1.
Germans
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Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
2.
Inventor
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An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process and it may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field, an inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure. A patent legally protects the property rights of the inventor. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary from country to country, another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines, Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of knowledge, experience or capability. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention, collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents, in addition, many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc. including Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. In the process of developing an invention, the idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, working on one invention can lead to others too. History shows that turning the concept of an invention into a device is not always swift or direct. Inventions may also more useful after time passes and other changes occur. For example, the became more useful once powered flight was a reality. Invention is often a creative process, an open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection, or relationship can spark an invention, inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields, several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention
3.
Filmmaking
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Filmmaking is the process of making a film. Filmmaking takes place in places around the world in a range of economic, social, and political contexts. Typically, it involves a number of people, and can take from a few months to several years to complete. Film production consists of five stages, Development, The first stage in which the ideas for the film are created, rights to books/plays are bought etc. Financing for the project has to be sought and greenlit, pre-production, Preparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired, locations are selected and sets are built. Production, The raw elements for the film are recorded during the film shoot, post-production, The images, sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited. Distribution, The finished film is distributed and screened in cinemas and released to home video. In this stage, the project producer selects a story, which may come from a book, play, another film, true story, video game, comic book, graphic novel, or an original idea, etc. After identifying a theme or underlying message, the works with writers to prepare a synopsis. Next they produce an outline, which breaks the story down into one-paragraph scenes that concentrate on dramatic structure. Then, they prepare a treatment, a 25-to-30-page description of the story, its mood and this usually has little dialogue and stage direction, but often contains drawings that help visualize key points. Another way is to produce a scriptment once a synopsis is produced, next, a screenwriter writes a screenplay over a period of several months. The screenwriter may rewrite it several times to improve dramatization, clarity, structure, characters, dialogue, however, producers often skip the previous steps and develop submitted screenplays which investors, studios, and other interested parties assess through a process called script coverage. A film distributor may be contacted at a stage to assess the likely market. All these factors imply a certain appeal of the film to a possible audience, not all films make a profit from the theatrical release alone, so film companies take DVD sales and worldwide distribution rights into account. The producer and screenwriter prepare a film pitch, or treatment and they will also pitch the film to actors and directors in order to attach them to the project. Many projects fail to move beyond this stage and enter so-called development hell, if a pitch succeeds, a film receives a green light, meaning someone offers financial backing, typically a major film studio, film council, or independent investor. The parties involved negotiate a deal and sign contracts, once all parties have met and the deal has been set, the film may proceed into the pre-production period
4.
Bioscop
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The Bioscop is a movie projector developed in 1895 by German inventors and filmmakers Max Skladanowsky and his brother Emil Skladanowsky. The Bioscop used two loops of 54-mm films without a side perforation and this caused poor control of the film-transport through the projector and might have contributed to the more successful development of the cinematograph by the French brothers Lumiere. The first public performance of the scenes using the Bioscop was organized in the restaurant Feldschlößchen in Berlin-Pankow. Three of the scenes became iconic for early cinematography, Boxing Kangaroo, The Wrestler and they were all shot earlier in the garden of the same restaurant. The Skladanovsky brothers later used the Bioscop to show movies to an audience in the Berlin Variete theater Wintergarten. This can be considered the first movie program to a paid audience, in 1896, they traveled through the Netherlands and Scandinavia, presenting their invitation to the international audience. Max Skladanowsky at the Internet Movie Database Emil Skladanowsky at the Internet Movie Database
5.
Movie projector
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A movie projector is an opto-mechanical device for displaying motion picture film by projecting it onto a screen. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination, the first movie projector was the Zoopraxiscope, invented by British photographer Eadweard Muybridge in 1879. The zoopraxiscope projected images from rotating glass disks in rapid succession to give the impression of motion, the stop-motion images were initially painted onto the glass, as silhouettes. A second series of discs, made in 1892–94, used outline drawings printed onto the discs photographically, a more sophisticated movie projector was invented by Frenchman Louis Le Prince while working in Leeds. In 1888 Le Prince took out a patent for a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector, in 1888, he used an updated version of his camera to film the first ever motion picture, the Roundhay Garden Scene. The pictures were exhibited in Hunslet. The Lumière brothers invented the first successful movie projector and they made their first film, Sortie de lusine Lumière de Lyon, in 1894, which was publicly screened at LEden, La Ciotat a year later. The first commercial, public screening of cinematographic films happened in Paris on 28 December 1895, the cinematograph was also exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. At the Exhibition, films made by the Lumière Brothers were projected onto a screen measuring 16 by 21 meters. In 1999, digital projectors were being tried out in some movie theatres. These early projectors played the movie stored on a server and played back through the projector, due to their relatively low resolution, the images at the time showed pixelization blocks in some scenes, much like images on early widescreen televisions. By 2006, the advent of much higher 4K resolution digital projection had removed any traces of pixelization, the systems became more compact than the larger machines of four years earlier. By 2009, movie theatres started replacing the film projectors with digital projectors, in 2013, it was estimated that 92% of movie theatres in the United States had converted to digital, with 8% still playing film. In 2015, numerous popular filmmakers—including Quentin Tarantino and Christopher Nolan—lobbied large studios to commit to purchase an amount of 35 mm film from Kodak. The decision ensured that Kodaks 35mm film production would continue for several years, nowadays film projectors are considered obsolete as high-resolution digital projectors offer many advantages over traditional film units. For example, digital projectors contain no moving parts except fans, can be operated remotely and they also allow for much easier, less expensive, and more reliable storage and distribution of content, including the ability to display live broadcasts. According to the theory of the phi phenomenon, the brain constitutes an experience of apparent movement when presented with a sequence of near-identical still images. Persistence of vision should be compared with the phenomena of beta movement
6.
Cinematograph
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A cinematograph is a motion picture film camera, which also serves as a film projector and printer. It was invented in the 1890s, the device was first invented and patented as the Cinématographe Léon Bouly by French inventor Léon Bouly on February 12,1892. Bouly coined the term “cinematograph”, from the Greek for “writing in movement”, due to a lack of money, Bouly was unable to develop his ideas properly and maintain his patent fees, so he sold his rights to the device and its name to the Lumière Brothers. In 1895, they applied the name to a device that was largely their own creation and they made their first film, Sortie de lusine Lumière de Lyon, that same year. The film was screened at LEden, the worlds first and oldest cinéma, located in La Ciotat in southeastern France. The first commercial, public screening of cinematographic films happened in Paris on 28 December 1895 and was organised by the Lumière brothers, the cinematograph was also exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1900. At the Exposition, films made by the Lumière Brothers were projected onto a screen measuring 16 by 21 meters. Louis Lumière worked with his brother Auguste to create a motion-picture camera superior to Thomas Edisons kinetograph, the Lumières endeavored to correct the flaws they perceived in the kinetograph and the kinetoscope, to develop a machine with both sharper images and better illumination. The Cinématographe weighed only 16 lbs. which allowed for ease of transportation, as well, the Cinématographe was manually operated by a hand-crank, as opposed to Edisons electrically powered camera, which was not readily portable. In 1897, the Lumières further added to their invention by using a flask of water as the condenser to concentrate the light onto the film frame. The flask also acted as a safety feature, as the light would no longer focus on the film if the glass were to break due to overheating or accident. The cinematograph became an attraction for people all over the world. The Lumière Brothers took their machine as far as China and India and it was enjoyed by people of all classes, the cinematograph was used to show films in nickelodeons, where even the poorest classes could pay the entry fee. It was exhibited at fairs and used as entertainment in vaudeville houses in both Europe and the United States, while vaudeville is typically associated with the middle class, the machine also found its way into more sophisticated venues, where it appealed to the artistic tastes of high society. The Lumières held their first private screening of projected motion pictures on March 22,1895 and their first public screening of films at which admission was charged was held on December 28,1895, at Salon Indien du Grand Café in Paris. This history-making presentation featured ten short films, including their first film, each film is 17 meters long, which, when hand cranked through a projector, runs approximately 50 seconds. Bioscop Biograph Electrotachyscope Film Image Kinetoscope List of film formats Panoptikon Pleograph Praxinoscope Vitascope Zoopraxiscope Adventures in Cybersound Cinematograph
7.
Pankow (locality)
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Pankow is a locality of Berlin in the district of Pankow. Until 2001 it was a district with the localities of Karow, Niederschönhausen, Wilhelmsruh, Rosenthal, Blankenfelde. The village of Pankow is named after the small Panke river, the settlement was first mentioned in a 1311 deed by the Margraves of Brandenburg, though the Four Evangelists fieldstone church had already been erected about 1230. As Pankow grew, due to industrialization, in the 19th century, it became a suburb – and it was finally incorporated into the city by the Greater Berlin Act of 1920. In the East German period, from 1949 to 1990, Pankow, from 1949 to 1960 Schönhausen Palace was the presidential residency of East Germany, and throughout the period many embassies were located in the vicinity. Pankow is situated in the side of its district. It borders the localities of Niederschönhausen, Französisch Buchholz, Karow, Heinersdorf, Weissensee, Prenzlauer Berg, between 1961 and 1990, the Berlin Wall passed through Pankow and Gesundbrunnen (in West Berlin. The locality is served by the Berliner S-Bahn lines S1, S2, S25, S85, by the U-Bahn line U2, Schönhausen Palace Berlin-Pankow railway station Media related to Pankow at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
9.
Glazier
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A glazier is a skilled tradesman responsible for cutting, installing, and removing glass. Glaziers may work with glass in various surfaces and settings, such as windows, doors, shower doors, skylights, storefronts, display cases, mirrors, facades, interior walls, ceilings, the Occupational Outlook Handbook of the U. S. Uses and maintains tools and equipment 2, performs routine activities Block B – Commercial Window and Door Systems 4. Fabricates commercial window and door systems 5, installs commercial window and door systems Block C – Residential Window and Door Systems 6. Installs residential door systems Block D – Specialty Glass and Products 8, fabricates and installs specialty glass and products 9. Installs glass systems on vehicles Block E – Servicing 10, services commercial window and door systems 11. Services residential window and door systems 12, tools used by glaziers include cutting boards, glass-cutting blades, straightedges, glazing knives, saws, drills, grinders, putty, and glazing compounds. Some glaziers work specifically with glass in motor vehicles, other work specifically with the safety glass used in aircraft. Glaziers are typically educated at the high school diploma or equivalent level and learn the skills of the trade through an apprenticeship program, in the U. S. apprenticeship programs are offered through the National Glass Association as well as trade associations and local contractors associations. Construction-industry glaziers are frequently members of the International Union of Painters, in Ontario, Canada, apprenticeships are offered at the provincial level and certified through the Ontario College of Trades. Other provinces manage their own apprenticeship programs, the Trade of Glazier is a designated Red Seal Trade in Canada. Occupational hazards encountered by glaziers include the risks of being cut by glass or tools, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, there are some 45,300 glaziers in the United States, with median pay of $38,410 per year in 2014. Among the 50 states, only Connecticut and Florida require glaziers to hold a license, architectural glass Glazing in architecture Insulated glazing Stained glass Glass manufacturing Glassblowing Media related to Glaziers at Wikimedia Commons
