city arranged the maintenance of the churches owned by the city, the priests salaries and the clerical school system in two endowment contracts. A lot of the older and smaller churches, especially the former monasteries, but on the other hand, the new construction of the Paulskirche, which had been in ruins since 1789, was finally completed. The citys urban area only slowly grew beyond the area of the ramparts, up until 1837, the wrought-iron gates to the city were closed at nightfall. Whoever was late had to pay a fee – like in the Middle Ages – called Sperrbatzen, during the years in which Frankfurt was a „Free City“, the traditional Frankfurt Trade Fair was of little importance. Nevertheless, Frankfurt rose to be one of the centres for trade. The most important banking house in Frankfurt belonged to the Rothschild family, the only other banking house that was comparable to the Rothschild bank was the Christian-owned Bethmann bank. Both of these banks dominated the trading of bonds for different European countries, there were several significant uprisings against plans to develop a Prussian Tariff Union because they threatened to undermine Frankfurts role as a centre of transport and trade
5.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
6.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
7.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
8.
Croatian language
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It is the official and literary standard of Croatia and one of the official languages of the European Union. Croatian is also one of the languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a recognized minority language in Serbia. Croatian is written in Gajs Latin alphabet, besides the Shtokavian dialect, on which Standard Croatian is based, there are two other main dialects, Chakavian and Kajkavian. It is still used now in parts of Istria, which became a crossroads of various mixtures of Chakavian with Ekavian/Ijekavian/Ikavian dialects, the cultural apex of this 17th century idiom is represented by the editions of Adrianskoga mora sirena by Petar Zrinski and Putni tovaruš by Katarina Zrinska. However, this first linguistic renaissance in Croatia was halted by the execution of Petar Zrinski. Subsequently the Croatian elite in the 18th century gradually abandoned this combined Croatian standard, specifically, three major groups of dialects were spoken on Croatian territory, and there had been several literary languages over four centuries. The leader of the Illyrian movement Ljudevit Gaj standardized the Latin alphabet in 1830–1850, the uniform Neo-Shtokavian then became common in the Croatian elite. In the 1860s, the Zagreb Philological School dominated the Croatian cultural life, drawing upon linguistic, while it was dominant over the rival Rijeka Philological School and Zadar Philological Schools, its influence waned with the rise of the Croatian Vukovians. Croatian is commonly characterized by the Ijekavian pronunciation, the use of the Latin alphabet. Some differences are absolute, while some appear mainly in the frequency of use, Croatian, although technically a form of Serbo-Croatian, is sometimes considered a distinct language by itself. Differences between various forms of Serbo-Croatian are often exaggerated for political reasons. Most Croatian linguists regard Croatian as a language that is considered key to national identity. The issue is sensitive in Croatia as the notion of a language being the most important characteristic of a nation is widely accepted. The terms Serbo-Croatian or Serbo-Croat are still used as a term for all these forms by foreign scholars. Within ex-Yugoslavia, the term has largely replaced by the ethnic terms Serbian, Croatian. In 2013, the EU started publishing a Croatian language version of its official gazette, Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and, along with Standard Bosnian and Standard Serbian, one of three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also official in the regions of Burgenland, Molise, additionally, it has co-official status alongside Romanian in the communes of Carașova and Lupac, Romania. Croatian is officially used and taught at all the universities in Croatia, there is no regulatory body that determines the proper usage of Croatian
9.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
10.
Istria
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Istria, formerly Histria, is the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Kvarner Gulf and it is shared by three countries, Croatia, Slovenia, and Italy. Istria lies in three countries, Croatia, Slovenia and Italy, by far the largest portion lies in Croatia. Croatian Istria is divided into two counties, the larger being Istria County in western Croatia, important towns in Istria County include Pula/Pola, Poreč/Parenzo, Rovinj//Rovigno, Pazin//Pisino, Labin/Albona, Umag/Umago, Motovun//Montona, Buzet/Pinguente, and Buje/Buie. Smaller towns in Istria County include Višnjan, Roč, and Hum, northwards of Slovenian Istria, there is a tiny portion of the peninsula that lies in Italy. This smallest portion of Istria consists of the comunes of Muggia and San Dorligo della Valle, central Istria has a Continental climate. North-Slovenian coast of Istria has a Sub-Mediterranean climate, west and south coast has a Mediterranean climate. East coast has a Sub-Mediterranean climate with Oceanic climate influences, the warmest places are Pula, Rovinj, while the coldest is Pazin. Precipitation is moderate, with between 640 and 1,020 mm falling in the areas, and up to 1,500 mm in the hills. The name is derived from the Histri tribes, which Strabo refers to as living in the region, the Histri are classified in some sources as a Venetic Illyrian tribe, with certain linguistic differences from other Illyrians. The Romans described the Histri as a tribe of pirates. It took two military campaigns for the Romans to finally subdue them in 177 BC, the region was then called together with the Venetian part the X. Roman Region of Venetia et Histria, the ancient definition of the northeastern border of Italy. Dante Alighieri refers to it as well, the border of Italy per ancient definition is the river Arsia. The eastern side of river was settled by people whose culture was different than Histrians. Earlier influence of the Iapodes was attested there, while at some time between the 4th and 1st century BC, the Liburnians extended their territory and it became a part of Liburnia, on the northern side, Histria went much further north and included the Italian city of Trieste. Some scholars speculate that the names Histri and Istria are related to the Latin name Hister, ancient folktales reported — inaccurately — that the Danube split in two or bifurcated and came to the sea near Trieste as well as at the Black Sea. The story of the Bifurcation of the Danube is part of the Argonaut legend, there is also a suspected link to the commune of Istria in Constanţa, Romania. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was pillaged by the Goths, the Eastern Roman Empire, and it was subsequently annexed to the Lombard Kingdom in 751, and then annexed to the Frankish kingdom by Pepin of Italy in 789
11.
Magdeburg Centuries
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The Magdeburg Centuries is an ecclesiastical history, divided into thirteen centuries, covering thirteen hundred years, ending in 1298, it was first published from 1559 to 1574. It was compiled by several Lutheran scholars in Magdeburg, known as the Centuriators of Magdeburg, the chief of the Centuriators was Matthias Flacius. Due to its revolutionary critical method of presenting history, it is the basis of all modern church history and it is said that Baronius undertook his Annales Ecclesiastici purely to oppose the Magdeburg Centuriators. The Magdeburg Centuries demonstrates the continuity of the Christian faith throughout the ages, as the Centuries put it, Church history shows a perpetual agreement in the teaching of each article of faith in all ages. The view of the work is generally pessimistic after the century, in keeping with the writers objective of presenting the origins. Another characteristic of the work is the use of primary sources rather than secondary or tertiary ones. In order to accomplish this, scholars traveled and borrowed manuscripts from all over Europe, with such diverse sources, one might expect a fractured or incoherent presentation of history. Instead, it provides a perspective that is independent from any of its sources, even though they are as wide ranging as Gregory of Nazianzus. Catholics have dissented from controversial historical arguments in the Centuries, examples of controversial claims made in the Centuries, in their effort to discredit the papacy, include identifying the pope as the Anti-Christ, and the legend of Pope Joan. The first three volumes of the work appeared in 1559 at Basel. The originator of the idea and the spirit of the organization which produced the work was Matthias Vlacich, also known as Francovich. All attempts to restore peace failed, and the University of Jena, after Martin Luthers death in 1546, anti-Catholic controversy tended to lose its dogmatic character and to become historical. Some four hundred anti-papal witnesses were cited, Pope Gregory I, the German princes, and the burghers particularly of Augsburg and Nuremberg, helped him generously, but no support was forthcoming from the followers of Melanchthon. He travelled through Germany in search of material while his co-worker, Marcus Wagner, searched the libraries of Austria, Bavaria, Scotland, when approved, the materials were worked up into chapters and again submitted before the final form was fair-copied. Even when at Jena, and during his subsequent wanderings, Flacius retained the direction of the work, each century was systematically treated under sixteen headings bearing uniform titles in the various volumes. A third edition appeared at Nuremberg 1757-1765, but did not get beyond the fifth century, baudouin, Flacius, and the Plan for the Magdeburg Centuries Herbermann, Charles, ed. Centuriators of Magdeburg
12.
Luther rose
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The Luther seal or Luther rose is a widely recognized symbol for Lutheranism. It was the seal that was designed for Martin Luther at the behest of John Frederick of Saxony in 1530, Lazarus Spengler, to whom Luther wrote his interpretation below, sent Luther a drawing of this seal. Luther saw it as a compendium or expression of his theology and faith, Luther informed Philipp Melanchthon on September 15,1530, that the Prince had personally visited him in the Coburg fortress and presented him with a signet ring, presumably displaying the seal. A single rose had been known as Luthers emblem since 1520 when Wolfgang Stöckel in Leipzig published one of Luther’s sermons with a woodcut of the reformer and this was the first contemporary depiction of Martin Luther. Luthers doctors ring displayed a heartlike shield, the symbol of the Holy Trinity, in a July 8,1530 letter to Lazarus Spengler, Luther interprets his seal, The Luther rose is used in many coats of arms. The assumption that Martin Luther had visited any of these places is not confirmed, Rose Rose Rose of Sharon Rosy Cross Sacred Heart Luther, Martin. D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe, weimar, Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1930-85. St. Louis, Concordia Publishing House, Minneapolis, Fortress Press, Luthers Seal as an Elementary Interpretation of His Theology. In Wengert, Timothy J. Harvesting Martin Luthers reflections on theology, ethics, and the church
13.
Book of Concord
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The Book of Concord or Concordia is the historic doctrinal standard of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century. They are also known as the books of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. The Book of Concord was published in German on June 25,1580 in Dresden, the authoritative Latin edition was published in 1584 in Leipzig. Those who accept it as their doctrinal standard recognize it to be an exposition of the Bible. The Holy Scriptures are set forth in The Book of Concord to be the sole, divine source and it was intended to replace German territorial collections of doctrinal statements, known as corpora doctrinæ like the Corpus doctrinæ Philippicum or Misnicum. This aim is reflected by the compilers not calling it a corpus doctrinæ although it technically is one, the list of writings predating the Formula of Concord that would be included in The Book of Concord are listed and described in the Rule and Norm section of the Formula. These creeds, the Apostles Creed, Nicene Creed, and Athanasian Creed, were formulated before the East-West Schism of 1054, the other documents come from the earliest years of the Lutheran Reformation. The preface of the Book of Concord was considered to be the preface of the Formula of Concord as well, a recent book on Lutheranism asserts, To this day. The Catalog of Testimonies was added as an appendix in most of the 1580 editions. This follows St. Pauls directive, that you all speak the same thing, and that there be no divisions among you and they contain the truths believed universally by true Christians everywhere, explicitly by all consistent Christians, implicitly even by inconsistent and erring Christians. Christian truth, being one and the same the world over is none other than that which is found in the Lutheran confessions and they often identify themselves as confessional Lutherans. They consider the Book of Concord the norma normata in relation to the Bible, in this view the Book of Concord, on the topics that it addresses, is what the church authoritatively understands Gods authoritative word to say. This is also called a quia subscription to the Lutheran confessions, one who subscribes the Lutheran confessions quatenus, insofar as they are a faithful exposition of the Scriptures, believes that there might be contradictions of the Scriptures in them. The largest Lutheran church to subscribe unconditionally to the Book of Concord is the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland with 4.6 million members, English translations of individual documents of The Book of Concord, notably The Augsburg Confession, were available since the 16th century. The first complete English translation of The Book of Concord was the 1851 Henkel edition followed by an edition in 1854. Henry E. Jacobs and others published the next English version in 1882 with a revised Peoples Edition in 1911, the 1882 edition was accompanied by a companion volume that contained historical introductions and English translations of other documents illustrative of the history of The Book of Concord. Lutheran Church, German-Latin English edited by Friederich Bente and this edition introduced the practice of inserting in square brackets the translations of variant readings of either the Latin translation of the German or the German translation of the Latin text. A smaller edition with just the English text was also published, justus Jonas, who had originally translated the Apology from Latin into German, made use of both the quarto and the octavo editions
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Apostles' Creed
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The Apostles Creed, sometimes entitled Symbol of the Apostles, is an early statement of Christian belief—a creed or symbol. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists and Congregationalists, the Apostles Creed is Trinitarian in structure with sections affirming belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ His Son and the Holy Spirit. The Apostles Creed was based on Christian theological understanding of the Canonical gospels and its basis appears to be the old Roman Creed known also as the Old Roman Symbol. Because of the origin of its original form, it does not address some Christological issues defined in the Nicene. It thus says nothing explicitly about the divinity of either Jesus or the Holy Spirit and this makes it acceptable to many Arians and Unitarians. Nor does it address many other questions which became objects of dispute centuries later. The earlier text evolved from simpler texts based on Matthew 28,19, part of the Great Commission, pirminius, written between 710 and 714. Bettenson and Maunder state that it is first from Dicta Abbatis Pirminii de singulis libris canonicis scarapsus and this longer Creed seems to have arisen in what is now France and Spain. Charlemagne imposed it throughout his dominions, and it was accepted in Rome. It has been argued nonetheless that it dates from the half of the 5th century. Some have suggested that the Apostles Creed was spliced together with phrases from the New Testament, for instance, the phrase descendit ad inferos echoes Ephesians 4,9, κατέβη εἰς τὰ κατώτερα μέρη τῆς γῆς. It is of interest that this phrase first appeared in one of the two versions of Rufinus in A. D.390 and then did not appear again in any version of the creed until A. D.650. This phrase and that on the communion of saints are found in the Apostles Creed. Musical settings of the Symbolum Apostolorum as a motet are rare, the French composer Le Brung published one Latin setting in 1540, the Spanish composer Fernando de las Infantas published two in 1578. More recently, in 1979 John Michael Talbot, a Third Order Franciscan, composed and recorded Creed on his album, in 1986 Graham Kendrick published the popular We believe in God the Father, closely based on the Apostles Creed. Rich Mullins and Beaker also composed a musical setting titled Creed, released on Mullins‘1993 album A Liturgy, the song Creed on Petra’s 1990 album Beyond Belief is loosely based on the Apostles Creed. In 1991, GIA Publications published a hymn text directly based on the Apostles’ Creed, called I Believe in God Almighty and it has been sung to hymn tunes from Wales, the Netherlands, and Ireland. In 2014 Hillsong released a version of the Apostles Creed under the title This I Believe on their album No Other Name, in 2016 Keith Getty and Kristyn Getty released an expression of the Apostles Creed under the title We Believe on their album Facing a Task Unfinished
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Nicene Creed
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The Nicene Creed is a Symbol of faith widely used in Christian liturgy. It is called Nicene /ˈnaɪsiːn/ because it was adopted in the city of Nicaea by the First Council of Nicaea in 325. In 381, it was amended at the First Council of Constantinople, the Anglican and many Protestant denominations generally use the singular form, but sometimes use the plural. The Apostles Creed is also used in the Latin West, on Sundays and some other days, one or other of these two creeds is recited in the Roman Rite Mass after the homily. The Nicene Creed is also part of the profession of faith required of those important functions within the Catholic Church. In the Byzantine Rite, the Nicene Creed is sung or recited at the Divine Liturgy, immediately preceding the Anaphora, Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed can stand for the revised version of Constantinople or the later Latin version or various other versions. Icon/Symbol of the Faith is the designation for the revised version of Constantinople 381 in the Orthodox churches. Profession of Faith of the 318 Fathers refers specifically to the version of Nicaea 325, profession of Faith of the 150 Fathers refers specifically to the version of Constantinople 381. In musical settings, particularly when sung in Latin, this Creed is usually referred to by its first word, the purpose of a creed is to provide a doctrinal statement of correct belief, or orthodoxy. For that reason a creed was called in Greek a σύμβολον, a word that meant half of an object which. The Greek word passed through Latin symbolum into English symbol, which later took on the meaning of an outward sign of something. The Nicene Creed was adopted in the face of the Arian controversy, whose leader, Arius objected to Alexanders apparent carelessness in blurring the distinction of nature between the Father and the Son by his emphasis on eternal generation. Alexander accused Arius of denying the divinity of the Son and also of being too Jewish, both Arius and Alexander rejected Gnosticism, Manichaeism and Sabellian formulae. The Nicene Creed was created as a result of the adoption of the doctrine of Arius far outside Alexandria. The Nicene Creed of 325 explicitly affirms the co-essential divinity of the Son, the 381 version speaks of the Holy Spirit as worshipped and glorified with the Father and the Son. The Athanasian Creed describes in much detail the relationship between Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Apostles Creed makes no statements about the divinity of the Son and the Holy Spirit, but, in the view of many who use it. The original Nicene Creed was first adopted in 325 at the First Council of Nicaea, at that time, the text ended with the words We believe in the Holy Spirit, after which various anathemas against Arian propositions were added
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Athanasian Creed
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The Athanasian Creed, also known as Pseudo-Athanasian Creed or Quicunque Vult, is a Christian statement of belief focused on Trinitarian doctrine and Christology. The Latin name of the creed, Quicunque vult, is taken from the opening words, the creed has been used by Christian churches since the sixth century. It is the first creed in which the equality of the three persons of the Trinity is explicitly stated and it differs from the Nicene-Constantinopolitan and Apostles Creeds in the inclusion of anathemas, or condemnations of those who disagree with the creed. It was designed to distinguish Nicene Christianity from the heresy of Arianism, liturgically, this Creed was recited at the Sunday Office of Prime in the Western Church, it is not in common use in the Eastern Church. The creed has never gained acceptance in liturgy among Eastern Christians since it was considered as one of many unorthodox fabrications that contained the Filioque clause, today, the Athanasian Creed is rarely used even in the Western Church. When used, one practice is to use it once a year on Trinity Sunday. A medieval account credited Athanasius of Alexandria, the defender of Nicene theology. According to this account, Athanasius composed it during his exile in Rome and this traditional attribution of the Creed to Athanasius was first called into question in 1642 by Dutch Protestant theologian G. J. Athanasius name seems to have attached to the creed as a sign of its strong declaration of Trinitarian faith. The reasoning for rejecting Athanasius as the author usually relies on a combination of the following, The creed originally was most likely written in Latin, neither Athanasius nor his contemporaries ever mention the Creed. It is not mentioned in any records of the ecumenical councils and it appears to address theological concerns that developed after Athanasius died. It was most widely circulated among Western Christians, the use of the creed in a sermon by Caesarius of Arles, as well as a theological resemblance to works by Vincent of Lérins, point to Southern Gaul as its origin. The most likely time frame is in the fifth or early sixth century AD – at least 100 years after Athanasius. The theology of the creed is firmly rooted in the Augustinian tradition, for example, in the authoritative modern monograph about the creed, J. N. D. Kelly asserts that Vincent of Lérins was not its author, but that it may have come from the same milieu, the oldest surviving manuscripts of the Athanasian Creed date from the late 8th century. The Athanasian Creed is usually divided into two sections, lines 1–28 addressing the doctrine of the Trinity, and lines 29–44 addressing the doctrine of Christology, enumerating the three persons of the Trinity, the first section of the creed ascribes the divine attributes to each individually. Thus, each person of the Trinity is described as uncreated, limitless, eternal, furthermore, although one God, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct from each other. For the Father is neither made nor begotten, the Son is not made but is begotten from the Father, the Holy Spirit is neither made nor begotten but proceeds from the Father and the Son
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Augsburg Confession
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The Augsburg Confession was written in both German and Latin and was presented by a number of German rulers and free-cities at the Diet of Augsburg on 25 June 1530. It is the document contained in the Lutheran Book of Concord. On 21 January 1530, Emperor Charles V issued letters from Bologna, although the writ of invitation was couched in very peaceful language, it was received with suspicion by some of the Protestants. This summary has received the name of the Torgau Articles, on 3 April, the elector and reformers started from Torgau, and reached Coburg on 23 April. There, Luther was left behind because he was an outlaw according to the Diet of Worms, the rest reached Augsburg on 2 May. On the journey, Melanchthon worked on an apology, using the Torgau articles, and sent his draft to Luther at Coburg on 11 May, during the diet, the cities of Weißenburg in Bayern, Heilbronn, Kempten, and Windesheim also expressed their concurrence with the confession. The Protestant princes, however, declared that they would not part with the confession until its reading should be allowed, the 25th was then fixed for the day of its presentation. In order to exclude the people, the chapel of the episcopal palace was appointed in place of the spacious city hall. The reading of the German version of the text by Christian Beyer lasted two hours and was so distinct that every word could be heard outside, the reading being over, the copies were handed to the emperor. The German he gave to the chancellor, the Elector of Mainz. Neither of the copies is now extant, the first official publication was edited by Philipp Melanchthon, a professor at the University of Wittenberg and a close colleague and friend of Martin Luther. That in doctrine and ceremonies nothing has been received on our part against Scripture or the Church Catholic, signatures of several secular leaders in Saxony. The Augsburg Confession became the confessional document for the Lutheran movement. Following the public reading of the Augsburg Confession in June 1530, the response by Charles V. However, in September, Charles V declared the response to be sufficient and gave the Lutheran princes until 15 April 1531, in response, Phillipp Melancthon wrote a lengthy and sustained argument both supporting the Augsburg Confession and refuting the arguments made in the Confutation. This document became known as the Apology of the Augsburg Confession and was translated into German and was widely distributed. The Lutheran princes at the diet concurrently agreed to an alliance in the event of action by Charles V known as the Schmalkaldic League. By 1535, the League admitted any city or state to the alliance that gave official assent to the Augsburg Confession and the Apology
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Apology of the Augsburg Confession
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It was intended to be a defense of the Augsburg Confession and a refutation of the Confutation. The major sections of the Apology are listed below, along with the article of the Augsburg Confession that Melanchthon is defending, concerning Love and the Fulfilling of the Law 4. Concerning the Church—Articles VII and VIII5, concerning the Number and Use of the Sacraments—Article XIII8. Concerning Human Traditions in the Church—Article XV9, concerning the Invocation of Saints—Article XXI10. Concerning Both Kinds in the Lords Supper—Article XXII11, concerning the Marriage of Priests—Article XXIII12. Concerning Ecclesiastical Power—Article XXVIII He also refers to some of the articles in the Augsburg Confession which did not require an extensive defense. These articles are I, III, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX, the first edition of the Apology of the Augsburg Confession was published in late April-early May 1531 in quarto format. Melanchthon continued to revise it, especially in the article on justification, and issued an edition in September 1531. Some scholars believe the second edition is the edition of the Apology. The Lutheran Churchs formal collection of confessions in the Book of Concord refer to the first edition of the Apology when it is quoted in the Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord. The 1580 German edition of the Book of Concord used the translation of the Apology prepared by Justus Jonas, the question of which is the official text of the Apology arises in connection with the English translation of the text in the 2000 Kolb-Wengert Edition of The Book of Concord. The translators and editors of this made the octavo edition the main source for their English translation because they believe it to be the official version of The Apology. They included English translations of variant readings of the edition in italics. All other English translations of The Book of Concord utilize the quarto edition, Historical Introductions to the Symbolical Books of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. St. Louis, Concordia Publishing House,1995, a New Look at the Lutheran Confessions. St. Louis, Concordia Publishing House,1988, - Contains the best text of the quarto Latin Apology of May 1531, with variants from the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th editions in the footnotes. Concordia Triglotta, Die symbolischen Bücher der evanglish-lutherischen Kirche, st. Louis, Concordia Publishing House,1921. This book contains the first edition, the Quarto edition, and translates it from the Latin 1584 Book of Concord, the Bekenntnisschriften is the critical edition of the Lutheran Confessions, offering the latest academic opinions of the various textual forms of the Lutheran Confessions
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Luther's Large Catechism
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Luthers Large Catechism is a catechism by Martin Luther. It consists of written by Luther and compiled Christian canonical texts. This book was addressed particularly to clergymen to aid them in teaching their congregations, luthers Large Catechism is divided into five parts, The Ten Commandments, The Apostles Creed, The Lords Prayer, Holy Baptism, and The Sacrament of the Eucharist. It and related documents was published in the Book of Concord in 1580, the Large Catechism typifies the emphasis which the churches of the Augsburg Confession placed on the importance of knowledge and understanding of the articles of the Christian faith. Primarily intended as instruction to teachers, especially to parents, the Catechism consists of a series of exhortations on the importance of each topic of the Catechism. It is meant for those who have the capacity to understand, and is not meant to be memorized but to be repeatedly reviewed so that the Small Catechism could be taught with understanding. The catechism, Luther wrote, should consist of instruction in the rule of conduct, which always accuses us because we fail to keep it, the rule of faith, the rule of prayer, and the sacraments
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Smalcald Articles
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Luthers patron, Elector John Frederick of Saxony, asked him to prepare these articles for the Schmalkaldic Leagues meeting in 1537, held again in Schmalkalden. When the Schmalkaldic League met, Luther was taken ill with a severe case of kidney stones. The league ultimately determined not to adopt the articles Luther had written and they were influenced not to adopt the Smalcald Articles by Philipp Melanchthon, who was concerned that Luthers writing would be regarded as divisive by some. Melanchthon was asked to write a statement on the Papacy and this he did. In the Smalcald Articles, Luther summarized what he regarded to be the most important teaching in Christianity, the Articles were highly prized by John Frederick who ordered that they be made a part of his last will and testament. Although the intended Council was never held, the Smalcald Articles were seen as a supplement to the other Confessions of the Lutheran Church and are used today. They are included in the Book of Concord, the first and chief article is this, Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification. He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world, all have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood. This cannot be acquired or grasped by any work, law. St. Louis, Concordia Publishing House,1921, kolb, Robert and Timothy J. Wengert, eds. The Book of Concord, The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, ISBN 0-8006-2740-7 McCain, Paul T. Robert C. Baker, Gene Edward Veith, and Edward A. Engelbrecht, Concordia, The Lutheran Confessions — A Readers Edition of the Book of Concord. St. Louis, Concordia Publishing House,2005, ISBN 0-7586-0806-3 Tappert, Theodore G. ed. The Book of Concord, The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, historical Introductions to the Book of Concord. St. Louis, Concordia Publishing House,1965, Luthers Theological Testament, The Schmalkald Articles. Smalcald Articles The Book of Concord, The Lutheran Confessions of 1529-1580, look for, The Smalcald Articles of Martin Luther. The Smalcald Articles public domain audiobook at LibriVox
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Justification (theology)
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Justification, in Christian theology, is Gods act of removing the guilt and penalty of sin while at the same time declaring a sinner righteous through Christs atoning sacrifice. The means of justification is an area of significant difference between Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism, even within the latter, in Lutheranism and Calvinism, righteousness from God is viewed as being credited to the sinners account through faith alone, without works. Justification is granted to all who exercise faith, and that is viewed as a gift from God by Lutherans and Calvinists, in Methodism, justification refers to pardon and the forgiveness of sins and sanctification is the consequent process that together, will ultimately lead to ones salvation. Catholics, Orthodox and Methodists use James 2, 14-26, Galatians 5, 19-21, Justification is often seen as being the theological fault line that divided Catholic from the Lutheran and Reformed traditions of Protestantism during the Reformation. Jesus used the idea of ransom, or redemption when referring to his work on earth, Christs death and resurrection provide justification for believers before God. His righteousness becomes theirs, and his death becomes an offering to God in their place, According to Protestants this justification is by faith alone - not through good deeds - and is a gift from God through Christ. But also for us, to whom God will credit righteousness—for us who believe in him who raised Jesus our Lord from the dead and he was delivered over to death for our sins and was raised to life for our justification. This righteousness is given through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe. There is no difference between Jew and Gentile, for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, God presented Christ as a sacrifice of atonement, through the shedding of his blood—to be received by faith. I warn you, as I warned you before, that those who do such things will not inherit the kingdom of God, if you would enter life, keep the commandments. You shall not murder, You shall not commit adultery, You shall not steal, whoever believes and is baptized will be saved, but whoever does not believe will be condemned. You see that a person is justified by what he does, but faith without works is dead. When the justified live in Christ and act in the grace they receive, they bring forth, in biblical terms, since Christians struggle against sin their entire lives, this consequence of justification is also for them an obligation they must fulfill. Thus both Jesus and the apostolic Scriptures admonish Christians to bring forth the works of love, an example can be cited from section 4.7 no. 38-39, when Catholics affirm the character of good works, they wish to say that, according to the biblical witness. They do emphasize that righteousness as acceptance by God and sharing in the righteousness of Christ is always complete, at the same time, they state that there can be growth in its effects in Christian living. Suppose a brother or sister is without clothes and daily food, if one of you says to him, Go, I wish you well, keep warm and well fed, but does nothing about his physical needs, what good is it. In the same way, faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action, is dead, but someone will say, You have faith, I have deeds
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Law and Gospel
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In Protestant Christianity, the relationship between Law and Gospel—Gods Law and the Gospel of Jesus Christ—is a major topic in Lutheran and Reformed theology. It is used as a principle of biblical interpretation and a guiding principle in homiletics. It is the supersession of the Old Covenant by the New Covenant, sometimes the issue is discussed under the headings of Law and Grace, Sin and Grace, Spirit and Letter, and ministry of death/condemnation and ministry of the Spirit/righteousness. Martin Luther wrote, Hence, whoever knows well this art of distinguishing between Law and Gospel, him place at the head and call him a doctor of Holy Scripture, throughout the Lutheran Age of Orthodoxy this hermeneutical discipline was considered foundational and important by Lutheran theologians. This distinction was the first article in Patricks Places by Patrick Hamilton, the Formula of Concord distinguished three uses, or purposes, in the Law in Article VI. It states, he Law was given to men for three reasons and that thereby outward discipline might be maintained against wild, disobedient men that men thereby may be led to the knowledge of their sins that after they are regenerate. Confessional Lutheranism teaches that the Law cannot be used to deny the Gospel, the three uses of the Law are, Curb - Through fear of punishment, the Law keeps the sinful nature of both Christians and non-Christians under check. This does not stop sin, since the sin is committed when the heart desires to do what is wrong. Mirror - The Law serves as a reflection of what God created the human heart. It shows anyone who compares his/her life to Gods requirement for perfection that he/she is sinful, guide - This use of the law that applies only to Christians. The law becomes the believers helper, empowered by the gospel truth of forgiveness and righteousness in Christ, the believers new self eagerly desires to live to please the Triune God. The distinction between law and gospel is a standard formulation in Reformed theology, though in recent years some have characterized it as distinctively Lutheran, zacharias Ursinus sharply contrasted the law and gospel as the chief and general divisions of the holy scriptures in his commentary on the Heidelberg Catechism. Louis Berkhof called the law and the gospel the two parts of the Word of God as a means of grace, Law and Gospel are found in both testaments. In his Institutes of the Christian Religion, the Reformer John Calvin distinguished three uses in the Law, Calvin wrote the following, o make the whole matter clearer, let us survey briefly the function and use of what is called the moral law. Now, so far as I understand it, it consists of three parts and it warns, informs, convicts, and lastly condemns, every man of his own unrighteousness. It functions by fear of punishment to restrain certain men who are untouched by any care for what is just and it admonishes believers and urges them on in well-doing. This scheme is the same as the Formula of Concord, with the exception that the first, in later Reformed scholasticism the order is the same as for Lutherans. The three uses are called, The usus politicus sive civilis, the political or civil use, is a restraint on sin and it is part of Gods general revelation or common grace for unbelievers as well as believers
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Flacius, Matthias". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 543.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
